TITLE SENTENCE WORD_COUNT IS_STOP_COUNT POS_TAGS STRUCTURED_POS DEPS LENGTH_CATEGORY STOP_CATEGORY POS_CATEGORY
0 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat masking significant epistemological distinctions of rele - vance to conceptual change research and practice 14 3 {'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB] {'ROOT': {'masking'}, 'amod': {'epistemological', 'significant', 'conceptual'}, 'dobj': {'distinctions'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'change', 'rele'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'research', 'vance'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practice'}} Medium High Low
1 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat For in - stance, when we use the term “cognition” to mark a theoreti - cal stance, are we talking about the approaches associated with radical constructivism (von Glaserfeld, 1991), informa - tion-processing theory (Simon, 1989), or cognitive constructivism (Piaget, 1926, 1930) 42 13 {'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 20, 'NOUN': 11, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'about', 'For', 'with'}, 'nmod': {'Glaserfeld', 'constructivism', 'term', 'in'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'approaches', 'theory'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'advcl': {'use'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'cognition'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'mark'}, 'amod': {'radical', 'theoreti', 'cal', 'cognitive'}, 'ROOT': {'talking'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'informa', 'von', 'tion'}, 'appos': {'1989', '1991', 'Simon', 'Piaget'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'constructivism'}, 'npadvmod': {'1930', '1926'}} Long High Medium
2 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Similarly, when an ap - proach to learning and teaching is categorized as socio - cultural is one envisioning social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978), situated cognition or situativity (Greeno, 1989;Greeno & the Middle School Mathematics Through Applica - tion Project Group, 1998), or theory more aligned to social or cultural anthropology (Lave, 1988; Lave & Wenger, 1991;Rogoff, 1990) 57 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 19, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NUM': 5, 'PROPN': 14} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, AUX, NUM, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'more', 'Similarly', 'when'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'tion', 'School', 'Applica', 'ap', 'Middle', 'Project'}, 'nsubjpass': {'proach'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'Through'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'theory', 'cultural', 'Lave', '1991;Rogoff', 'cognition', '1989;Greeno', 'Mathematics', 'Wenger', 'teaching', 'situativity'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'categorized'}, 'pobj': {'Group', 'socio', 'anthropology'}, 'nsubj': {'cultural'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'nummod': {'1990', 'one'}, 'amod': {'social', 'situated', 'envisioning', 'aligned'}, 'attr': {'constructivism'}, 'appos': {'1998', 'Greeno', 'Lave', 'Vygotsky', '1978'}, 'npadvmod': {'1988'}} Long High Medium
3 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat All of the aforementioned theories and their innumerable iterations can be differentiated in multiple ways, includingepistemologically (i.e., views on the nature and source ofknowledge) 24 11 {'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'X': 1} [PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'All', 'iterations'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'aforementioned', 'multiple', 'innumerable'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'ofknowledge', 'theories'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'differentiated'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'includingepistemologically', 'i.e.'}, 'dep': {'views'}, 'nmod': {'nature'}, 'conj': {'source'}} Long High Low
4 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Further, such epistemological differences makethis bonding process seemingly unnecessary or unachiev - able 13 3 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ] {'advmod': {'seemingly', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'epistemological', 'such', 'unachiev'}, 'nmod': {'differences'}, 'compound': {'bonding', 'makethis'}, 'nsubj': {'process'}, 'ROOT': {'unnecessary'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'able'}} Medium High Low
5 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat I am not alone in my contention that epistemology mat - ters in this cross-perspective dialogue 16 9 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'am'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'alone'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'pobj': {'contention', 'dialogue'}, 'det': {'that', 'this'}, 'compound': {'mat', 'epistemology'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'dep': {'ters'}, 'amod': {'-', 'perspective', 'cross'}} Medium High Low
6 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Several of the authors readily admit that questions about the nature of knowledgeare paramount to this hoped-for partnership 18 10 {'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Several'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'partnership', 'authors', 'paramount', 'nature'}, 'advmod': {'readily'}, 'ROOT': {'admit'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'dobj': {'questions'}, 'amod': {'knowledgeare', 'hoped'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'prt': {'for'}} Medium High Medium
7 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat For instance, asa frame for her argument,V osniadou (2007) wrote thatthe“main difference between the two perspectives [i.e., cog-nitive and sociocultural] is their position on the ontologicalstatus of knowledge” (p 29 12 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PROPN': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'prep': {'on', 'of', 'for', 'For', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'instance', 'ontologicalstatus', 'knowledge', 'argument'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ']', '”', ','}, 'nsubj': {'osniadou', 'asa'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'frame'}, 'poss': {'their', 'her'}, 'compound': {'V', 'thatthe“main'}, 'appos': {'2007'}, 'ROOT': {'wrote'}, 'dobj': {'difference'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'advmod': {'[', 'i.e.'}, 'npadvmod': {'cog'}, 'amod': {'nitive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sociocultural'}, 'attr': {'position'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High Low
8 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Similarly, Murphy (2007)stated that “sociocultural and cognitive perspectives hold toepistemically different views on knowledge acquisition andchange” (p 17 3 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'advmod': {'toepistemically', 'Similarly'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'perspectives', 'Murphy'}, 'ROOT': {'2007)stated'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'different', 'sociocultural'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'cognitive'}, 'ccomp': {'hold'}, 'dobj': {'views'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'acquisition'}, 'pobj': {'andchange'}, 'npadvmod': {'p'}} Medium High Medium
9 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat For example, do researchers in conceptual change, as with the philosophers of decades past, assume that knowledgearises solely or primarily through rational thought (i.e., acognitive construction) or through empiricism aided by so - cial interactions situated within a specific time and place (i.e., a sociocultural construction), or some combinationthereof 49 20 {'ADP': 9, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 8, 'DET': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'X': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ] {'prep': {'through', 'within', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'decades', 'example', 'interactions', 'thought', 'empiricism', 'philosophers', 'time'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'do'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'amod': {'rational', 'past', 'cial', 'specific', 'conceptual', 'sociocultural', 'acognitive'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'some'}, 'advcl': {'assume'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'knowledgearises'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'solely', 'so'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'through', 'primarily', 'place', 'combinationthereof'}, 'appos': {'construction'}, 'acl': {'situated', 'aided'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'npadvmod': {'construction'}} Long High Medium
10 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Moreover, where does knowledge ultimately residefor those in these varied cognitive or sociocultural positions?Is it found in mental structures of the mind (i.e., mental repre - sentation or models) or is it nested in the environment or alive only in group interactions (i.e., situated phenomena)?Halldén, Haglund, and Strömdahl (2007) put forward thisvery fundamental quandary at the conclusion of their articlewhen they stated that “there is the debate whether knowledgeis to be looked upon as personal and residing within the indi - vidual or if it is embraced within discursive practices and cul - tural tools” (p 96 45 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 16, 'SCONJ': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 11, 'PRON': 7, 'ADP': 10, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 12, 'CCONJ': 8, 'NOUN': 17, 'X': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PROPN, PART, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ...] {'advmod': {'only', 'ultimately', 'vidual', 'where', 'forward', 'i.e.', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'it', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'found', 'residefor'}, 'dobj': {'quandary', 'those'}, 'prep': {'upon', 'within', 'in', 'of', 'at', 'as'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'situated', 'personal', 'varied', 'mental', 'discursive', 'fundamental', 'tural', 'cul', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'residing', 'models', 'nested', 'Strömdahl', 'alive', 'sociocultural', 'embraced', 'put', 'tools', 'Haglund'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'positions?Is', 'practices', 'structures', 'conclusion', 'interactions', 'articlewhen', 'whether', 'indi', 'environment'}, 'compound': {'repre', 'group'}, 'appos': {'phenomena)?Halldén', '2007', 'sentation'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it', 'knowledgeis'}, 'nmod': {'thisvery'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'stated'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'attr': {'debate'}, 'acl': {'looked'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High High
11 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat The intersection of these basic questions about where knowledge comes from and where it resides creates anepistemological space that serves to frame the array oflearning theories 26 12 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'The', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'it', 'intersection', 'that'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of', 'from'}, 'amod': {'anepistemological', 'basic'}, 'pobj': {'questions'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'pcomp': {'comes'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'csubj': {'resides'}, 'ROOT': {'creates'}, 'dobj': {'space', 'theories', 'array'}, 'relcl': {'serves'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'frame'}, 'compound': {'oflearning'}} Long High High
12 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat For the sake of discussion, I offer a tenta - tive placement of several learning theories within this mul - tidimensional space (see Figure 1), including those related to the programs of research presented in this special issue.Of course, I do so with the understanding that others maywell position these theories differently 52 25 {'ADP': 8, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 4} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV] {'prep': {'within', 'including', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'For'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'those', 'understanding', 'discussion', 'programs', 'theories', 'sake', 'space', 'research'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'maywell', 'I'}, 'ROOT': {'offer', 'do'}, 'amod': {'mul', 'learning', 'tenta', 'special', 'several', 'tidimensional'}, 'compound': {'others', 'tive'}, 'dobj': {'Figure', 'placement', 'that', 'theories'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'acl': {'related', 'presented'}, 'advmod': {'course', 'differently', 'Of', 'so'}, 'relcl': {'position'}} Long High Low
13 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Nonetheless, within this multidimensional space, we encounter theories thatgive primacy to the individual mind as both the constructorof knowledge and its repository (e.g., radical con-structivism) 25 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'as', 'within', 'to'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'multidimensional', 'radical'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'space', 'knowledge'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'theories'}, 'ROOT': {'encounter'}, 'ccomp': {'thatgive'}, 'dobj': {'primacy'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'compound': {'con', 'constructorof'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'conj': {'repository'}, 'appos': {'structivism'}} Long High Low
14 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat In contrast, there are those theories that locateboth the source and location of knowledge, or more pre - cisely knowing, within the immediate social context and human interactions (e.g., socioculturalism) 30 13 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'within', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'contrast', 'context'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'attr': {'theories'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'locateboth'}, 'dobj': {'source'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'location', 'knowing', 'more', 'interactions'}, 'amod': {'social', 'pre', 'human', 'immediate'}, 'advmod': {'cisely', 'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'socioculturalism'}} Long High Medium
15 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat For the currentdiscussion, I refer to these more extremely positionedlearning theories, be they cognitive or sociocultural, as“hard perspectives.” Between these more extreme epistemological stances, we can position the majority of learning theories and programsof research on conceptual change 38 18 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'Between', 'to', 'of', 'For'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'stances', 'change', 'currentdiscussion', 'theories'}, 'punct': {',', '.', '”'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'position', 'refer'}, 'advmod': {'extremely', 'more'}, 'amod': {'as“hard', 'extreme', 'positionedlearning', 'conceptual', 'epistemological', 'cognitive'}, 'conj': {'be', 'research', 'sociocultural'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'attr': {'perspectives'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'dobj': {'majority', 'theories'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'compound': {'programsof'}} Long High Low
16 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Although some of thesetheoretical orientations lean more heavily on the side of theindividual mind, as shown in Figure 1, either in terms of thesource or the location of knowledge (e.g., information pro - cessing or cognitive constructivism), others tend more to - ward the social end of the multidimensional space (e.g., so - cial constructivism or situated cognition) 58 25 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 6, 'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PART, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'mark': {'as', 'Although'}, 'nsubj': {'some', 'others'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'situated', 'theindividual', 'cial', 'cessing', 'multidimensional', 'thesetheoretical', 'social'}, 'pobj': {'Figure', 'mind', 'side', 'terms', 'orientations', 'knowledge', 'thesource', 'space'}, 'advcl': {'lean', 'shown'}, 'advmod': {'so', 'e.g.', 'heavily', 'more', 'pro'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'location', 'cognitive'}, 'nmod': {'constructivism', 'information'}, 'appos': {'constructivism', 'cognition'}, 'ROOT': {'tend'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'ward'}, 'dobj': {'end'}} Long High High
17 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat It is precisely these leanings that Greeno and van de Sande metaphorically depictwhen they describe a bridge that could be built more fromone side of the riverbank or the other 30 17 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'Greeno', 'It', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'precisely', 'metaphorically'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'attr': {'leanings'}, 'dobj': {'bridge', 'side', 'that'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'de', 'van'}, 'conj': {'Sande'}, 'relcl': {'built', 'depictwhen'}, 'ccomp': {'describe'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'amod': {'more'}, 'nummod': {'fromone'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'riverbank'}, 'punct': {'other'}} Long High Low
18 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Regardless of the dis - proportionate contributions of the builders that bridge would eventually connect the cognitive and sociocultural sides ofthe epistemological debate 23 8 {'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'eventually', 'Regardless'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'dis'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'epistemological', 'proportionate', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'contributions', 'builders'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'bridge', 'sides'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'relcl': {'connect'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sociocultural'}, 'ROOT': {'ofthe'}, 'dobj': {'debate'}} Long High Low
19 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat It is this collection of more mod - erate theories that I place under the category of “soft perspec - tives.”68 ALEXANDER FIGURE 1 The epistemological positioning of learning theories. 30 12 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'I', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'FIGURE', 'is', 'positioning'}, 'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'attr': {'collection'}, 'prep': {'under', 'of'}, 'amod': {'epistemological', 'soft', 'more', 'learning'}, 'compound': {'perspec', 'erate', 'ALEXANDER', 'mod'}, 'punct': {'”68', '-', '.', '“'}, 'pobj': {'tives', 'category', 'theories'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'place'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Long High Medium
20 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat SOFT VERSUS HARD PERSPECTIVES Why engage in such theoretical sorting and sifting as the framework for the discussion of the articles presented in thisspecial issue 25 11 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3} [ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'theoretical', 'thisspecial', 'HARD', 'such', 'SOFT'}, 'nmod': {'VERSUS'}, 'ROOT': {'PERSPECTIVES'}, 'advmod': {'Why'}, 'relcl': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'framework', 'discussion', 'sorting', 'articles'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sifting'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'presented'}} Long High Medium
21 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat It is to support my argument that those whorepresent the soft perspectives do not have to build bridgesbetween cognitive and sociocultural orientations 22 12 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'perspectives', 'whorepresent', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'do', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'support', 'build'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'dobj': {'argument', 'orientations'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'soft', 'cognitive'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acl': {'have'}, 'nmod': {'bridgesbetween'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sociocultural'}} Long High Medium
22 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat That is be - cause those orientations could not exist without the acknowl - edgment of the other bank of the river 22 13 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'That'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'aux': {'be', 'could'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'ROOT': {'cause'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'orientations'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'exist'}, 'prep': {'without', 'of'}, 'compound': {'acknowl'}, 'pobj': {'edgment', 'river', 'bank'}, 'amod': {'other'}} Long High Low
23 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat To extend Greeno and van de Sande’s metaphor: A river without two banks ceasesto be a river 17 8 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PART, VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'extend'}, 'dobj': {'Greeno', 'metaphor'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'de', 'van'}, 'conj': {'Sande'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'det': {'A', 'a'}, 'nsubj': {'river'}, 'prep': {'without'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'compound': {'banks'}, 'pobj': {'ceasesto'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'river'}} Medium High Low
24 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat So, how are we to judge whether the stances to - ward knowledge taken by the authors in this special issue are indicative of the soft or hard perspective 29 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, PRON, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'So', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'nsubj': {'stances', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'judge'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'perspective', 'ward', 'authors', 'issue'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}, 'acl': {'taken'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'soft', 'special'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'indicative'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'hard'}} Long High High
25 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat One way is to sub - ject the ideas forwarded by the contributing authors to critical questions related to conceptualization, sociocultural influ - ences, and truth 26 9 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, AUX, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'way'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'npadvmod': {'sub'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'xcomp': {'ject'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'ideas'}, 'acl': {'forwarded', 'related'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'contributing', 'sociocultural', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'conceptualization', 'authors', 'questions'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'compound': {'influ'}, 'conj': {'ences', 'truth'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
26 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat First, we can begin to triangulate these authors’ positions by ascertaining whether their perspectives allow for concep - tualization at all 21 11 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, ADV] {'advmod': {'at', 'all', 'First'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'perspectives', 'we'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'begin'}, 'xcomp': {'triangulate'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'poss': {'authors', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'positions'}, 'prep': {'by', 'for'}, 'pcomp': {'ascertaining'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'ccomp': {'allow'}, 'compound': {'concep'}, 'pobj': {'tualization'}} Long High Medium
27 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat If there is no place for the existence of a concept or the formation of concepts in any manner, thenthere is no reason to even hope for a theoretical bridging.Second, beyond the minimal test of whether there is accep - tance of conceptualization, it becomes essential to considerwhether there is a “reality” or “truth” to which a person’s orgroup’s understanding can be judged 63 40 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 10, 'NOUN': 17, 'ADP': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 4, 'ADJ': 3} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PART, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'mark': {'If', 'whether'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the', 'any'}, 'attr': {'tance', 'reality', 'place', 'reason'}, 'prep': {'beyond', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'concepts', 'manner', 'bridging', 'conceptualization', 'existence', 'concept', 'test'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'is', 'formation', 'truth'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', '”', ',', '“'}, 'advmod': {'Second', 'thenthere', 'even'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'judged'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'hope'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'minimal'}, 'pcomp': {'is', 'understanding'}, 'compound': {'accep'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'csubjpass': {'becomes'}, 'acomp': {'essential'}, 'xcomp': {'considerwhether'}, 'poss': {'orgroup', 'person'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High High
28 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat In effect, if all notions are of equal merit and require no further development or jus-tification relative to accepted or validated understandings,then there is no reason to engage in the exploration of con-ceptual change from either bank of the theoretical river 41 23 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'merit', 'effect', 'river', 'bank', 'understandings', 'exploration'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'det': {'no', 'all', 'the', 'either'}, 'nsubj': {'notions'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'amod': {'further', 'theoretical', 'ceptual', 'accepted', 'equal'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'require', 'tification', 'validated'}, 'nmod': {'development'}, 'compound': {'jus'}, 'dobj': {'relative'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'reason'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'engage'}, 'npadvmod': {'con'}} Long High Medium
29 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Finally, just as it is essential to acknowledge the existence of concepts and levels of truth or accuracy in conceptions toqualify as a soft perspective, it is also requisite to perceive so-cial and cultural forces as influences on understanding, how - ever strong or weak 45 24 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'advmod': {'also', 'just', 'so', 'Finally', 'ever', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'existence'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'requisite', 'essential', 'strong'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'perceive', 'acknowledge'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'perspective', 'conceptions', 'truth', 'concepts', 'understanding', 'influences'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'weak', 'levels', 'accuracy', 'cultural'}, 'ccomp': {'toqualify'}, 'amod': {'cial', 'soft'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'dobj': {'forces'}} Long High High
30 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat If thought or the formation of concepts can proceed without consideration of sociocultural forces,then we are again faced with the futility of building a bridgetoward the social side of our river 31 19 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'advcl': {'thought'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'formation'}, 'prep': {'with', 'without', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'forces', 'concepts', 'futility', 'river', 'consideration'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'proceed'}, 'amod': {'social', 'sociocultural'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'then', 'again'}, 'nsubjpass': {'we'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'faced'}, 'pcomp': {'building'}, 'dobj': {'side', 'bridgetoward'}, 'poss': {'our'}} Long High Medium
31 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat So, how do our authors stack up on these questions of con - ceptualization, truth, and sociocultural influences 18 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'So', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'stack'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'pobj': {'questions', 'influences'}, 'compound': {'con'}, 'nmod': {'ceptualization'}, 'conj': {'truth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'sociocultural'}} Medium High Medium
32 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Do they, in effect, qualify as softer or harder perspectives on thechange process, and where would I position them in thatepistemological space I previously described 25 13 {'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [AUX, PRON, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB] {'aux': {'would', 'Do'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'they'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'process', 'perspectives', 'space', 'effect'}, 'ROOT': {'qualify'}, 'amod': {'thatepistemological', 'softer'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'position', 'harder'}, 'compound': {'thechange'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'previously'}, 'dobj': {'them'}, 'relcl': {'described'}} Long High Medium
33 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat I found theGreeno and van de Sande and theV osniadou articles to be themost obvious points of contrast on these issues, particularlybecause they were cast somewhat as epistemological pointand counterpoint 30 11 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'dobj': {'theGreeno'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'de', 'themost', 'Sande', 'van'}, 'conj': {'articles', 'theV'}, 'amod': {'epistemological', 'osniadou', 'obvious'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'points'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'contrast', 'issues'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dep': {'particularlybecause', 'counterpoint'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ccomp': {'cast'}, 'advmod': {'somewhat'}, 'compound': {'pointand'}} Long High Low
34 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat For instance, in the situations they pose and the language they employ, I envision Greeno and van de Sande (2007)standing firmly on the sociocultural side of our river but witha hand metaphorically outstretched toward the cognitiveshore 36 17 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'INTJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, INTJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'of', 'toward', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'situations', 'side', 'instance', 'river', 'cognitiveshore'}, 'punct': {',', '('}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'pose', 'employ'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'hand', 'Sande', 'language'}, 'ROOT': {'envision'}, 'dobj': {'Greeno'}, 'compound': {'de', 'witha', 'van'}, 'advcl': {'2007)standing'}, 'advmod': {'firmly', 'metaphorically'}, 'amod': {'sociocultural'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'acl': {'outstretched'}} Long High Low
35 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat As a case in point, these authors avoid the use of suchterms as mind and knowledge and seek to redefine the notionof concepts as perspectival understandings 26 12 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'As', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'suchterms', 'point', 'case', 'understandings'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'avoid'}, 'dobj': {'concepts', 'use'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'seek'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'redefine'}, 'compound': {'perspectival', 'notionof'}} Long High Low
36 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat In fact, “mind”appears only once in their article and in that case the term wasused to distinguish the cognitive perspective on conceptualchange from their unique perspective 26 14 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'from', 'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'conceptualchange', 'perspective', 'case', 'article', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'term', 'mind”appears'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'once'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'wasused'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'distinguish'}, 'amod': {'unique', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'perspective'}} Long High Low
37 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat When mentioned, al - beit infrequently, “knowledge” is viewed as between rather than within individuals, with conceptual understanding and conceptual growth portrayed as functions “accomplished byactivity systems and communities of practice” (p 32 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'advmod': {'When', 'infrequently', 'rather'}, 'advcl': {'mentioned'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'compound': {'al', 'byactivity'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge', 'beit'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'viewed'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'with', 'between'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than'}, 'conj': {'communities', 'growth', 'within'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'functions', 'practice', 'understanding'}, 'amod': {'conceptual', 'accomplished'}, 'acl': {'portrayed'}, 'appos': {'systems', 'p'}} Long High Medium
38 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Itwould appear therefore that conceptualization has a placewithin Greeno and van de Sande’s perspective but only whenit comes to the source of knowledge 23 11 {'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2} [AUX, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'aux': {'Itwould'}, 'ROOT': {'appear'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'therefore'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'conceptualization', 'whenit'}, 'ccomp': {'has'}, 'dobj': {'placewithin', 'perspective'}, 'appos': {'Greeno'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'compound': {'van'}, 'nmod': {'de'}, 'conj': {'comes', 'Sande'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'source'}} Long High Low
39 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat There appears to be nomovement toward the cognitive side of the river when thetopic turns to the question of where knowledge resides.V osniadou voiced similar concern with the Greeno and vande Sande perspective when she argued that “knowledge mustbe seen not only as a process but also as a product, an objectto be taught” (p 55 29 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 13, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, VERB, PART, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'appears', 'taught'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'nomovement'}, 'prep': {'to', 'with', 'of', 'toward', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'similar', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'side', 'perspective', 'question', 'river', 'process', 'product'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'when', 'where'}, 'nsubj': {'she', 'knowledge', 'thetopic', 'osniadou'}, 'advcl': {'argued', 'turns'}, 'pcomp': {'resides'}, 'punct': {'.', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'compound': {'Sande', 'V', 'vande'}, 'ccomp': {'seen', 'voiced'}, 'dobj': {'concern'}, 'nmod': {'Greeno'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'appos': {'mustbe'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'conj': {'as'}, 'nsubjpass': {'objectto'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High High
40 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat As to the issue of truth or accuracy, Greeno and van de Sande offer support for the need for conceptual growth or un - derstanding, although the idea of a misconception does not arise in their discussion 37 18 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'As', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'growth', 'issue', 'truth', 'misconception', 'discussion', 'need'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'Greeno', 'Sande', 'derstanding', 'accuracy'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'de', 'un', 'van'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'dobj': {'support'}, 'amod': {'conceptual'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'nsubj': {'idea'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'arise'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
41 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Specifically, their criterion for any“truth” judgment pertains to “following accepted proceduresand terminology with authority vested in the discipline” (p.12) 19 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'criterion'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'in'}, 'nmod': {'any“truth'}, 'pobj': {'discipline', 'judgment', 'authority'}, 'ROOT': {'pertains'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'following'}, 'amod': {'accepted'}, 'compound': {'proceduresand'}, 'dobj': {'p.12', 'terminology'}, 'acl': {'vested'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
42 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat One is said to act with conceptual agency when a positivecontribution is made to that disciplinary group or communityof practice 20 11 {'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [NUM, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'positivecontribution', 'One'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'said'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'act'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to'}, 'amod': {'disciplinary', 'conceptual'}, 'pobj': {'group', 'agency'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'det': {'a', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'made'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'communityof'}, 'punct': {'practice'}} Long High Medium
43 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat To play off of Murphy’s creative title in this issue,truth for Greeno and van de Sande is in the eyes of the behold-ers 23 13 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PART, VERB, ADP, ADP, PROPN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'aux': {'To'}, 'csubj': {'play'}, 'prt': {'off'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'Murphy'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'creative'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'title', 'Greeno', 'ers', 'eyes'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'truth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'de', 'van', 'behold'}, 'conj': {'Sande'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}} Long High Low
44 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Thus, given the primacy for sociocultural influences, ac-ceptance of a distributed conception, and the collective judg-ment of truth, I have placed Greeno and van de Sande squarelywithin the sociocultural quadrant with some drift toward thecognitive side of the proverbial river (see Figure 2) 43 19 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'squarelywithin'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'given', 'ceptance', 'with', 'of', 'toward', 'for'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'side', 'truth', 'primacy', 'river', 'drift', 'conception', 'influences'}, 'amod': {'thecognitive', 'sociocultural', 'collective', 'distributed', 'proverbial'}, 'compound': {'judg', 'de', 'van', 'ac'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Sande', 'ment'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'placed'}, 'dobj': {'Greeno', 'Figure', 'quadrant'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'nummod': {'2'}} Long High Low
45 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat In contrast,V osniadou (2007) does not shy away from the idea of concepts or the mind as repository of knowledge;both are essential to her theoretical perspective 26 13 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'from', 'to', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'perspective', 'concepts', 'knowledge;both', 'contrast', 'idea', 'repository'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'V'}, 'nsubj': {'osniadou'}, 'appos': {'2007'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'shy'}, 'advmod': {'away'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'mind'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'essential'}, 'poss': {'her'}, 'amod': {'theoretical'}} Long High Low
46 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Nonetheless,she readily accepts that such concepts are directly affected bysociocultural forces and are therefore not only changing andchangeable, but also socially distributed 22 11 {'ADV': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, PART, ADV, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'only', 'Nonetheless', 'also', 'readily', 'socially', 'directly', 'therefore'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'she'}, 'ROOT': {'accepts'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'such', 'bysociocultural'}, 'nsubjpass': {'concepts'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'affected'}, 'dobj': {'forces'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'conj': {'changing', 'distributed'}, 'acomp': {'andchangeable'}} Long High Medium
47 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Quoting Hatano(1994), she concurs that while “understanding is a social pro - cess, it also involves much processing by an active individual mind.” The symbolic structures that are essential in the pro - cess of conceptual change forV osniadou can exist internally in the mind of the individual or be found in the context or en - vironment (e.g., globe) 60 26 {'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 12, 'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 2} [PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'is', 'Quoting'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', 'Hatano(1994', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'she', 'structures', 'understanding', 'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'exist', 'concurs'}, 'mark': {'that', 'while'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'symbolic', 'much', 'conceptual', 'social', 'individual', 'active', 'pro'}, 'attr': {'cess'}, 'advmod': {'internally', 'en', 'e.g.', 'also'}, 'ccomp': {'involves'}, 'dobj': {'processing'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'osniadou', 'context', 'individual', 'cess'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'essential'}, 'compound': {'change', 'forV'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'conj': {'found', 'vironment'}, 'appos': {'globe'}} Long High High
48 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat As with Greeno and van de Sande, she vests thedisciplinary community with much of the power to judgethe verisimilitude of individuals’ mental representations.Through orchestrated and positive instructional experiences,students may abandon their more naïve or synthetic mentalmodels for those that more closely approximate accepted sci - entific models 47 20 {'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 11, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, ADV, ADV, ADJ, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'As', 'Through', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'Greeno', 'much', 'power', 'those', 'verisimilitude', 'experiences', 'representations'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'thedisciplinary', 'de', 'sci', 'van', 'entific'}, 'conj': {'positive', 'Sande', 'mentalmodels'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'she', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'abandon', 'vests'}, 'dobj': {'naïve', 'community'}, 'det': {'the', 'judgethe'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'poss': {'individuals', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'orchestrated', 'mental', 'accepted', 'synthetic', 'more'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'advmod': {'closely', 'more'}, 'relcl': {'approximate'}, 'appos': {'models'}} Long High Low
49 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Thus, based on her detailed explanation, it is not hard to positionV osniadou within the more cognitivequadrant but with clear advances toward the socioculturalside of the river, especially when the question pertains to thesource of knowledge 36 20 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'when', 'especially', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to', 'based', 'of', 'toward'}, 'poss': {'her'}, 'amod': {'clear', 'detailed'}, 'pobj': {'cognitivequadrant', 'socioculturalside', 'explanation', 'osniadou', 'river', 'knowledge', 'advances'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'question'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'hard'}, 'nummod': {'positionV'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'with'}, 'advcl': {'pertains'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'thesource'}} Long High Medium
50 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat The other two contributors to this volume can be found more to the center of this multidimensional space, or some-where in the middle of the river to use Greeno and van deSande’s metaphor 33 22 {'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PART, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'other', 'multidimensional'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubjpass': {'contributors'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'center', 'river', 'volume', 'space', 'middle'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'deSande', 'some'}, 'relcl': {'use'}, 'poss': {'Greeno'}, 'compound': {'van'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'dobj': {'metaphor'}} Long High Medium
51 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat (2007), the mechanismthat illuminates the necessity of a dual cognitive-socio-cultural perspective on conceptual change arises in attemptsto unearth and interpret individuals’ mental representations.As they explain: Rather than regarding interview data as mirroring some sort of conceptual structure related to the mind, or some sort ofmental processing, we look at the answers as indicating whatthe interviewee is trying to accomplish in the interview situa - tion 65 27 {'PUNCT': 10, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 9, 'NOUN': 18, 'VERB': 11, 'ADP': 10, 'ADJ': 9, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'punct': {'-', '.', ':', ')', '(', ','}, 'meta': {'2007'}, 'det': {'a', 'whatthe', 'the', 'some'}, 'nsubj': {'mechanismthat', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'illuminates', 'look'}, 'dobj': {'interviewee', 'data', 'sort', 'necessity', 'representations'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'than', 'as'}, 'amod': {'cultural', 'mental', 'conceptual', 'sort', 'ofmental', 'dual', 'unearth', 'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'socio', 'interview', 'situa'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'perspective', 'tion', 'change', 'attemptsto', 'structure', 'answers'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'arises', 'interpret'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'trying', 'explain'}, 'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'pcomp': {'mirroring', 'regarding', 'indicating'}, 'acl': {'related'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'accomplish'}} Long High Medium
52 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Thus, the object of analysis is verbal actions rather than utterances regarded as overt representations of thoughts ormental processes 19 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'object'}, 'prep': {'than', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'analysis', 'thoughts', 'representations', 'utterances'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'overt', 'ormental', 'verbal'}, 'attr': {'actions'}, 'acl': {'regarded'}, 'npadvmod': {'processes'}} Medium High Low
53 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat It is by identifying these actions that wecan make inferences about the agent’s knowledge and experi - ences 18 10 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'prep': {'by', 'about'}, 'pcomp': {'identifying'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'actions', 'inferences'}, 'aux': {'wecan'}, 'relcl': {'make'}, 'poss': {'agent'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'experi'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'conj': {'ences'}} Medium High Low
54 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat 31–32) The casting of concepts in words that communicate by the in - terviewee and the efforts to interpret and affix meaning to those utterances by the interviewer is a social act nested in aparticular context 36 18 {'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1} [X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'31–32', 'is'}, 'punct': {'-', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'casting', 'that'}, 'prep': {'by', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'concepts', 'context', 'interviewer', 'utterances', 'terviewee', 'words'}, 'relcl': {'communicate'}, 'nmod': {'in'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'efforts', 'affix'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'nested', 'interpret'}, 'xcomp': {'meaning'}, 'amod': {'social', 'aparticular'}, 'attr': {'act'}} Long High Low
55 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat The question of the correctness or accuracy of individuals’ conception is a bit more problematic to assess in Halldén etal.’s contribution 21 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'question'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'conception', 'etal', 'correctness'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'accuracy'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ROOT': {'contribution', 'is'}, 'npadvmod': {'bit'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'acomp': {'problematic'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'assess'}, 'compound': {'Halldén'}, 'punct': {'.', '’s'}} Long High Low
56 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Although there is concern for coherence orcorrectness, much of that focus rests on the match betweenthe individuals’ true understanding and those extrapolatedthrough the interview process 25 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'concern'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'extrapolatedthrough', 'of'}, 'compound': {'coherence', 'interview'}, 'pobj': {'process', 'match', 'orcorrectness', 'focus'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'much'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'rests'}, 'amod': {'true', 'betweenthe'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'dobj': {'understanding'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'those'}} Long High Medium
57 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Nonetheless, it would seemthat Halldén et al., as with Greeno and van de Sande, privi - lege the conceptions or perspectives of the scientific commu -nity in ascertaining the naiveté or sophistication of conceptu - alizations 36 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'seemthat'}, 'dobj': {'al', '.', 'conceptions', 'Halldén', 'naiveté'}, 'compound': {'commu', 'privi', 'conceptu', 'et'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Greeno', '-nity', 'alizations'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'nmod': {'de', 'van'}, 'conj': {'sophistication', 'perspectives', 'Sande'}, 'advcl': {'lege'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'scientific'}, 'pcomp': {'ascertaining'}} Long High Low
58 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat locate knowledge or understanding in the mind of the individual butascribe the process of knowing to sociocultural factors plac - ing them more toward the social constructivism aligned with Vygotsky (1986, 1978) 32 13 {'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2} [VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'social', 'locate', 'sociocultural'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'understanding'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'toward'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'constructivism', 'factors', 'individual', 'Vygotsky'}, 'ROOT': {'butascribe'}, 'dobj': {'process', 'them'}, 'pcomp': {'knowing'}, 'npadvmod': {'plac'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'advcl': {'ing'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'acl': {'aligned'}, 'appos': {'1986', '1978'}} Long High Low
59 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Finally, Murphy (2007) has forwarded an interesting, al - beit complex, model of change that is informed by the philo - sophical debate between rationalism and empiricism, and that places beliefs as much as knowledge at the foreground ofthe change process 41 16 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'as', 'Finally', 'much'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Murphy', 'that'}, 'appos': {'2007'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'forwarded'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'interesting', 'sophical'}, 'compound': {'al', 'change', 'ofthe', 'beit', 'foreground'}, 'nmod': {'complex'}, 'dobj': {'model', 'beliefs'}, 'prep': {'as', 'at', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'rationalism', 'debate', 'change', 'knowledge', 'process'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'informed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'npadvmod': {'philo'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'empiricism', 'places'}} Long High Low
60 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat In this way, both Murphy andV osniadouhave sought to reframe discussion of conceptual change asthe process of transforming beliefs as much as knowledge.What seems apparent is that the mind remains the sole repos - itory of knowledge for Murphy, who does not even broach the topic of distributed understanding as doesV osniadou 52 24 {'ADP': 8, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'as', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'asthe', 'both', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'Murphy', 'way', 'change', 'osniadou', 'understanding', 'knowledge'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.'}, 'compound': {'Murphy', 'doesV'}, 'dep': {'andV'}, 'nsubj': {'What', 'osniadouhave', 'mind', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'sought'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'reframe'}, 'dobj': {'discussion', 'topic', 'process', 'beliefs'}, 'amod': {'sole', 'conceptual', 'distributed'}, 'pcomp': {'transforming'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'much', 'even'}, 'csubj': {'seems'}, 'oprd': {'apparent'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'remains'}, 'attr': {'repos', 'itory'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'broach'}} Long High Medium
61 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Yet, while Murphy seeks to move the consideration of conceptual change deeper into the thoughts and beliefs of theindividual, she does so by not only recognizing that there arelevels of understanding that must be acknowledged (i.e.,knowledge of, knowledge about , and knowledge that), but also by strongly weighing both rational thought andsociocultural experiences as critical catalysts for shifts inknowing and believing 61 33 {'ADV': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 9, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 10, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'X': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, PART, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, X, X, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'Yet', 'strongly', 'so', 'deeper'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ',knowledge', ')'}, 'mark': {'while', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'she', 'Murphy'}, 'advcl': {'seeks'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'xcomp': {'move'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'experiences', 'that', 'consideration'}, 'prep': {'for', 'by', 'into', 'i.e.', 'of', 'about', 'as'}, 'amod': {'rational', 'critical', 'conceptual', 'andsociocultural', 'thought'}, 'pobj': {'theindividual', 'change', 'thoughts', 'understanding', 'catalysts', 'shifts'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'believing', 'beliefs'}, 'ROOT': {'does'}, 'intj': {'by'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'pcomp': {'weighing', 'recognizing'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'arelevels'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'acknowledged'}, 'acl': {'inknowing'}} Long High High
62 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Recognition of these internal repre-sentations and rationalizations and the external catalytic ex-periences are evidenced in her concluding remarks when shewrites: I have urged those interested in change to acknowledge truth as seen through eyes of students and to initiate experiencesand conversations that encourage students to expose and jus-tify their own understandings 51 24 {'NOUN': 20, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'PRON': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 3} [NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'ex', '-', 'periences', 'Recognition'}, 'prep': {'through', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'catalytic', 'own', 'external', 'interested', 'internal'}, 'pobj': {'-', 'change', 'students', 'repre', 'eyes', 'remarks', 'sentations'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'jus', 'initiate', 'tify', 'rationalizations'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'evidenced'}, 'poss': {'their', 'her'}, 'compound': {'experiencesand', 'concluding'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'seen', 'shewrites'}, 'punct': {'-', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'urged'}, 'dobj': {'truth', 'students', 'those', 'conversations', 'understandings'}, 'acl': {'acknowledge'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'relcl': {'encourage'}, 'xcomp': {'expose'}} Long High High
63 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat 51) Moreover, Murphy sits at the crux of the multidimensional grid in terms of the issue of truth or accuracy 20 10 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'sits', '51'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'nsubj': {'Murphy'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'grid', 'truth', 'terms', 'crux'}, 'amod': {'multidimensional'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'accuracy'}} Long High Low
64 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat That is becauseher model accepts that there can be varied paths for justifica - tion for students, any of which can lead to justified true be - liefs (i.e., knowledge) or prove fallible in that regard 36 17 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, AUX, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'That', 'any', 'model'}, 'advmod': {'is', 'i.e.'}, 'amod': {'true', 'justified', 'varied', 'becauseher'}, 'ROOT': {'accepts'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'paths'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'justifica'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'liefs', 'tion', 'students', 'regard'}, 'relcl': {'lead'}, 'nmod': {'be'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'prove'}, 'oprd': {'fallible'}, 'det': {'that'}} Long High Medium
65 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat For the rationalist the source [of knowledge] is innate ideas and reasoning about those thoughts and ideas, and for the em - piricist the source is sense experience 28 14 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, X, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'about', 'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'thoughts', 'piricist', 'rationalist'}, 'ROOT': {'source'}, 'nsubj': {'[', 'source'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ']'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'innate'}, 'dobj': {'ideas'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reasoning', 'ideas', 'is'}, 'compound': {'em', 'sense'}, 'attr': {'experience'}} Long High Low
66 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Soldiers for both sides claim that their source of knowledge leads to accurate under - standings about the world (i.e., truths) 21 9 {'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'X': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Soldiers', 'source'}, 'prep': {'about', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'world', 'knowledge', 'standings', 'sides'}, 'ROOT': {'claim'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ccomp': {'leads'}, 'amod': {'accurate'}, 'nmod': {'under'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'appos': {'truths'}} Long High Medium
67 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Yet, there is no con - flict when it comes to acknowledging that either path to truth can be precarious or fallible 22 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'advmod': {'when', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'no', 'either'}, 'compound': {'con'}, 'attr': {'flict'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'path'}, 'advcl': {'comes'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pcomp': {'acknowledging'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'pobj': {'truth'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'precarious'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'fallible'}} Long High High
68 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat That is, even if internal reason - ing is the source of knowledge, there remains the possibility that one could introduce misconceptions due to problems inreasoning 26 14 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADP, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'That', 'is', 'even'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'amod': {'internal'}, 'nsubj': {'ing', 'one', 'reason'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'possibility', 'source'}, 'prep': {'of', 'due'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'problems'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'acl': {'introduce', 'inreasoning'}, 'dobj': {'misconceptions'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}} Long High High
69 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat In essence, for neither ap - proach can we be certain that the ways in which individuals conceptually represent the world actually correspond to theways the world exists 28 13 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PART, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'for', 'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'essence', 'ap'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'neither', 'the'}, 'dep': {'proach'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'nsubj': {'ways', 'individuals', 'world', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'certain'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'actually', 'conceptually'}, 'relcl': {'represent'}, 'dobj': {'world'}, 'ccomp': {'correspond', 'exists'}, 'advcl': {'theways'}} Long High Medium
70 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat 42) Finally, unlike the other authors in this volume Murphy does not seem to privilege domain experts or communities of70 ALEXANDER 21 9 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PROPN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN] {'ROOT': {'seem', '42'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'prep': {'unlike', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'pobj': {'authors', 'volume'}, 'nsubj': {'Murphy'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'xcomp': {'privilege'}, 'compound': {'domain', 'of70'}, 'dobj': {'experts'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'communities'}, 'npadvmod': {'ALEXANDER'}} Long High Low
71 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Perhaps that arises from the fact that Murphy was the only contributor tothe volume who did not focus discussion around scientificdomains where empirical evidence holds sway 26 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PROPN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB] {'advmod': {'Perhaps', 'where'}, 'nsubj': {'Murphy', 'evidence', 'that', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'arises'}, 'prep': {'around', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'scientificdomains', 'fact'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'was'}, 'amod': {'only', 'empirical'}, 'compound': {'contributor', 'tothe'}, 'attr': {'volume'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'holds', 'focus'}, 'dobj': {'discussion', 'sway'}} Long High High
72 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Thus, when Iconsider Murphy’s espoused views on conceptualization,sociocultural influences, and truth, I place her somewherebetween the cognitive constructivists and the socialconstructivist; that is toward the center of Figure 2 29 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'when'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}, 'compound': {'Iconsider'}, 'poss': {'Murphy'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'cognitive', 'espoused', 'sociocultural'}, 'advcl': {'views'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'Figure', 'conceptualization', 'center'}, 'conj': {'socialconstructivist', 'influences', 'truth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ccomp': {'somewherebetween', 'place'}, 'dobj': {'constructivists', 'her'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'nummod': {'2'}} Long High Medium
73 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat In summary, looking across the articles in this volume, I find that most can be justifiably cast as relatively soft or moremoderate with regard to their epistemological stances onconceptual change rather than hard or more extreme in theirviewpoints 38 20 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'as', 'across', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'stances', 'summary', 'theirviewpoints', 'volume', 'regard', 'articles'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'looking'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'find'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'most'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'rather', 'relatively', 'hard', 'justifiably'}, 'ccomp': {'cast'}, 'amod': {'epistemological', 'soft', 'onconceptual', 'extreme'}, 'cc': {'or', 'than'}, 'conj': {'moremoderate', 'more'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'change'}} Long High Medium
74 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat That being said, the “soft” label seems more pre - cariously applied to Greeno and van de Sande’s perspectival understanding, especially when the dialogue moves awayfrom questions about the source of knowledge to where suchknowledge resides 36 15 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2} [PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PROPN, VERB] {'nsubjpass': {'That'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'advcl': {'said', 'moves'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'soft', 'pre'}, 'nsubj': {'suchknowledge', 'dialogue', 'label'}, 'ROOT': {'seems'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'where', 'especially', 'cariously', 'more'}, 'oprd': {'applied'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Greeno', 'knowledge', 'source'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'de', 'van'}, 'poss': {'Sande'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'awayfrom', 'perspectival'}, 'conj': {'understanding'}, 'dobj': {'questions'}, 'pcomp': {'resides'}} Long High High
75 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Nonetheless, I hold that even Greeno andvan de Sande cannot operate theoretically without some ac - knowledgment of individual cognition even if it is to sub - sume that individual mind within a collective or distributed mentality 37 17 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'X': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, PROPN, X, X, PROPN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless', 'even', 'theoretically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'Sande', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'hold'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'compound': {'Greeno', 'de', 'ac'}, 'nmod': {'andvan'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'operate'}, 'prep': {'without', 'within', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'mentality', 'cognition', 'knowledgment'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'collective'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'npadvmod': {'sub'}, 'acomp': {'sume'}, 'dep': {'mind'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'distributed'}} Long High High
76 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat But what about conceptual ontology; that is, what does con- ceptual change actually mean to these individuals 17 9 {'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1} [CCONJ, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'cc': {'But'}, 'dep': {'what'}, 'ccomp': {'about'}, 'amod': {'ceptual', 'conceptual'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'ontology'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}, 'advmod': {'actually', 'is', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'change', 'what'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'nmod': {'con-'}, 'ROOT': {'mean'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'det': {'these'}} Medium High Low
77 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat To whatdegree are those seeking to build bridges between cognitiveand sociocultural perspectives dealing with rather subtle oreveryday changes in individuals’ or groups’ conceptual un-derstanding 24 9 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PART, VERB, AUX, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, VERB] {'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'csubj': {'whatdegree'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'those'}, 'acl': {'seeking', 'derstanding', '-', 'dealing'}, 'xcomp': {'build'}, 'dobj': {'bridges'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in', 'between'}, 'amod': {'cognitiveand', 'conceptual', 'subtle', 'sociocultural'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'perspectives', 'changes'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'compound': {'oreveryday'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'groups'}, 'appos': {'un'}} Long High Low
78 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Or, is their focus on more drastic and hard toachieve transformations in conceptualization 13 7 {'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [CCONJ, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'cc': {'and', 'Or'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'attr': {'focus'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'amod': {'drastic'}, 'conj': {'hard'}, 'compound': {'toachieve'}, 'pobj': {'conceptualization', 'transformations'}} Medium High Low
79 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat The questionof the nature of conceptual change has significance becauseit is my contention that it is easier to ford the theoreticalriver when the waters are rather shallow and calm versuswhen they are deep and turbulent 35 19 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'waters', 'it', 'nature', 'questionof'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'shallow', 'conceptual'}, 'pobj': {'change'}, 'csubj': {'has'}, 'compound': {'significance'}, 'dobj': {'theoreticalriver', 'becauseit'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'attr': {'contention', 'versuswhen'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'deep', 'easier'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'ford'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'rather'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'turbulent', 'calm'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}} Long High High
80 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat In other words, if cogni - tive or sociocultural researchers restrict their conversations to quieter and less dramatic forms of conceptual change,such as occurs through accretion or even assimilation(weak restructuring), there may be less grounds for conflictthan when they venture into more contested terrain such asthat aligned with accommodation, especially radical re - structuring 54 26 {'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 16, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'AUX': 2} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB] {'prep': {'through', 'for', 'to', 'into', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'amod': {'dramatic', 'conceptual', 'radical', 'other', 'such', 'less', 'contested', 'tive'}, 'pobj': {'accommodation', 'change', 'accretion', 'conflictthan', 'occurs', 'terrain', 'words', 'quieter'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nmod': {'cogni'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'forms', 'restructuring', 'sociocultural'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'restrict', 'venture'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'asthat', 'conversations'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'especially', 'less', 'even', 'more'}, 'compound': {'assimilation(weak'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'grounds'}, 'acl': {'aligned'}, 'dep': {'re'}, 'acomp': {'structuring'}} Long High High
81 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Here again the contrast between the perspectives of Greeno and van de Sande andV osniadou proves enlighten - ing 19 7 {'ADV': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADV, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here', 'again'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'contrast'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'Greeno', 'perspectives'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'de', 'van'}, 'compound': {'Sande', 'andV'}, 'conj': {'osniadou'}, 'ROOT': {'proves'}, 'xcomp': {'enlighten'}, 'punct': {'ing', '-'}} Medium High Low
82 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat As they did in addressing issues of epistemology, Greeno and van de Sande appear to have stayed within safer andmore charted waters 22 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'advcl': {'did'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'addressing', 'charted'}, 'pobj': {'safer', 'epistemology', 'issues'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'Greeno', 'Sande'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'de', 'van'}, 'ROOT': {'appear'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'stayed'}, 'advmod': {'andmore'}, 'dobj': {'waters'}} Long High Medium
83 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat That is to say, while their article is re - plete with cases of conceptual growth, none of their cases ex - pressly manifest more radical forms of conceptual change or expressly address the contentious question of transfer thathas riled the waters for cognitivists and socioculturalists inthe past (Alexander & Murphy, 1999; Greeno, Smith, &Moore, 1996) 56 21 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 10, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'That', 'ex', 'article', 'none'}, 'parataxis': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'say'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'-', 'plete', 're'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'growth', 'cognitivists', 'change', 'thathas', 'cases'}, 'amod': {'contentious', 'conceptual', 'radical'}, 'advmod': {'expressly', 'pressly', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'manifest'}, 'dobj': {'forms', 'waters', 'question'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'address', 'Murphy', 'Greeno', 'Smith', 'socioculturalists', 'riled', 'Moore'}, 'det': {'the', 'inthe'}, 'compound': {'transfer'}, 'npadvmod': {'past', '1999'}, 'appos': {'1996', 'Alexander'}} Long High Medium
84 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat For instance, Greeno and van de Sande offerone case representing individuals’ quiet assimilation into a community of practice 18 5 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'practice', 'instance', 'community'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'Greeno'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'offerone', 'Sande', 'van'}, 'nmod': {'de'}, 'conj': {'case'}, 'acl': {'representing'}, 'dobj': {'individuals', 'assimilation'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'quiet'}, 'det': {'a'}} Medium High Low
85 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat …a group such as a classroom changes so that more of its stu - dent members participate productively in its discourse in - volving a concept or conception, that change counts as a form of conceptual growth by the classroom community as well asby those individuals whose productive participation regard - ing that concept or conception increased 57 26 {'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 18, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB] {'punct': {',', '-', '…'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'group', 'individuals', 'concept', 'more'}, 'amod': {'productive', 'such', 'conceptual'}, 'prep': {'by', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'participation', 'stu', 'classroom', 'dent'}, 'pobj': {'members', 'growth', 'form', 'community', 'discourse', 'changes'}, 'mark': {'that', 'so'}, 'poss': {'its', 'whose'}, 'advcl': {'asby', 'participate'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'productively'}, 'pcomp': {'volving'}, 'dobj': {'counts', 'concept', 'regard', 'ing'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'conception'}, 'relcl': {'change'}, 'ROOT': {'increased'}} Long High High
86 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat 12) They also describe a more involved situation from the re - search of Stenning, Greeno, Hall, Sommerfeld, and Wiebe (2002) showing that students who constructed models of population growth and decline developed understanding of predation that enabledthem to include it as a factor in a complex model in support ofa proposal to solve a hypothetical problem involving predatorand prey populations 61 24 {'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 19, 'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2} [X, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'describe', '12'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'They', 'who', 'enabledthem'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'more'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'developed', 'involved', 'complex', 'hypothetical'}, 'dobj': {'problem', 'models', 'students', 'understanding', 'situation', 'it', 'populations', 'proposal'}, 'prep': {'in', 'as', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'-', 'growth', 'search', 're', 'support', 'predation', 'Stenning', 'factor', 'model'}, 'conj': {'decline', 'Greeno', 'Sommerfeld', 'Wiebe', 'Hall'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'2002'}, 'acl': {'involving', 'solve', 'showing'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'constructed', 'include'}, 'compound': {'predatorand', 'population', 'ofa', 'prey'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Medium
87 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat 13) Although both instances support their arguments relative to perspectival understanding, they do not address the potentialfor significant epistemological or ontological shifts on thepart of the group or its members 30 14 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2} [NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADJ, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, PROPN, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'address', '13'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'mark': {'Although'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'instances'}, 'advcl': {'perspectival', 'support'}, 'poss': {'its', 'their'}, 'dobj': {'shifts', 'understanding', 'arguments'}, 'advmod': {'relative'}, 'aux': {'do', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'nmod': {'potentialfor'}, 'amod': {'epistemological', 'significant'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'ontological', 'members'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'group', 'thepart'}} Long High Medium
88 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat By comparison,V osniadou dives headlong into the con- troversial area of knowledge transfer, even while givingground to the role of social influences and contextual factorsin the change process 28 11 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 3, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, X, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'By', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'transfer', 'role', 'comparison', 'influences', 'area'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'change', 'knowledge', 'V'}, 'nsubj': {'osniadou'}, 'ROOT': {'dives'}, 'advmod': {'even', 'headlong'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'con-'}, 'amod': {'social', 'contextual', 'troversial'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'givingground'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'factorsin'}, 'dobj': {'process'}} Long High Medium
89 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Moreover, the process of formulatingmental models she describes as part of framework theory em-braces both the subtle and more dramatic aspects of thechange process 24 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'process'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'compound': {'framework', 'thechange', 'formulatingmental'}, 'pobj': {'em', '-', 'theory', 'models', 'braces', 'part', 'process'}, 'nsubj': {'she'}, 'relcl': {'describes'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'amod': {'subtle'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'dramatic'}, 'dobj': {'aspects'}} Long High Low
90 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat For instance, she describes simple, bot-tom-up, additive mechanisms akin to accretion as “capable ofproducing spontaneous developmental conceptual changes,assuming that new knowledge is coming in through observa - tion and/or from the culture” (p 33 11 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'prep': {'through', 'from', 'to', 'as', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'tion', 'culture', 'accretion', 'changes'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', '”', ',', 'and/or', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'she', 'knowledge'}, 'ROOT': {'describes'}, 'dobj': {'simple'}, 'compound': {'tom', 'observa', 'bot'}, 'conj': {'mechanisms', 'up'}, 'amod': {'capable', 'developmental', 'spontaneous', 'conceptual', 'new', 'additive', 'ofproducing', 'akin'}, 'advcl': {'assuming'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'coming'}, 'prt': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High Medium
91 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Eventually, the accumu - lation of those experiences may result in whatV osniadou la - bels as “branch jumping…or as an ontological shift…and represents a considerable re-organization of the concept ofliving thing” (p 33 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Eventually'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', '”', ',', '…', '“'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'those'}, 'compound': {'la', 'ofliving', 'branch', 'accumu', 'concept'}, 'nsubj': {'lation'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'whatV', 'jumping', 'experiences', 'thing', 'shift'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'result'}, 'advcl': {'osniadou'}, 'dobj': {'organization', '-', 'bels', 're'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'represents', 'as'}, 'amod': {'ontological', 'considerable'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High Low
92 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Unlike Greeno and van de Sande,V osniadou is not con - tent to stay within the realm of everyday experiences 20 7 {'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'of', 'Unlike'}, 'pobj': {'Greeno', 'experiences', 'realm'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'de', 'van'}, 'conj': {'Sande'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'V', 'con'}, 'nsubj': {'osniadou'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'tent'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'stay'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'everyday'}} Long High Low
93 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat In - stead, she holds that such everyday encounters can lead to misleading synthetic models that demand more direct andsignificant interventions 21 8 {'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'stead'}, 'nsubj': {'she', 'encounters', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'holds'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'direct', 'andsignificant', 'such', 'synthetic', 'everyday'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'lead'}, 'pcomp': {'misleading'}, 'dobj': {'models', 'interventions'}, 'relcl': {'demand'}, 'advmod': {'more'}} Long High Medium
94 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Consequently,V osniadou arguesthat “to explain conceptual change, we should allow for thepossibility that what is already known can be radically re - structured and that new, qualitative different structures emerge” (p 31 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'advmod': {'already', 'Consequently', 'radically'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'compound': {'V'}, 'ROOT': {'osniadou'}, 'dobj': {'change', 'arguesthat'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to', 'can'}, 'advcl': {'explain'}, 'amod': {'structured', 'qualitative', 'conceptual', 'new', 'different'}, 'nsubj': {'structures', 'we'}, 'relcl': {'allow'}, 'prep': {'for', 're'}, 'pobj': {'thepossibility'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'csubj': {'known'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'that'}, 'conj': {'emerge'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long High Medium
95 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat LikeV osniadou’s framework theory, Murphy’s model of knowledge/belief change encompasses levels of changeranging from subtle accretion to more radical transforma - tions 22 7 {'PROPN': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'SYM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'amod': {'subtle', 'radical', 'LikeV'}, 'poss': {'osniadou', 'Murphy'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'framework', 'belief', 'transforma'}, 'nsubj': {'theory'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '/'}, 'appos': {'model'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'nmod': {'knowledge'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'accretion', 'tions'}, 'ROOT': {'encompasses'}, 'dobj': {'levels'}, 'pcomp': {'changeranging'}, 'advmod': {'more'}} Long High Low
96 Bridging Cognition and Socioculturalism Within Conceptual Change Research- Unnecessary Foray or Unachievable Feat Specifically, it would appear that restructuring, espe - cially the radical form, would be possible for those reaching the stage of explanatory power and essential for those who at - tain examined understanding within any conceptual domain.COGNITION AND SOCIOCULTURALISM 71 40 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PRON, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NUM] {'advmod': {'Specifically', 'cially'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'restructuring', 'who'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'COGNITION', 'appear'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'appos': {'espe', 'form'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'amod': {'explanatory', 'examined', 'conceptual', 'radical'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'possible'}, 'prep': {'for', 'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'tain', 'domain', 'power', 'those'}, 'acl': {'reaching'}, 'dobj': {'stage'}, 'cc': {'and', 'AND'}, 'conj': {'SOCIOCULTURALISM', 'essential'}, 'dative': {'for'}, 'nmod': {'at'}, 'relcl': {'understanding'}, 'nummod': {'71'}} Long High Medium
97 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The MD-TRACE postulates that multiple text use unfolds through a series of five steps (Rouet & Britt, 2011).Specifically, once students are assigned a multiple text task,they develop a task model ; a cognitive representation of task demands that sets out goals for task completion (Step1) 45 15 {'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2} [DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'compound': {'task', 'five', 'MD', 'text'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'use', 'TRACE', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'postulates'}, 'mark': {'that', 'once'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'cognitive'}, 'ccomp': {'unfolds'}, 'prep': {'through', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'completion', 'series', 'demands', 'steps'}, 'appos': {'Rouet', 'Step1'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Britt', 'develop'}, 'npadvmod': {'2011).Specifically'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'assigned'}, 'dobj': {'task', 'goals', 'model'}, 'dep': {'representation'}, 'relcl': {'sets'}, 'prt': {'out'}} Long High High
98 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In Step 2 of the MD-TRACE, students determine thatthey have an information need or decide that accessing mul- tiple texts is necessary to meet task demands 26 9 {'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, PROPN, NUM, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Step', 'TRACE'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'task', 'MD', 'information'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'thatthey', 'that', 'texts'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'determine'}, 'ccomp': {'accessing', 'have'}, 'dobj': {'demands', 'need'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'decide'}, 'dep': {'mul-'}, 'advmod': {'tiple'}, 'acomp': {'necessary'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'meet'}} Long High Medium
99 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Step 3 involves students’ processing of multiple texts with three subprocesses specified: text selection, processing , and inte- gration 20 4 {'NOUN': 10, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, NUM, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Step', 'subprocesses'}, 'nummod': {'three', '3'}, 'ROOT': {'involves'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', ':', ','}, 'dobj': {'processing'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'inte-'}, 'pobj': {'texts'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'gration', 'specified'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'appos': {'selection'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
100 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In Step 5, students make a determination regard-ing the extent to which their generated response comportswith task demands and with the task model developed inStep 1 26 10 {'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NUM] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'Step', 'model'}, 'nummod': {'5', '1'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'ing', 'response'}, 'ROOT': {'make'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'task', 'determination', 'regard'}, 'dobj': {'extent', 'demands', 'inStep'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'generated'}, 'appos': {'comportswith'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'relcl': {'developed'}} Long High Low
101 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use This determination results in students either re-cycling through previous steps in the MD-TRACE or deter- mining the task to be complete 21 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADJ] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'compound': {'determination', 'MD'}, 'ROOT': {'results'}, 'prep': {'through', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'steps', 'TRACE'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'advcl': {'be', 're'}, 'conj': {'-', 'mining'}, 'xcomp': {'cycling'}, 'amod': {'previous', 'deter-'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'dobj': {'task'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acomp': {'complete'}} Long High Low
102 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Complementing the MD-TRACE, the documents model framework explains how students integrate information thatis presented across multiple texts to form a unified under-standing of a particular topic or issue (Britt et al., 1999;Perfetti et al., 1999) 35 10 {'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 10, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Complementing', 'form'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'under', 'information', 'model', 'MD', 'documents'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'dobj': {'thatis', 'standing', 'TRACE'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'framework'}, 'ROOT': {'explains'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'ccomp': {'integrate'}, 'acl': {'presented'}, 'prep': {'across', 'of'}, 'amod': {'unified', 'multiple', 'particular'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'texts'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'.', 'issue'}, 'npadvmod': {'Britt', 'al', '.', '1999;Perfetti', 'et'}, 'appos': {'1999'}} Long High Medium
103 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use That is, the documents model articu-lates the comprehension processes involved in Step 3 of theMD-TRACE, text integration 17 6 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NUM, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'That', 'is'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'articu', 'comprehension', 'theMD', 'text', 'documents'}, 'nsubj': {'model'}, 'ROOT': {'lates'}, 'dobj': {'processes', 'integration'}, 'acl': {'involved'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Step', 'TRACE'}, 'nummod': {'3'}} Medium High Low
104 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Britt, Rouet, and Braasch (2013) suggested that in integrating multiple texts, students construct two cognitive models of the information pre-sented, the intertext model and the integrated mental model 29 9 {'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 3} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'students', 'Britt'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Rouet', 'Braasch', 'model'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'2013', 'model'}, 'ROOT': {'suggested'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'integrating'}, 'amod': {'mental', 'sented', 'intertext', 'integrated', 'multiple', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'models', 'texts'}, 'ccomp': {'construct'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'information'}, 'acl': {'pre', '-'}} Long High Medium
105 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The intertext model includes two types of connections:those between the information in a text and that text’s docu-ment information (i.e., metadata about author, publisher,source type) and those across texts using intertext predi- cates (e.g., agrees with, opposes, provides evidence for) 40 18 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 16, 'VERB': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 7, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'that'}, 'amod': {'intertext', 'predi-'}, 'nsubj': {'model', 'those'}, 'ROOT': {'includes'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'dobj': {'cates', 'evidence', 'types'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'about', 'across', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'texts', 'connections', 'information', 'author', 'text'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', ','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'text'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'docu', 'source', 'ment'}, 'conj': {'those', 'information', 'agrees', 'opposes', 'provides'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'publisher', 'type', 'metadata'}, 'acl': {'using'}} Long High Low
106 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The integrated mental model cognitively represents the common situation or issue described across multiple textsin a coherent and unified fashion 20 6 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'coherent', 'mental', 'integrated', 'multiple', 'common'}, 'nsubj': {'model'}, 'advmod': {'cognitively'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'dobj': {'situation', 'fashion'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'unified', 'issue'}, 'acl': {'described'}, 'prep': {'across'}, 'pobj': {'textsin'}} Long High Low
107 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In integrating multiple texts, then, students’ intertext and integrated mental models may be integrated to varyingextents 16 6 {'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In'}, 'pcomp': {'integrating'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'intertext', 'mental'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'integrated'}, 'nsubjpass': {'models'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'integrated'}, 'pobj': {'varyingextents'}} Medium High Low
108 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use At one extreme, students may formulate a mush model , where information is integrated across texts but doc- ument information in the intertext model is ignored, leaving students unable to determine the relative trustworthiness of information, based on its sources of origin 42 17 {'ADP': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'At', 'in', 'based', 'of', 'across'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'texts', 'extreme', 'information', 'origin', 'model'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'formulate'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'mush', 'ument'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'model', 'trustworthiness'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'nsubjpass': {'information'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'integrated'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'amod': {'doc-', 'intertext', 'unable', 'relative'}, 'conj': {'ignored', 'information'}, 'advcl': {'leaving'}, 'xcomp': {'determine'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High Medium
109 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use At the otherextreme, an expert level, tag all model may be built 12 6 {'ADP': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'At'}, 'det': {'all', 'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'otherextreme'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'expert'}, 'nsubjpass': {'model', 'level'}, 'dep': {'tag'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'built'}} Medium High Low
110 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In the tag all model each piece of information is associated withits document of origin, based on the intertext model, and allinformation is considered in conceptualizing a common sit-uation described across texts, resulting in the constructionof a highly complex integrated mental model that, neverthe- less, may be too demanding for nonexperts to use 53 24 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 9, 'AUX': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PUNCT, X, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'based', 'of', 'across', 'In'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'pobj': {'tag', 'texts', 'constructionof', 'information', 'origin', 'model'}, 'dep': {'all'}, 'ROOT': {'model'}, 'nsubjpass': {'piece', 'allinformation'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'associated', 'withits'}, 'dobj': {'document', 'model', 'uation'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'mental', 'intertext', 'integrated', 'complex', 'common'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'considered', 'be'}, 'pcomp': {'conceptualizing'}, 'compound': {'sit'}, 'acl': {'described'}, 'advcl': {'use', 'resulting'}, 'advmod': {'highly', 'too', 'less'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'nonexperts'}, 'relcl': {'neverthe-'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'acomp': {'demanding'}, 'mark': {'for'}} Long High High
111 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The opti- mal mental model for multiple text integration, consideredbest for good, novice comprehenders, has been termed thedocuments model (Britt et al., 1999) 23 5 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'mal', 'mental', 'good', 'multiple', 'opti-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'model'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'compound': {'thedocuments', 'novice', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'comprehenders', 'integration'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'consideredbest', '1999'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'termed'}, 'oprd': {'model'}, 'npadvmod': {'Britt', 'et'}, 'conj': {'al', '.'}} Long High Low
112 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Within the documentsmodel, only core events or key situational components are included in the integrated mental model 17 7 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'Within', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'documentsmodel', 'model'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'compound': {'core'}, 'nsubjpass': {'events'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'mental', 'situational', 'key', 'integrated'}, 'conj': {'components'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}} Medium High Low
113 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use These core eventsare associated with their sources of origin through theintertext model 12 5 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN] {'det': {'These'}, 'compound': {'theintertext', 'core'}, 'ROOT': {'eventsare'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'prep': {'through', 'with', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'origin', 'model'}} Medium High Low
114 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Linking the intertext and integrated mental models means that, in the documents model, focal discrep-ancies across texts are reconciled through the considerationof document information and as a result, key componentsof a situation, presented across multiple texts, areintegrated 37 14 {'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB] {'csubj': {'Linking'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'focal', 'mental', 'intertext', 'multiple', 'key'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'areintegrated', 'integrated', 'presented'}, 'dobj': {'models'}, 'ROOT': {'means'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'through', 'as', 'across', 'in'}, 'compound': {'discrep', 'document', 'considerationof', 'documents'}, 'pobj': {'model', 'result', 'texts', 'information'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ancies'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'reconciled'}, 'nsubj': {'componentsof'}, 'appos': {'situation'}} Long High Medium
115 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The documents model outlines the cognitive processes involved in integrating multiple texts, just as the MD- TRACE identifies the text use behaviors (e.g., text selection) involved 26 7 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'text', 'use', 'MD-', 'documents'}, 'nsubj': {'TRACE', 'model'}, 'ROOT': {'outlines'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'behaviors', 'processes', 'texts'}, 'acl': {'involved'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pcomp': {'integrating'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'e.g.'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'identifies'}, 'appos': {'selection'}, 'conj': {'involved'}} Long High Medium
116 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use However, more needs to be understood regardingstudents’ reasons or motivations for constructing the intertextand integrated mental models in the first place 21 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'more', 'mental', 'integrated', 'first', 'intertextand'}, 'ROOT': {'needs'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'understood'}, 'poss': {'regardingstudents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'reasons', 'models'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'motivations'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'constructing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'place'}} Long High Low
117 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Moreover,additional work is needed to explain how and why studentsengage in the cognitively demanding processes associatedwith developing a documents model or elect not to do so.The CAEM argues that both the consideration of document information in creating an intertext model and the integration of multiple texts in developing a documents model can beexplained, in part, by the level of students’ engagementwhen completing a multiple text task, as well as by learners’skills in carrying out these processes 76 40 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 22, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 12, 'PART': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 13, 'DET': 11} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PART, PART, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'cognitively', 'so', 'Moreover', 'well', 'as', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '.', '’'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'intertext', 'additional', 'demanding'}, 'nsubjpass': {'work'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'argues', 'engagementwhen', 'needed'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'explain'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as', 'or'}, 'conj': {'elect', 'why'}, 'dobj': {'task', 'studentsengage', 'processes', 'model'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'associatedwith', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'The', 'a', 'these', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'processes', 'learners’skills', 'texts', 'students', 'part', 'information', 'level'}, 'pcomp': {'carrying', 'developing', 'creating'}, 'compound': {'document', 'text', 'documents'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'xcomp': {'completing', 'do'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM', 'integration', 'consideration'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'predet': {'both'}, 'ccomp': {'beexplained'}, 'prt': {'out'}} Long High High
118 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use WARM, MOTIVATED ENGAGEMENT Through more than a century of education and psychology research, interest, alongside other motivational factors, hasbeen strongly associated with text comprehension (e.g.,Alexander, Kulikowich, & Jetton, 1994; Dewey, 1913;Hidi, 2001) 32 8 {'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PROPN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'NUM': 3} [ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'other', 'motivational', 'more', 'WARM'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'psychology', 'MOTIVATED', 'text'}, 'ROOT': {'ENGAGEMENT'}, 'prep': {'with', 'alongside', 'of', 'Through'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'nummod': {'a', '1994'}, 'pobj': {'comprehension', 'century', 'education', 'factors'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Kulikowich', 'Jetton', 'interest', 'research'}, 'npadvmod': {'hasbeen', '2001'}, 'advmod': {'strongly', 'e.g.'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'dep': {',Alexander'}, 'appos': {'Dewey', '1913;Hidi'}} Long High Low
119 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Individual inter- estrefers to students’ stable and sustained positive orienta- tion toward a topic or domain 16 5 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'Individual', 'orienta-', 'inter-', 'positive'}, 'nsubj': {'estrefers'}, 'prep': {'to', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'topic'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'ROOT': {'stable'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'sustained'}, 'dobj': {'tion'}, 'det': {'a'}} Medium High Low
120 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Applied to text engagement, this form of intrinsic interest has been termed topic interest (Schiefele, 2009) 16 5 {'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Applied'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'interest', 'engagement'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'form'}, 'amod': {'intrinsic'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'termed'}, 'oprd': {'interest'}, 'appos': {'Schiefele', '2009'}} Medium High Low
121 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Situational interest may be described as an externally triggered, temporary, state of arousal 13 5 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'amod': {'Situational', 'triggered', 'temporary'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interest'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'advmod': {'externally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'pobj': {'arousal', 'state'}} Medium High Low
122 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Thisform of interest may be activated by elements in textincluding surprise, novelty, or personal relevance 15 6 {'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Thisform'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'surprise', 'interest', 'elements'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'activated'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'textincluding'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'relevance', 'novelty'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'personal'}} Medium High Low
123 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Whentriggered, situational interest has been referred to as text- based interest (Hidi & Baird, 1986) 15 4 {'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Whentriggered'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'based', 'situational'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interest'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'referred'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to'}, 'dep': {'text-'}, 'pobj': {'interest'}, 'conj': {'Baird', 'Hidi'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'1986'}} Medium High Low
124 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Both individual and situational interest have been found to effect learning from text (Hidi, 1990; Schiefele, 2001), reflected in a variety of text-based outcome measures,including text recall and retention, comprehension, andinferencing 31 10 {'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 1} [PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB] {'preconj': {'Both'}, 'nsubjpass': {'individual'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'based', 'situational'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'retention', 'comprehension'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'xcomp': {'effect'}, 'dobj': {'learning'}, 'prep': {'of', 'including', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'variety', 'measures', 'recall', 'text'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'Hidi', '2001'}, 'npadvmod': {'1990', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'Schiefele'}, 'advcl': {'reflected', 'andinferencing'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'outcome', 'text'}} Long High Low
125 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Ainley, Hidi, and Berndorff (2002) proposedthat interest influenced performance as mediated bystudents’ affect (i.e., emotional self-ratings) and increasedpersistence (i.e., reading time) during task completion 24 4 {'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 12, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'X': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nmod': {'Ainley'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'conj': {'Berndorff', 'increasedpersistence', 'Hidi'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'2002'}, 'compound': {'task', 'self', 'proposedthat'}, 'nsubj': {'interest', 'bystudents'}, 'amod': {'influenced', 'emotional', 'mediated'}, 'ROOT': {'performance'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'affect'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'dobj': {'ratings', 'time'}, 'acl': {'reading'}, 'prep': {'during'}, 'pobj': {'completion'}} Long High Medium
126 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Fur-ther, interest has been related to measures of text processing including deep-level versus surface-level strategy use (Scheifele, 1996, 2001), the integration of information intext with prior knowledge (Hidi, 1990; Kintsch, 1988;Schiefele & Krapp, 1996), and elaboration, allowing stu-dents to construct richer mental models of informationrelayed in text.COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE ENGAGEMENT MODEL 183 51 11 {'PROPN': 11, 'PUNCT': 19, 'NOUN': 16, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 6, 'NUM': 5, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NUM] {'compound': {'ENGAGEMENT', 'COGNITIVE', 'Fur', 'level', 'AFFECTIVE', 'stu', 'surface', 'text', 'strategy'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'npadvmod': {'1990', 'ther', '1996'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interest'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'MODEL', 'related'}, 'prep': {'including', 'versus', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'measures', 'informationrelayed', 'information', 'knowledge', 'use', 'text', 'level'}, 'amod': {'intext', 'richer', 'mental', 'deep', 'prior'}, 'appos': {'integration', 'Kintsch', '1996', 'Hidi', 'Scheifele', '2001'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'elaboration', 'Krapp', '1988;Schiefele'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'acl': {'allowing'}, 'nsubj': {'dents'}, 'ccomp': {'construct'}, 'dobj': {'models'}, 'nummod': {'183'}} Long High Low
127 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Indeed, interest and other motivational factors have been found to exert an “independent and differentiated” effect ontext processing, relative to prior knowledge and other cog-nitive factors (Schiefle, 2009;p 28 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM] {'advmod': {'Indeed'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interest'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'independent', 'nitive', 'other', 'motivational', 'prior'}, 'conj': {'differentiated', 'factors'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'xcomp': {'exert'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'dobj': {'effect'}, 'compound': {'ontext'}, 'appos': {'processing', 'Schiefle'}, 'advcl': {'relative'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'npadvmod': {'cog', '2009;p'}} Long High Low
128 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In addition to inter-est, another learner characteristic, students’ attitudes , has been found to play both a motivational and cognitive rolein text processing 23 9 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'students', 'to', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'-', 'est', 'addition', 'inter', 'attitudes'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'det': {'another', 'a'}, 'amod': {'motivational', 'characteristic', 'learner'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'xcomp': {'play'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'text', 'rolein'}, 'dobj': {'processing'}} Long High Low
129 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Attitudes have been defined as students’general judgments or evaluations of a specific topic or issue (Petty & Brinol, 2010) 19 7 {'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Attitudes'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'students’general'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'judgments'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Brinol', 'issue', 'evaluations'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'specific'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Petty'}, 'npadvmod': {'2010'}} Medium High Low
130 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use A number of studies have examined the impact of atti- tudes on text processing and performance 16 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'number'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'processing', 'tudes'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'dobj': {'impact'}, 'compound': {'atti-', 'text'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance'}} Medium High Low
131 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Generally, stu-dents holding strong attitudes about an issue have beenfound to process information in a way that supports themaintenance of these existing attitudes and a resistance toattitude change (Kardash & Scholes, 1996; Mason &Boscolo, 2004; Taber & Lodge, 2006) 39 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Generally'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'stu', 'strong'}, 'nsubj': {'dents', 'that'}, 'acl': {'holding'}, 'dobj': {'Mason', 'attitudes', 'themaintenance', 'information'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'attitudes', 'issue', 'way'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'beenfound'}, 'xcomp': {'process'}, 'relcl': {'supports'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'compound': {'resistance', 'toattitude'}, 'conj': {'Boscolo', 'change', 'Taber', 'Lodge', 'Scholes'}, 'appos': {'2004', '1996', 'Kardash', '2006'}} Long High Low
132 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In a classic study, Lord, Ross, and Lepper (1979) found that when students holding strong attitudes about a social issue (i.e., death pen-alty) were presented with both attitude-consistent and atti-tude-inconsistent texts, they processed those textsdifferently 35 13 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 13, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADV] {'prep': {'about', 'In', 'with'}, 'det': {'a', 'both'}, 'amod': {'social', 'consistent', 'classic', 'strong'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'study', 'texts'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'Lord'}, 'conj': {'Lepper', 'atti', 'Ross', 'inconsistent'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'1979', 'alty'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'when', 'textsdifferently'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'acl': {'holding'}, 'dobj': {'attitudes', 'those'}, 'compound': {'tude', 'death', 'pen'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advcl': {'presented'}, 'npadvmod': {'attitude'}, 'ccomp': {'processed'}} Long High High
133 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Specifically, information and evidence consis-tent with students’ attitudes were processed at the surfacelevel, without further evaluation, whereas evidence contra-dictory to students’ views was scrutinized 24 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'dictory', 'contra', 'information'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'evidence', 'tent'}, 'amod': {'further', 'consis'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'at', 'without'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'views', 'surfacelevel', 'attitudes', 'evaluation'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'ROOT': {'processed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'compound': {'evidence'}, 'advcl': {'scrutinized'}} Long High Medium
134 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Moreover, students have been found to rate attitude consistent information and arguments as moreconvincing, plausible , and quality , as compared to attitude inconsistent information (de Pereyra, Britt, Braasch, &Rouet, 2014; Lord et al., 1979; Munro & Ditto, 1997;Wolfe & Kurby, 2016; Wolfe, Kurby, & Taylor, 2011).Elsewhere, students have been found to simply ignore information deemed to be attitude inconsistent, while pref- erentially selecting and attending to attitude consistentinformation (Nickerson, 1998) 71 17 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 23, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 11, 'PART': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 7, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 16, 'NUM': 5} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'simply', 'Moreover', 'erentially'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students', 'Munro', 'Lord'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ccomp': {'found'}, 'xcomp': {'attitude', 'ignore', 'rate', 'be'}, 'nmod': {'de', 'attitude'}, 'amod': {'consistent', 'inconsistent'}, 'dobj': {'consistentinformation', 'information'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Kurby', 'Britt', 'Rouet', 'Ditto', 'Taylor', '1997;Wolfe', 'attending', 'plausible', 'quality', 'Braasch', 'arguments'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'pcomp': {'moreconvincing'}, 'mark': {'as', 'while'}, 'advcl': {'selecting', 'compared'}, 'appos': {'2014', '1979', 'Nickerson', 'al', '.', 'Pereyra', 'Wolfe', '2011).Elsewhere', '2016'}, 'compound': {'et'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'acl': {'deemed'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998', 'attitude'}, 'acomp': {'inconsistent'}, 'nsubj': {'pref-'}} Long High High
135 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students engaging in thiskind of information use have been described as evidencingaconformation bias or as engaging in case building or motivated text processing , with the goal of attitude mainte- nance or attitude defense (Taber & Lodge, 2006) 38 13 {'NOUN': 15, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Students'}, 'acl': {'engaging'}, 'prep': {'with', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'goal', 'use', 'nance', 'thiskind', 'bias'}, 'compound': {'information', 'evidencingaconformation', 'attitude', 'text', 'case'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'defense', 'as', 'Lodge'}, 'pcomp': {'engaging'}, 'amod': {'motivated'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'attitude'}, 'nummod': {'mainte-'}, 'appos': {'Taber'}, 'npadvmod': {'2006'}} Long High Low
136 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Although few models have emerged to comprehensively specify the mechanisms whereby attitudes may affect text processing, their role has been identified in students’ selec-tion of information sources (Brannon, Tagler, & Eagly,2007; van Strien, Brand-Gruwel, & Boshuizen, 2014),selective attention allocation during reading (Graf & Aday,2008; Maier & Richter, 2013; Wiley, 2005), and text evalu-ation (de Pereyra et al., 2014; Edwards & Smith, 1996;Lord et al., 1979; Taber & Lodge, 2006) 69 14 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 15, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 27, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 26, 'CCONJ': 7, 'NUM': 6, 'X': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, X, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, ...] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'amod': {'few'}, 'nsubj': {'models', 'role', 'attitudes'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'has', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'emerged'}, 'advmod': {'comprehensively', 'whereby'}, 'xcomp': {'specify'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'processing', 'mechanisms', 'Graf'}, 'relcl': {'affect'}, 'compound': {'information', 'Brand', 'evalu', 'selec', 'attention', 'van', 'text'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'acomp': {'identified'}, 'prep': {'during', 'of', 'in'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'tion'}, 'appos': {'2014', '1979', '2013', 'Brannon', 'allocation', 'Pereyra', '2005'}, 'conj': {'Wiley', 'Tagler', '.', 'Strien', 'ation', '1996;Lord', 'Gruwel', 'Lodge', 'Eagly,2007', 'Smith', 'Maier', 'Aday,2008', 'Richter', 'Edwards', 'Boshuizen'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'nummod': {'2014),selective'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'nmod': {'de'}, 'npadvmod': {'Taber', 'al', '2006', 'et'}, 'attr': {'.'}} Long High High
137 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The role of interest and attitudes has most commonly been explored in studies of single text processing 17 8 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubjpass': {'role'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'processing', 'interest'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'attitudes'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'advmod': {'most', 'commonly'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'explored'}, 'amod': {'single'}, 'compound': {'text'}} Medium High Low
138 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Limitedwork has considered the part these motivational factorsmay play in multiple text use 13 5 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'factorsmay', 'Limitedwork'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'part'}, 'amod': {'motivational', 'multiple'}, 'relcl': {'play'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'pobj': {'use'}} Medium High Low
139 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Yet there is reason to believethat these “warm” characteristics are quite important whenstudents engage with multiple texts 17 8 {'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [CCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'Yet'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'engage', 'reason'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'believethat', 'texts'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'punct': {'”', '“'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'warm', 'important'}, 'nsubj': {'characteristics', 'whenstudents'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'quite'}} Medium High Low
140 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Consistent with the lit-erature that has variably used the term engagement to referto students’ affective or emotional, cognitive, or behavioral involvement in learning (Connell, 1990; Corno & Mandi-nach, 1983; Greene & Miller, 1996; Guthrie et al., 1996;Ryan, 2000; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), engagement isused here as an umbrella term to describe learners’ affec-tive, cognitive, and behavioral involvement in multiple textuse 60 16 {'ADJ': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 21, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PROPN': 14, 'NUM': 5, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Consistent', 'describe', 'referto'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'umbrella', 'lit', 'Mandi', 'term'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'pobj': {'erature', 'textuse', 'term'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'engagement'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'here', 'variably'}, 'relcl': {'used'}, 'dobj': {'involvement', 'affective', 'engagement'}, 'poss': {'students', 'learners'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'Belmont', 'Skinner', 'nach', 'emotional', 'behavioral', 'Miller', 'Greene', 'cognitive'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'npadvmod': {'1990', 'Connell'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '1996;Ryan', 'et', '2000', '1996', 'Corno', '1993', '1983'}, 'nmod': {'affec', 'Guthrie', 'tive'}, 'ROOT': {'isused'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'cognitive'}} Long High Medium
141 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use As an example, interest may serve as a much-neededresource for sustaining students’ attention during multiple text task completion and for supporting the expenditure of cognitive effort (Bra /C14ten & Str ømsø, 2006) 32 12 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'As', 'during', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'completion', 'effort', 'neededresource', 'example'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'interest'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'serve'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'much', 'cognitive'}, 'pcomp': {'sustaining', 'supporting'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'attention', '/C14ten', 'expenditure'}, 'compound': {'task', 'Bra', 'text'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'for', 'ømsø', 'Str'}, 'npadvmod': {'2006'}} Long High Low
142 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Likewise, atti- tudes may play a prominent role in determining the textsthat students elect to access and therefore process when pre-sented with the wealth of information inherent in multipletext use (Maier & Richter, 2014) 34 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'therefore', 'when', 'Likewise'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'atti-', 'textsthat', 'multipletext'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'tudes'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'play'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'prominent', 'inherent'}, 'dobj': {'role'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'determining'}, 'ccomp': {'elect'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'access', 'wealth', 'information'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Richter', 'process'}, 'advcl': {'pre', '-', 'sented'}, 'appos': {'Maier'}, 'npadvmod': {'2014'}} Long High Medium
143 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use INTEGRATING COLD AND WARM PERSPECTIVES WITHIN MULTIPLE TEXT USE Strictly cognitive (i.e., cold) approaches to multiple text use have been limited in examining the affective and motiva-tional factors impacting text engagement, and work oninterest and attitudes (i.e., warm factors) has been appliedto multiple text processing only to a limited extent 50 15 {'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 13, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'X': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'DET': 2} [VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'INTEGRATING'}, 'amod': {'warm', '-', 'affective', 'COLD', 'limited', 'tional', 'appliedto', 'MULTIPLE', 'multiple', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and', 'AND'}, 'conj': {'attitudes', 'been', 'WARM', 'motiva'}, 'dobj': {'engagement', 'PERSPECTIVES', 'factors'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'WITHIN'}, 'compound': {'TEXT', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'extent', 'USE', 'use'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'i.e.', 'oninterest', 'Strictly'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'parataxis': {'cold'}, 'nsubjpass': {'approaches'}, 'aux': {'has', 'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'limited'}, 'pcomp': {'examining'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'acl': {'impacting'}, 'nsubj': {'work'}, 'appos': {'factors'}, 'attr': {'processing'}} Long High Low
144 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Never-theless, cold andwarm perspectives on multiple text use have been cojoined to some degree 14 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Never'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'npadvmod': {'theless'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'cold'}, 'compound': {'andwarm', 'text'}, 'nsubjpass': {'perspectives'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'degree'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'cojoined'}, 'det': {'some'}} Medium High Low
145 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Interest, for one, has been modeled alongside cognitive factors in studies of multiple text use 15 6 {'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Interest'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'for', 'alongside', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'one', 'use', 'factors'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'modeled'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'text'}} Medium High Low
146 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Str ømsø,Br a /C14ten, and Britt (2010) found that interest and two cognitive factors(i.e., prior knowledge and memory for source information)positively predicted students’ performance on an intertextintegration task 28 9 {'NOUN': 10, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Str'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'interest', 'ømsø', '/C14ten'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'intertextintegration', 'Br'}, 'dep': {'a'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'Britt', 'knowledge'}, 'appos': {'.', '2010'}, 'conj': {'factors(i.e', 'found', 'predicted', 'memory'}, 'det': {'an', 'that'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'cognitive'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'source'}, 'advmod': {'information)positively'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Medium
147 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Bra /C14ten, Anmarkrud, Brandomo, and Strømsø(2014) modeled the effects of situational and indi- vidual interest on multiple text comprehension, along with cognitive factors (i.e., prior knowledge, need for cognition,effort expended, and reported deep strategy use) 35 9 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 11, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'X': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'npadvmod': {'Bra'}, 'nsubj': {'effort', '/C14ten'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nmod': {'Anmarkrud'}, 'conj': {'Strømsø(2014', 'indi-', 'Brandomo', 'reported'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'modeled'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'use'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'along'}, 'amod': {'vidual', 'deep', 'situational', 'multiple', 'prior', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'factors', 'interest', 'cognition', 'comprehension'}, 'compound': {'strategy', 'text'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}, 'advcl': {'need'}, 'ccomp': {'expended'}} Long High Low
148 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use (2014) found that although individual interest affected situational interest, neither had a directeffect on multiple text comprehension 17 6 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2014', 'interest', 'neither'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'although', 'that'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'multiple', 'situational'}, 'advcl': {'affected'}, 'dobj': {'directeffect', 'interest'}, 'ccomp': {'had'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'pobj': {'comprehension'}} Medium High High
149 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use However, situationalinterest did have a strong effect on reported strategy use, andstrategy use, in turn, affected comprehension 17 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'situationalinterest'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'affected', 'strong', 'reported'}, 'dobj': {'effect'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'compound': {'strategy', 'andstrategy'}, 'pobj': {'turn', 'use'}, 'appos': {'use', 'comprehension'}} Medium High Low
150 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Also, individ- ual interest had an effect on effort expended, which affected multiple text comprehension 15 5 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, X, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Also'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nmod': {'individ-'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'ual'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'interest'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'dobj': {'effect', 'comprehension'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'effort'}, 'acl': {'expended'}, 'relcl': {'affected'}, 'compound': {'text'}} Medium High Low
151 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use (2014) suggested a distinct role for both cognitive and motivationalfactors in multiple text processing, more work is needed tomore precisely characterize these effects 23 8 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2014'}, 'ccomp': {'suggested'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'distinct', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'role'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'motivationalfactors'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'nsubjpass': {'work'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'advmod': {'precisely', 'tomore'}, 'advcl': {'characterize'}} Long High Low
152 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For the most part, attitudes have been examined in con- junction with cognitive factors in studies of single text proc- essing 21 10 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'proc-', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'For'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'single', 'most', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'part', 'factors', 'text', 'junction'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'attitudes'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'compound': {'con-'}, 'acl': {'essing'}} Long High Low
153 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For instance, Kardash and Scholes (1996) found both attitudinal valence (i.e., strength) and students’ need for cog- nition to independently predict performance 22 6 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'nition', 'instance'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'valence', 'Kardash'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'students', 'Scholes'}, 'appos': {'1996', 'strength'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'det': {'both'}, 'amod': {'attitudinal', 'cog-'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'independently'}, 'ccomp': {'need'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'predict'}, 'dobj': {'performance'}} Long High Low
154 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Specifically,attitudinal strength was associ ated with students maintaining or arriving at an attitude-biased conclusion after text engage- ment 18 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'X': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PROPN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, X, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'attitudinal', 'biased'}, 'nsubj': {'strength'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'associ'}, 'acl': {'maintaining', 'ated'}, 'prep': {'after', 'with', 'at'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'ment', 'conclusion'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'arriving'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'npadvmod': {'attitude'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'case': {'engage-'}} Medium High Low
155 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use However, for students exhibiting a high need for cog-nition (i.e., those reporting a willingness to exert cognitive184 LIST AND ALEXANDER 20 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '('}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'nition'}, 'acl': {'exhibiting', 'exert', 'reporting'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'high'}, 'dobj': {'LIST', 'willingness', 'need'}, 'compound': {'cog', 'cognitive184'}, 'pcomp': {'i.e.'}, 'ROOT': {'those'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'cc': {'AND'}, 'conj': {'ALEXANDER'}} Long High Low
156 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use effort to solve complex problems), attitudinal effects on text processing were mitigated ( Kardash & Scholes, 1996) 17 3 {'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'dep': {'effort'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'solve'}, 'amod': {'attitudinal', 'complex'}, 'dobj': {'problems'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'effects'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'pobj': {'processing'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'mitigated'}, 'npadvmod': {'1996', 'Kardash'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Scholes'}} Medium High Low
157 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use At the same time, students with a low need for cognition werestrongly guided by their attitude s, dismissing or ignoring atti- tude inconsistent information 24 9 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'At', 'for', 'with'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'same', 'low', 'inconsistent'}, 'pobj': {'s', 'cognition', 'time', 'need'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'students'}, 'advmod': {'werestrongly'}, 'acl': {'guided'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'attitude'}, 'pcomp': {'dismissing'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'ignoring'}, 'nmod': {'atti-', 'tude'}, 'dobj': {'information'}} Long High Low
158 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use These findings suggest a corre- spondence between moti vational and cogniti ve factors that is potentially reciprocal, whereby motivational factors serve tocompensate for limitations in students’ cognitive capacities to process texts and vice versa 34 11 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, ADJ, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADV] {'det': {'a', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'factors', 'that', 'findings'}, 'ROOT': {'suggest'}, 'amod': {'motivational', 'corre-', 'vational', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'spondence', 'tocompensate', 'texts', 'factors'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'moti', 'limitations', 'capacities'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'cogniti'}, 'ccomp': {'ve'}, 'relcl': {'is', 'serve'}, 'advmod': {'potentially', 'whereby', 'versa'}, 'acomp': {'reciprocal'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'process'}, 'compound': {'vice'}} Long High Medium
159 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Elsewhere, a compensatory and reciprocal relation between cognitive and affective fac-tors has been identified (e.g., Maier & Richter, 2014; Wiley,2005; Wolfe, Tanner, & Taylor, 2013) 25 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 11, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Elsewhere', 'e.g.'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'compensatory', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'affective', 'Taylor', 'Wiley,2005', 'reciprocal', 'Wolfe', 'Richter', 'Tanner'}, 'nsubjpass': {'relation'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'compound': {'fac'}, 'pobj': {'tors'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'npadvmod': {'Maier'}, 'appos': {'2014', '2013'}} Long High Low
160 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The n, we introduce each of the four CAEM default stance profiles and discuss how these may be distinguished from one another 22 14 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, DET] {'det': {'another', 'The', 'the'}, 'dep': {'n'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'introduce'}, 'dobj': {'each'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'compound': {'default', 'CAEM', 'stance'}, 'pobj': {'profiles', 'one'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'discuss'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubjpass': {'these'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'distinguished'}} Long High Medium
161 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Third, we discuss how CAEM profiles may be expected to differwith regard to common multiple text use behaviors(e.g., text selection, evaluation) and performance out-comes (e.g., recall, integration) 27 9 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Third', 'e.g.', 'how'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'discuss'}, 'compound': {'CAEM', 'text'}, 'nsubjpass': {'profiles'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'expected'}, 'xcomp': {'differwith'}, 'dobj': {'comes', 'regard'}, 'prep': {'behaviors(e.g', 'to'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'common'}, 'pobj': {'use'}, 'npadvmod': {'selection', 'integration'}, 'appos': {'evaluation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'parataxis': {'recall'}} Long High Medium
162 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use After the CAEM isintroduced, we specifically delineate the scope of thismodel and discuss advantages of the CAEM relative toother models of multiple text use 24 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'After'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'isintroduced'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'specifically'}, 'ROOT': {'delineate'}, 'dobj': {'advantages', 'scope'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'use', 'thismodel'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'discuss'}, 'nmod': {'CAEM'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'relative'}, 'compound': {'toother', 'text'}} Long High Medium
163 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The article closes with a discussion of CAEM limitations and directions for future research 14 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'article'}, 'ROOT': {'closes'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'discussion', 'research', 'limitations'}, 'compound': {'CAEM'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'directions'}, 'amod': {'future'}} Medium High Low
164 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE ENGAGEMENT MODEL OF MULTIPLE SOURCE USE Like cognitivist models of multiple text use (Rouet, 2006; Rouet & Britt, 2011), the CAEM examines processing initi- ated by a task assigned to or self-developed by students 36 8 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'PROPN': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 4} [ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'amod': {'COGNITIVE', 'multiple', 'MULTIPLE'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'ENGAGEMENT', 'cognitivist', 'AFFECTIVE', 'SOURCE', 'text'}, 'dep': {'MODEL'}, 'prep': {'to', 'OF', 'of', 'Like'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'students', 'task', 'use', 'USE'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'Rouet', '2011'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', '2006'}, 'conj': {'Rouet', 'developed', 'Britt'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM'}, 'ROOT': {'examines'}, 'dobj': {'initi-'}, 'acl': {'assigned', 'ated'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
165 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The term task is used, here, in its most general form, to encompass both the specific academic assignments that stu-dents may receive and students’ general desires to learnabout a particular topic or issue.Every task, assigned or self-developed, may be defined by two factors: topic and expected cognitive product 48 23 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 15, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 8, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'Every', 'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'stu', 'term'}, 'nsubjpass': {'task'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'ROOT': {'defined', 'used'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.', ':'}, 'advmod': {'here', 'most'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'amod': {'general', 'expected', 'particular', 'academic', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'form', 'factors'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'encompass'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'nmod': {'specific'}, 'dobj': {'assignments', 'topic', 'desires'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'dents'}, 'relcl': {'receive', 'learnabout'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'students', 'developed', 'issue', 'product'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'acl': {'assigned'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'appos': {'topic'}} Long High Medium
166 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Atask’s topic refers to the subject areas or domains and sub- domains within which it is nested 17 9 {'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, PART, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'poss': {'Atask'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'topic'}, 'ROOT': {'refers'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'subject', 'sub-'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'areas'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'domains'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'nested'}} Medium High Low
167 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use A task’s cognitive prod- uctrefers to the information gains or learning outcome(s) that students expect to result from text access 20 8 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'nmod': {'task'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'prod-', 'cognitive'}, 'ROOT': {'uctrefers'}, 'prep': {'to', 'from'}, 'compound': {'text', 'information'}, 'pobj': {'access', 'gains'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'acl': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'outcome(s'}, 'punct': {')'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'relcl': {'expect'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'result'}} Long High Low
168 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use These mayinclude both general (e.g., knowing more, forming an argu-ment) and more specific (e.g., defining a term, identifying an example) text use outcomes (List et al., 2016b) 27 8 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 12, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'These'}, 'ROOT': {'mayinclude'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'amod': {'more', 'general'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'more'}, 'advcl': {'forming', 'knowing'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'compound': {'argu', 'use', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'example', 'outcomes', 'ment', 'term'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'defining', 'specific', '.', 'identifying'}, 'appos': {'List'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '2016b', 'et'}} Long High Low
169 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The way that cognitive products are defined in the CAEMallows these to emerge in response to both externallyassigned tasks and to students’ personal interests or motiva-tions to learn about particular topics 31 15 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PRON, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'both', 'The', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'way'}, 'advmod': {'that'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'externallyassigned', 'personal', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubjpass': {'products'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'defined', 'learn'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'CAEMallows', 'response', 'students', 'tasks', 'these', 'topics'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'emerge'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'-', 'to', 'motiva'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'compound': {'interests'}, 'appos': {'tions'}} Long High Low
170 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Once students define atask in terms of its topic and expected cognitive products,the task is further conceptualized in light of learners’ affec-tive and motivational inclinations (i.e., interest and atti- tudes), as well as their prior knowledge 36 16 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'X': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Once'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'advcl': {'define'}, 'dobj': {'atask'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'inclinations', 'light', 'terms'}, 'poss': {'its', 'learners', 'their'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'expected', 'cognitive'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'knowledge', 'tudes', 'products'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'task'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'further', 'i.e.', 'well', 'as'}, 'ROOT': {'conceptualized'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nmod': {'affec', 'tive'}, 'appos': {'interest'}, 'compound': {'atti-'}} Long High Medium
171 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use This results in students adopting a default stance toward task completion, or a motivational and cognitive orientation toward the task.Students’ default stance informs text engagement andguides the multiple source use behaviors they manifest.This process is depicted in Figure 1 39 14 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 17, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NUM] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'depicted', 'results', 'andguides'}, 'prep': {'toward', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'Figure', 'completion', 'task'}, 'acl': {'adopting'}, 'compound': {'default', 'stance', 'task', 'use', 'source', 'informs', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'behaviors'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'amod': {'motivational', 'multiple'}, 'conj': {'orientation', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'Students', 'they', 'engagement'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'relcl': {'manifest'}, 'nsubjpass': {'process'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Long High Low
172 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Two CAEM Dimensions According to the CAEM, students may adopt one of four default stance profiles when engaged in multiple text com-prehension 22 9 {'NUM': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NUM, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nummod': {'four', 'Two'}, 'compound': {'default', 'stance', 'text', 'CAEM', 'com'}, 'nsubj': {'Dimensions', 'students'}, 'prep': {'to', 'According', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'profiles', 'CAEM', 'prehension'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'adopt'}, 'dobj': {'one'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'engaged'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}} Long High Medium
173 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use These profiles are defined by two dimensions:affective engagement andbehavioral dispositions toward text evaluation and information verification 16 6 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'These'}, 'nsubjpass': {'profiles'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pobj': {'dimensions', 'evaluation'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'compound': {'information', 'text', 'affective', 'engagement'}, 'amod': {'andbehavioral'}, 'appos': {'dispositions'}, 'prep': {'toward'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'verification'}} Medium High Low
174 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The affectiveengagement dimension of multiple text access reflects thedegree of students’ motivation for task completion 15 4 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'compound': {'affectiveengagement', 'task', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'dimension'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'pobj': {'completion', 'access', 'motivation'}, 'ROOT': {'reflects'}, 'dobj': {'thedegree'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Medium High Low
175 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Withinthe CAEM, this motivation is attributable primarily to students’ interest in and attitudes toward a particular topic or task but may also reflect other motivational constructs,like students’ efficacy beliefs and task value 32 13 {'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'VERB': 1} [DET, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'Withinthe', 'this'}, 'dep': {'CAEM'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'motivation'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'attributable'}, 'advmod': {'primarily', 'also'}, 'prep': {'like', 'toward', 'to', 'in'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'interest', 'beliefs'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'conj': {'task', 'attitudes', 'value', 'reflect'}, 'amod': {'other', 'particular', 'motivational'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'dobj': {'constructs'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'compound': {'task', 'efficacy'}} Long High Low
176 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The behav-ioral dispositions dimension captures the extent to whichstudents have mastered the skills necessary to evaluate FIGURE 1 Sequence of the cognitive affective engagement model of multiple source use.COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE ENGAGEMENT MODEL 185 33 9 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, PART, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NUM] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'necessary', 'behav', 'ioral', 'multiple', 'cognitive'}, 'punct': {'-', '.'}, 'compound': {'ENGAGEMENT', 'COGNITIVE', 'dispositions', 'affective', 'AFFECTIVE', 'engagement', 'source'}, 'nsubj': {'dimension'}, 'csubj': {'captures'}, 'dobj': {'extent', 'skills', 'Sequence'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'model', 'whichstudents'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'MODEL', 'mastered'}, 'xcomp': {'evaluate'}, 'nmod': {'FIGURE'}, 'nummod': {'185', '1'}} Long High Low
177 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Moreover, this dimension captures the extent towhich these skills are habituated or commonly engaged bylearners 15 6 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'commonly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'dimension'}, 'ROOT': {'captures'}, 'dobj': {'extent', 'towhich', 'bylearners'}, 'nsubjpass': {'skills'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'habituated'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'engaged'}} Medium High Low
178 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use These two dimensions were identified by reviewing the literature on both multi ple source use and single text processing 19 8 {'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'both', 'the', 'These'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubj': {'dimensions'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'identified'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on'}, 'pcomp': {'reviewing'}, 'dobj': {'literature'}, 'compound': {'multi', 'source', 'ple', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'use'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'single'}, 'punct': {'processing'}} Medium High Low
179 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In considering this literature, our goal wasto locate those factors that seemed to make a difference in students’ multiple text processing and performance 23 11 {'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'considering'}, 'det': {'a', 'those', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'difference', 'literature', 'factors'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'goal', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'wasto', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'locate'}, 'relcl': {'seemed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}, 'pobj': {'students'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'appos': {'processing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance'}} Long High Low
180 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The multiple text literature has identified a host ofexternal or task-related factors impacting processing(e.g., task type: Wiley & Voss, 1999; note taking:Kobayashi, 2009; modality of text presentation: Britt & Aglinskas, 2002) 31 5 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'ADP': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'related'}, 'compound': {'host', 'note', 'task', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'literature'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'dobj': {'processing(e.g', 'ofexternal'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'task', 'Kobayashi', 'type'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ':', ')', ',', ';'}, 'conj': {'Britt', 'Voss', 'Aglinskas', 'factors'}, 'acl': {'impacting'}, 'appos': {'modality', '2009', '1999', 'Wiley', '2002'}, 'advcl': {'taking'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'presentation'}} Long High Low
181 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use At the same time, we were specifi-cally interested in determining the student-level or indi-vidual difference factors that make a difference in multiple text processing 24 12 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'At', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'same'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'time'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'specifi-cally'}, 'acomp': {'interested'}, 'pcomp': {'determining'}, 'nmod': {'level', 'student'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'vidual', 'indi'}, 'compound': {'difference', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'difference', 'factors'}, 'relcl': {'make'}} Long High Low
182 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Consistent with this goal, Goldman, Braasch, Wiley, Graesser, and Brodowinska(2012) and Wiley et al.’s (2009) extreme cases analysisfound that differences in stu dents’ learning from a mul- tiple text task were primarily attributable to differencesin their source evaluation, such as their selection of reli-able sources of information over unreliable texts.Indeed, the importance of source evaluation for multiple text integration has been emphasized throughout much of the literature (Braasch,R ouet, Vibert, & Britt, 2012; Britt & Aglinskas, 2002; Stadtler & Bromme, 2014) andis reflected in the CAEM through the behavioral disposi-tions dimension 91 32 {'ADJ': 12, 'ADP': 13, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 23, 'PUNCT': 24, 'PROPN': 17, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PART': 2, 'NUM': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 2} [ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, X, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ...] {'ROOT': {'Consistent', 'analysisfound', 'andis'}, 'prep': {'through', 'from', 'for', 'throughout', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'over'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'integration', 'texts', 'goal', 'much', 'literature', 'information', 'task', 'learning', 'mul-', 'evaluation', 'selection', 'CAEM', 'dimension'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', '.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'Goldman', '.', '2012', 'et', 'ouet', '2002'}, 'conj': {'Britt', 'al', 'Bromme', 'Brodowinska(2012', 'Vibert', 'Aglinskas', 'Stadtler', 'Braasch', 'Wiley', 'Graesser'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nummod': {'2009'}, 'amod': {'tiple', 'extreme', 'stu', 'behavioral', 'such', 'unreliable', 'able', 'multiple'}, 'nsubj': {'cases', 'Britt', 'differences'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'dents', 'their'}, 'compound': {'disposi', 'R', 'tions', 'source', 'text'}, 'ccomp': {'emphasized', 'were'}, 'advmod': {'Indeed', 'primarily'}, 'acomp': {'attributable'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'reflected', 'differencesin'}, 'dobj': {'evaluation'}, 'npadvmod': {'reli'}, 'nsubjpass': {'importance'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'nmod': {'Braasch'}} Long High Medium
183 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The affective engagement dimension emerged from an examination of factors considered to be key to students’single text processing 18 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'The'}, 'compound': {'text', 'affective', 'engagement'}, 'nsubj': {'dimension'}, 'ROOT': {'emerged'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'examination', 'processing', 'factors'}, 'acl': {'considered'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'key'}, 'amod': {'students’single'}} Medium High Low
184 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Models of single text comprehension have long focused on motivation, alongside cognitive fac- tors, as impacting reading (Kintsch, 1980; Wigfield &Guthrie, 2000) 22 4 {'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Models'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'alongside', 'of'}, 'amod': {'single', 'impacting', 'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'fac-', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'tors', 'motivation', 'comprehension'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'long'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Kintsch', '1980'}, 'conj': {'Wigfield', 'Guthrie'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'appos': {'2000'}} Long High Low
185 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Indeed, motivation (i.e., interest) has beenfound to be associated with both behavioral (e.g., persis-tence) and cognitive (e.g., depth of text processing; Ainleyet al., 2002; Alexander et al., 1994; Fulmer & Frijters,2011; Schiefele, 1999) aspects of text processing 37 9 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 18, 'NOUN': 10, 'X': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 10, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'i.e.', 'e.g.'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'motivation'}, 'appos': {'1999', 'interest', '1994', 'tence', '2002'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'aspects', 'beenfound'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'associated'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'behavioral'}, 'compound': {'Ainleyet', 'et', 'persis', 'text', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'nmod': {'al', 'cognitive'}, 'conj': {'Schiefele', 'Frijters,2011', 'depth'}, 'npadvmod': {'al'}, 'poss': {'Fulmer'}} Long High Low
186 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In theCAEM, learners’ motivation for task completion is cap- tured by the affective engagement dimension 15 5 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'X': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, X, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'In'}, 'nmod': {'learners', 'theCAEM'}, 'punct': {','}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'motivation'}, 'compound': {'task', 'affective', 'engagement'}, 'pobj': {'completion', 'dimension'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'dep': {'cap-'}, 'ROOT': {'tured'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
187 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Although motivational constructs have been conceptualized as multi-dimensional in nature, including affective, cognitive, andbehavioral components (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990), theterm affective engagement is used in the CAEM to specifi- cally emphasize the affective or emotionally reactiveaspects of motivation 39 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, X, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'amod': {'andbehavioral', '-', 'affective', 'dimensional', 'motivational', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubjpass': {'constructs', 'engagement'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'been'}, 'advcl': {'conceptualized'}, 'prep': {'as', 'including', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'multi', 'affective', 'motivation', 'CAEM', 'nature'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'emotionally', 'components', 'Groot', 'Pintrich'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'compound': {'De', 'theterm', 'affective'}, 'npadvmod': {'1990'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'xcomp': {'specifi-'}, 'advmod': {'cally'}, 'dep': {'emphasize'}, 'dobj': {'reactiveaspects'}} Long High Medium
188 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use At the same time, the CAEM alsocaptures these other aspects of motivation, including goals and values, albeit to a less explicit extent 22 11 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'including', 'At', 'to', 'albeit', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'other', 'same', 'explicit'}, 'pobj': {'goals', 'extent', 'time', 'motivation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM'}, 'ROOT': {'alsocaptures'}, 'dobj': {'aspects'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'values'}, 'advmod': {'less'}} Long High Medium
189 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Default Stances According to the CAEM, students may assume one of four default stance profiles: (a) disengaged, (b) affectivelyengaged, (c) evaluative, or (d) critical analytic defaultstances 26 8 {'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 13, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'X': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NUM, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'default', 'Default', 'stance'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'Stances'}, 'prep': {'to', 'According', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'profiles', 'CAEM'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', ')'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'assume'}, 'dobj': {'one', 'defaultstances'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'meta': {'a', 'c'}, 'nmod': {'disengaged'}, 'dep': {'b'}, 'acl': {'affectivelyengaged'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'analytic', 'evaluative'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'d'}} Long High Low
190 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use These profiles reflect the degree of students’ affec- tive engagement with a particular task and topic andstudents’ habits with regard to source evaluation and infor-mation verification 26 9 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'profiles'}, 'ROOT': {'reflect'}, 'dobj': {'degree', 'verification'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'habits', 'regard', 'evaluation'}, 'punct': {'’', '-'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'affec-'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'infor', 'source', 'tive'}, 'appos': {'engagement'}, 'nmod': {'task'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'andstudents', 'mation'}} Long High Low
191 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The term default stance is used here to indicate a predisposition toward, generally,approaching multiple text tasks in a particular way (e.g.,evaluating source information), based on prior experience with such tasks 30 12 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 4} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'compound': {'default', 'source', 'term', 'text'}, 'nsubjpass': {'stance'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'here', 'generally'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'indicate'}, 'dobj': {'predisposition', 'tasks'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'based', 'with', 'toward'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ',evaluating', ')'}, 'advcl': {'approaching'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'multiple', 'prior', 'such'}, 'pobj': {'tasks', 'experience', 'way'}, 'appos': {'information'}} Long High Low
192 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use At the same time, we recognize that certain task factors (e.g., explicitly cuing evaluation) or topics(e.g., of high individual interest) may elicit the adoption ofcertain default stance profiles over others 30 11 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'At', 'of', 'over'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'cuing', 'individual', 'high', 'same'}, 'pobj': {'interest', 'time', 'others'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '.', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'adoption', 'we', 'factors'}, 'ROOT': {'recognize'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'task', 'default', 'stance'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly', 'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'evaluation'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'topics(e.g'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'elicit', 'ofcertain'}, 'dobj': {'profiles'}} Long High Medium
193 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use As such, thedefault stance that students adopt toward a task and topicmay be considered to be the result of both individual andsituation-specific factors 23 12 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'As'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'such'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'specific', 'thedefault', 'andsituation'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'task', 'factors'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'relcl': {'adopt'}, 'prep': {'of', 'toward'}, 'det': {'a', 'both', 'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'topicmay', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'conj': {'considered'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'result'}} Long High Medium
194 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Adisengaged default stance is charac- terized by both the absence of affective engagement with the topic of the task and a lack of habituation toward sourceevaluation 26 13 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'charac-', 'Adisengaged'}, 'compound': {'default', 'affective'}, 'nsubjpass': {'stance'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'terized'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'predet': {'both'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'habituation', 'engagement', 'task', 'absence', 'sourceevaluation'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'toward'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'lack'}} Long High Low
195 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students who are disengaged are unlikely toself-generate a task, as this may be associated with motiva-tion (e.g., topic interest) 19 9 {'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'nsubjpass': {'this', 'who'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'relcl': {'disengaged'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'unlikely'}, 'dep': {'toself'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'xcomp': {'generate'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'task'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'advcl': {'associated'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'motiva'}, 'pobj': {'tion'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'interest'}} Medium High Medium
196 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Rather, they likely adopt a disen-gaged default stance toward an externally assigned task,seeking to minimally satisfy task demands while limitingeffort expenditure, or to default to task-satisficing source use 28 10 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'minimally', 'likely', 'Rather', 'externally'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'adopt'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'npadvmod': {'task', 'disen'}, 'amod': {'satisficing', 'gaged', 'assigned'}, 'compound': {'default', 'source', 'limitingeffort', 'task'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'demands'}, 'prep': {'while', 'to', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'use', 'expenditure'}, 'advcl': {'seeking'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'satisfy'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'default'}} Long High Medium
197 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students adopting a disengaged default stance have else- where been described as engaging in information manage- ment, or the cognitively low-level, direct transference of information in texts to a task response, without furthermanipulation or evaluation (Alexander & the DisciplinedReading and Learning Research Laboratory, 2012) 44 16 {'NOUN': 15, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'ROOT': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'direct', 'disengaged', 'level', 'low'}, 'compound': {'default', 'manage-', 'information', 'task', 'Research'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'transference', 'else-'}, 'conj': {'have', 'evaluation', 'Learning', 'Laboratory'}, 'advmod': {'cognitively', 'where'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'described'}, 'prep': {'without', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'engaging'}, 'pobj': {'furthermanipulation', 'ment', 'texts', 'response', 'information'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'appos': {'2012', 'Alexander'}, 'nmod': {'DisciplinedReading'}} Long High Medium
198 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Studiesexamining patterns in students’ navigation or text access have likewise identified a source use profile consistent with a disengaged default stance, characterized by limited textaccess and low strategic engagement (e.g., limited textrevisits; Kiili, Laurinen, & Marttunen, 2008; Lawless,Mills, & Brown, 2002; List & Alexander, 2017; List et al.,2016a) 48 8 {'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 17, 'CCONJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'PROPN': 11, 'NUM': 3} [VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'csubj': {'Studiesexamining'}, 'dobj': {'patterns', 'profile'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'navigation', 'engagement'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'compound': {'default', 'text'}, 'conj': {'.', 'List', 'access', 'Mills', 'Lawless', 'Laurinen', 'Alexander', 'Marttunen', 'Brown'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'likewise'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'npadvmod': {'Kiili', 'source', 'et'}, 'acl': {'use', 'characterized'}, 'amod': {'low', 'limited', 'disengaged', 'strategic', 'consistent', 'textaccess'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ',2016a', ',', ';'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'appos': {'al', '2017', 'List', 'textrevisits', '2008', '2002'}} Long High Low
199 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students experiencing a strong reaction toward a task may adopt an affectively engaged default stance toward multiple text use 19 6 {'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'acl': {'experiencing'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'amod': {'engaged', 'multiple', 'strong'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'reaction'}, 'prep': {'toward'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'use'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'adopt'}, 'advmod': {'affectively'}, 'compound': {'default', 'text'}} Medium High Low
200 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The CAEM emphasizes students’ interest and attitudes as theindividual difference factors most likely to define thisdefault stance 17 5 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM'}, 'ROOT': {'emphasizes'}, 'poss': {'students', 'thisdefault'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'interest'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'attitudes'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'amod': {'likely', 'theindividual'}, 'compound': {'difference'}, 'pobj': {'factors'}, 'advmod': {'most'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'define'}} Medium High Low
201 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use These are the focal motivational variablesexamined because students’ interest and attitudes havebeen conceptualized as having both cognitive and affectivecomponents and because these have been understood as resulting from a learner-content interaction (Alexander, 2003; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Hidi, Renninger, & Krapp,2004; Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960; Wolfe et al., 2013) 49 16 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 14, 'CCONJ': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 12, 'NUM': 4} [PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'interest', 'These'}, 'ROOT': {'are', 'Wolfe'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'focal', 'learner'}, 'attr': {'motivational'}, 'acl': {'variablesexamined'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Krapp,2004', 'al', 'Renninger', 'havebeen', 'Hovland', 'affectivecomponents', 'Rosenberg', 'Hidi', 'attitudes'}, 'advcl': {'understood', 'conceptualized'}, 'prep': {'as', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'having', 'resulting'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'ccomp': {'cognitive'}, 'nsubjpass': {'these'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'compound': {'content'}, 'pobj': {'interaction'}, 'appos': {'.', '2006', '2013', 'et', '1960', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2003'}} Long High High
202 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Although students adopting an affectively engaged default stance may be motivated multiple source users,these students may also be limited in exhibiting the habits186 LIST AND ALEXANDER 26 11 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'advcl': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'an', 'these', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'affectively', 'also'}, 'amod': {'engaged', 'motivated', 'multiple'}, 'compound': {'default', 'habits186', 'source'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'LIST'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'users'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'limited'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pcomp': {'exhibiting'}, 'cc': {'AND'}, 'npadvmod': {'ALEXANDER'}} Long High Medium
203 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Indeed, students adopting an affectively engaged default stance may be considered to engage in information accumulation (Bra/C14ten & Str ømsø, 2011), characterized by persistence in gathering as much information as possible toprolong engagement with texts and topic, but not by theidentification of relationships across texts or the integrationand evaluation of information 51 21 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 18, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 9, 'PROPN': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'affectively', 'as'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '/', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'csubjpass': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'engaged', 'much', 'possible'}, 'compound': {'default', 'information', 'toprolong', 'Bra', 'integrationand'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'information'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'across'}, 'pobj': {'relationships', 'accumulation', 'texts', 'persistence', 'engagement', 'information', 'theidentification', 'gathering'}, 'appos': {'C14ten'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'topic', 'by', 'Str', 'evaluation', 'ømsø'}, 'npadvmod': {'2011'}, 'advcl': {'characterized'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Low
204 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In part, this absence ofhigher level processing may be the result of deficits in theunderlying skills associated with multiple text integration; in part, extreme immersion in information accumulation may distract from higher level processing (Garner, Gilling-ham, & White, 1989; Harp & Mayer, 1998) 43 14 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 16, 'PUNCT': 11, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'from', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'accumulation', 'integration', 'skills', 'part', 'deficits'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nmod': {'absence', 'ofhigher'}, 'compound': {'information', 'level', 'Gilling', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'processing', 'immersion'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'result'}, 'amod': {'theunderlying', 'extreme', 'multiple', 'higher'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'ROOT': {'distract'}, 'appos': {'Garner', '1989'}, 'conj': {'Mayer', 'ham', 'White', 'Harp'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998'}} Long High Low
205 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In describing the role of interest in single text process- ing, Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert, and Goetz (1977) pro-posed the slot hypothesis 22 6 {'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'In', 'pro'}, 'pcomp': {'describing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'hypothesis'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'process-', 'interest'}, 'amod': {'single'}, 'compound': {'slot', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'ing'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Anderson', 'Schallert', 'Reynolds', 'Goetz', 'posed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'1977'}, 'xcomp': {'-'}} Long High Low
206 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In this hypothesis, students’ interest is associated with the development of schema-based cognitive structures, such that when students read, interest-related information is slotted or added into these structures with ease, facilitating comprehension 32 14 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'with', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'structures', 'hypothesis', 'ease', 'development'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interest', 'information'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'associated'}, 'npadvmod': {'interest', 'schema'}, 'amod': {'based', 'such', 'related', 'cognitive'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'advcl': {'read'}, 'ccomp': {'slotted'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'added', 'facilitating'}, 'dobj': {'comprehension'}} Long High High
207 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Such slot-ting, although consistent with an information accumulationapproach to multiple text use, is not predicated on informa-tion evaluation or on deep-level comprehension 22 10 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'deep', 'multiple', 'Such'}, 'compound': {'tion', 'informa', 'slot', 'text', 'level'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'ting'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'advcl': {'accumulationapproach', 'consistent'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'to'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'pobj': {'comprehension', 'use', 'evaluation', 'information'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'predicated'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'on'}} Long High Medium
208 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use When stu-dents hold strong attitudes about a topic, they are likely to process attitude-consistent information at the surface level, without scrutiny, while ignoring or dismissing informationthat is attitude inconsistent (Lord et al., 1979; Maier &Richter, 2013; Nickerson, 1998; Wiley, 2005) 40 12 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 9, 'PUNCT': 14, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 4} [SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'compound': {'surface', 'stu', 'Lord'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'dents', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'hold', 'is'}, 'amod': {'consistent', 'strong'}, 'dobj': {'informationthat', 'attitudes', 'information'}, 'prep': {'about', 'at', 'without'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'scrutiny', 'topic', 'level'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'likely', 'inconsistent'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'process'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'attitude', 'et'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'csubj': {'ignoring'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Richter', 'dismissing', 'Wiley'}, 'appos': {'1979', 'Nickerson', '1998', '2013', 'Maier', '2005'}} Long High High
209 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students adopting an evaluative default stance may be principally characterized as havingwell-developed habits associ ated with diligent, evalua- tive source use 21 5 {'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'csubjpass': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'developed', 'evaluative'}, 'compound': {'default', 'evalua-', 'source', 'tive', 'habits'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'principally'}, 'ROOT': {'characterized'}, 'prep': {'as', 'with'}, 'npadvmod': {'havingwell'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'associ', 'diligent'}, 'acl': {'ated'}, 'appos': {'use'}} Long High Low
210 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students exhibiting this default stancem a yb ec ons ide re dt oro ut in ely engage in a variety of behaviors associated with so urce evaluation and infor- mation verification (e.g., chec king information currency, verifying author credentials), as assessed by measuressuch as the Credibility Assessment Scale (Hargittai,Fullerton, Menchen-Tervino, & Thomas, 2010) 53 14 {'NOUN': 17, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 13, 'ADP': 7, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 12, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, ADV, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'acl': {'exhibiting', 'associated'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'default', 'credentials', 'ons'}, 'ROOT': {'stancem'}, 'compound': {'mation', 'king', 'Credibility', 'Menchen', 'chec', 'information', 'author', 'ec', 'Assessment', 'oro', 'yb', 'dt'}, 'advcl': {'assessed', 'verifying', 'ide'}, 'prep': {'re', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'measuressuch', 'variety', 'ut', 'behaviors', 'Scale', 'verification'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'ely', 'so'}, 'dep': {'engage'}, 'amod': {'urce'}, 'nmod': {'evaluation'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Thomas', 'Fullerton', 'Tervino', 'infor-'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Hargittai', 'currency', '2010'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
211 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Of noteis that students adopting such an evaluative defaultstance would likely routinely engage in these behaviors, even absent particular task or topic interest 23 9 {'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, PROPN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'Of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'behaviors', 'noteis'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'pcomp': {'adopting'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'det': {'an', 'these'}, 'amod': {'absent', 'particular', 'evaluative'}, 'dobj': {'defaultstance'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'advmod': {'routinely', 'likely', 'even'}, 'ROOT': {'engage'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'task'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'topic'}, 'conj': {'interest'}} Long High Medium
212 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use At the same time, students adopting this default stance may be some-what immature in their text evaluation 17 10 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, PRON, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'At', 'in'}, 'det': {'what', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'same'}, 'pobj': {'time', 'evaluation'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'acl': {'adopting'}, 'compound': {'default', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'some'}, 'attr': {'immature'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Medium High Low
213 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Think-aloud datahave shown that although they may readily apply heuris-tics to evaluating texts (e.g., books are trustworthy sour-ces; Brem, Russell, & Weems, 2001; List et al., 2016b),they may fail to engage in the more cognitivelydemanding and epistemically sophisticated processes necessary to resolve discrepancies across sources and integrate information (B arzilai & Zohar, 2012; Bra /C14ten, Britt, Str ømsø, & Rouet, 2011) 61 15 {'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 19, 'VERB': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'PROPN': 16, 'CCONJ': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Think', 'heuris', 'B', 'et', 'Bra', 'aloud'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'.', 'they', 'datahave', 'List', '2016b),they', 'books'}, 'ROOT': {'fail', 'shown'}, 'mark': {'although', 'that'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'readily', 'e.g.', 'epistemically', 'ømsø', 'more'}, 'advcl': {'apply'}, 'dobj': {'information', 'discrepancies', 'tics', 'texts'}, 'prep': {'across', 'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'evaluating'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'amod': {'trustworthy', 'cognitivelydemanding', 'necessary', 'sour'}, 'attr': {'ces'}, 'conj': {'Russell', 'Rouet', 'Zohar', 'integrate', 'Weems', 'arzilai', 'Str', 'sophisticated', 'Brem'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'appos': {'Britt', 'al', '2001', '2011'}, 'xcomp': {'resolve', 'engage'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'processes'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012'}, 'dep': {'/C14ten'}} Long High High
214 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The final default stance identified includes students adopting a critical analytic approach to multiple source use 16 3 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'final', 'analytic', 'critical'}, 'compound': {'default', 'source', 'stance'}, 'nsubj': {'identified'}, 'ROOT': {'includes'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'approach'}, 'acl': {'adopting'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'use'}} Medium High Low
215 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use This default stance is initiated when stu-dents have both well-formed habits associated with critical,evaluative source use and are engaged by the topic of a par- ticular task 27 13 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'X': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, X, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'both', 'the', 'This'}, 'compound': {'default', 'stu', 'source'}, 'nsubjpass': {'stance'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'are'}, 'ROOT': {'initiated'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'when'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'dents'}, 'advcl': {'have'}, 'amod': {'formed', 'evaluative', 'ticular', 'critical'}, 'dobj': {'habits'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'topic', 'use'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'engaged'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nmod': {'par-'}} Long High Medium
216 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use When students are both affectively engaged and evaluative in their multiple text use, they may be engaged inknowledge building (Alexander & the Disciplined Reading and Learning Research Laboratory, 2012), or the purposeful,elaborative, and reflective processing of information acrosstexts (Murphy, Rowe, Ramani, & Silverman, 2014).FIGURE 2 Default stance profiles identified in the cognitive affective engagement model of multiple source use.COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE ENGAGEMENT MODEL 187 63 18 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 15, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 9, 'CCONJ': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 13, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 14, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 4} [SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PRON, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NUM] {'advmod': {'When', 'affectively'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students', 'they'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'dep': {'both'}, 'advcl': {'engaged'}, 'cc': {'and', '2014).FIGURE', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'elaborative', 'Reading', 'evaluative', 'Silverman', 'reflective', 'Laboratory', 'Rowe', 'Ramani'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'purposeful', 'multiple', 'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'ENGAGEMENT', 'COGNITIVE', 'affective', 'stance', 'AFFECTIVE', 'Disciplined', 'inknowledge', 'information', 'engagement', 'Default', 'source', 'text', 'Learning', 'Research'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'model', 'acrosstexts'}, 'punct': {'.', '2', ')', '(', ','}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'engaged', 'MODEL', 'profiles'}, 'dobj': {'building'}, 'appos': {'Murphy', 'Alexander'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012'}, 'acl': {'identified'}, 'nummod': {'187'}} Long High Medium
217 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Elsewhere, small subsamples of students have been found to engage in the kinds of strategic and evaluative text use thatseems to be consistent with the adoption of this defaultstance (Goldman et al., 2012; Kiili et al., 2008; List et al.,2016a, 2016b; MacGregor, 1999; Wineburg, 1991) 45 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 12, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 15, 'NUM': 5} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Elsewhere'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'small'}, 'nsubjpass': {'subsamples'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'thatseems', 'students', 'kinds', 'adoption', 'defaultstance'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'List', ',2016a', 'evaluative', 'Wineburg'}, 'compound': {'use', 'text'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'consistent'}, 'appos': {'Goldman', 'al', '.', '1999', '2012', 'et', '2016b', 'MacGregor', '1991', '2008'}, 'npadvmod': {'Kiili', 'et'}} Long High Low
218 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use An assumption of the CAEM is that the adoption of such a default stance may be considered the ideal and may resultin documents model construction, as specified by Britt et al 31 16 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'det': {'An', 'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'assumption'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'Britt', 'CAEM', 'et'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'adoption'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'compound': {'default', 'model', 'documents'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'considered'}, 'oprd': {'ideal'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'resultin'}, 'dobj': {'construction'}, 'punct': {',', 'al'}, 'advcl': {'specified'}} Long High High
219 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Nevertheless, resolving discrepancies and integrat- ing multiple texts constitutes an effortful and cognitivelydemanding process for the typical student (Braten &Strømsø, 2006; Britt et al., 1999; Rouet, 2006) 27 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, X, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Nevertheless'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'csubj': {'resolving'}, 'nmod': {'discrepancies'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'cognitivelydemanding', 'Strømsø', 'integrat-', '.', 'Rouet'}, 'amod': {'ing', 'multiple', 'effortful', 'typical'}, 'nsubj': {'texts'}, 'ROOT': {'constitutes'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'process'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'student'}, 'appos': {'Braten', 'al', '2006', '1999'}, 'npadvmod': {'Britt', 'et', '2006'}} Long High Low
220 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The CAEM suggests that for students to engage in this effortful process,they must have (a) the skills and habits to do so effectivelyand efficiently and, more important, (b) the motivation todo so 32 19 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'X': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 4} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'CAEM', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'suggests'}, 'mark': {'for', 'that'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'advcl': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'so', 'in'}, 'amod': {'important', 'effortful'}, 'pobj': {'process'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'dep': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'todo', 'skills', 'effectivelyand'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'habits'}, 'relcl': {'do'}, 'advmod': {'efficiently', 'so', 'more'}, 'meta': {'b'}, 'compound': {'motivation'}} Long High High
221 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use As laid out in the CAEM, moving beyond perfunc- tory or heuristic-based text evaluation, to evaluate sources in the service of multiple documents integration, requires aspecific motivational driver 28 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'evaluate', 'laid', 'moving'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'prep': {'beyond', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'CAEM', 'evaluation', 'integration', 'service'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'based', 'motivational', 'multiple', 'perfunc-'}, 'nmod': {'tory', 'aspecific'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'advmod': {'heuristic'}, 'compound': {'documents', 'text'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'dobj': {'sources', 'driver'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}} Long High Medium
222 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Distinguishing Default Stance Profiles It is important to distinguish students’ adoption of a critical analytic default stance from the other default stance profilesthat students may assume 26 9 {'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2} [VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advcl': {'Distinguishing'}, 'compound': {'default', 'Stance', 'Default'}, 'dobj': {'Profiles', 'adoption', 'profilesthat'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'distinguish'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'other', 'analytic', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'stance'}, 'ccomp': {'assume'}} Long High Low
223 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use This is best done through exam- ple, specifically by examining the role of attitudes, as a motivational factor, in students’ multiple text processing.As conceptualized in the CAEM, the motivations that drivestudents to engage in biased reasoning or case building, orto critically evaluate their own position on a target issue,are one and the same 53 27 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, NUM, CCONJ, DET, ADJ] {'nsubjpass': {'This'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'critically', 'best', 'specifically'}, 'ROOT': {'evaluate', 'done'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'in', 'by', 'of', 'as'}, 'amod': {'own', 'exam-', 'biased', 'motivational', 'multiple'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'building', 'issue', 'factor', 'CAEM', 'attitudes', 'ple'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'pcomp': {'examining'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'position'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'target', 'text'}, 'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'conceptualized'}, 'nsubj': {'motivations', 'orto', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'drivestudents'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'nmod': {'reasoning'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'same', 'case', 'are'}, 'attr': {'one'}} Long High Medium
224 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The distinction among these is that,in one case, attitude-based motivation is coupled with dili-gent skills and habits with regard to source evaluation, lead- ing to the adoption of a critically analytic default stance, whereas in the other case it is not, resulting in only affec-tively engaged multiple source use 49 25 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 19, 'ADP': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADV, PROPN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'distinction', 'it'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'among'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'skills', 'adoption', 'use', 'evaluation', 'these', 'regard', 'case'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'whereas', 'that'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'npadvmod': {'affec', 'attitude'}, 'amod': {'lead-', 'based', 'engaged', 'other', 'multiple', 'analytic'}, 'nsubjpass': {'motivation'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'coupled'}, 'compound': {'dili', 'gent', 'source', 'default'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ing', 'habits'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'critically', 'tively'}, 'advcl': {'is', 'resulting'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High High
225 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In the literature on attitude-based text processing, two patterns of findings have been identified 14 7 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'literature', 'findings'}, 'npadvmod': {'attitude'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'based'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubj': {'patterns'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'acomp': {'identified'}} Medium High Low
226 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use First, strong atti-tudes toward task topic have been found to result in selec-tive information processing (i.e., biased assimilation), suchthat attitude consistent information is easily assimilated into models of comprehension while attitude inconsistent information is ignored (e.g., Maier & Richter, 2013; Taber& Lodge, 2006; van Strien et al., 2014) 48 11 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 15, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'i.e.', 'easily', 'First'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'consistent', 'inconsistent', 'strong', 'biased'}, 'compound': {'selec', 'information', 'task', 'et', 'tive', 'atti', 'van'}, 'nsubjpass': {'tudes', 'attitude', 'information'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of', 'in', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'topic', 'models', 'comprehension'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'been'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'xcomp': {'result'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'al', '2006', '2013', 'Strien', 'assimilation'}, 'det': {'suchthat'}, 'conj': {'.', 'Taber', 'Lodge', 'Richter', 'assimilated'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'nmod': {'attitude'}, 'advcl': {'ignored'}, 'oprd': {'Maier'}, 'cc': {'&'}} Long High Medium
227 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use At the same time,in certain situations, such as when explicitly prompted todo so (Kardash & Scholes, 1996; Mair & Richter, 2013;McCrudden & Sparks, 2014), students have been found toovercome their tendencies toward attitude-driven reasoningand biased assimilation to evaluate information in a more objective and impartial manner (Kobayashi, 2014; Taber & Lodge, 2006) 52 17 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 15, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 5, 'NUM': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'At', 'as', 'toward', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'driven', 'biased', 'same', 'such', 'impartial'}, 'pobj': {'situations', 'assimilation', 'objective', 'Kardash', 'time'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly', 'when', 'so', 'more'}, 'pcomp': {'prompted'}, 'dobj': {'todo', 'information'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'2013;McCrudden', 'Taber', 'manner', 'Scholes', 'Lodge', 'Sparks', 'Richter', 'Mair'}, 'npadvmod': {'1996', 'attitude'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'Kobayashi', '2006'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'oprd': {'toovercome', 'tendencies'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nmod': {'reasoningand'}, 'acl': {'evaluate'}} Long High Medium
228 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use This seemingly contradictory set of findingsreflects distinctions in default stance profiles identified inthe CAEM 14 3 {'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1} [DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'This', 'inthe'}, 'advmod': {'seemingly'}, 'amod': {'contradictory'}, 'nsubj': {'set'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'default', 'stance', 'findingsreflects'}, 'pobj': {'profiles', 'distinctions'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'dobj': {'CAEM'}} Medium High Low
229 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use When students are engaged in motivated rea-soning, or text processing with the goal of attitude mainte-nance, they may be said to have adopted an affectivelyengaged default stance toward multiple source use 31 14 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students', 'they'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'advcl': {'engaged'}, 'prep': {'with', 'toward', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'affectivelyengaged', 'motivated'}, 'pobj': {'-', 'goal', 'soning', 'nance', 'use', 'rea'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'default', 'mainte', 'source', 'attitude', 'text'}, 'conj': {'processing'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'said'}, 'xcomp': {'adopted'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}} Long High Medium
230 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use These students are in information pursuit, without the correspon-dent critical evaluation of this information 14 7 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'this', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'prep': {'without', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'correspon', 'information'}, 'pobj': {'evaluation', 'pursuit', 'information'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'dent'}} Medium High Low
231 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Attitude-basedaffective engagement with multiple texts may result eitherfrom students having attitudes so strong that their motiva-tion for attitude maintenance overrides other evaluativeconsiderations or from learners lacking the skills or disposi-tions necessary to critically evaluate information in texts 37 13 {'NOUN': 18, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'disposi', 'motiva', 'basedaffective', 'attitude', 'Attitude'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'nsubj': {'engagement'}, 'prep': {'overrides', 'for', 'with', 'in'}, 'amod': {'other', 'necessary', 'multiple'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'maintenance', 'evaluativeconsiderations', 'texts'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'result'}, 'xcomp': {'evaluate', 'eitherfrom'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'skills', 'attitudes', 'information'}, 'acl': {'having', 'lacking'}, 'advmod': {'critically', 'so'}, 'oprd': {'strong'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dep': {'tion'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'tions', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Medium
232 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In cases where learners with strong attitudes encounter multiple texts, they may adopt a critical analytic defaultstance toward text access 20 7 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'In', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'access', 'attitudes'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'nsubj': {'learners', 'they'}, 'amod': {'analytic', 'multiple', 'strong', 'critical'}, 'relcl': {'encounter'}, 'dobj': {'defaultstance', 'texts'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'adopt'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'text'}} Long High Medium
233 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Such a stance is defined by learn-ers being motivated, not simply by attitude maintenance butalso by a desire to establish the relative merits or veracity ofinformation encountered 27 12 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PART, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'predet': {'Such'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'stance', 'ers'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'being'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'veracity', 'maintenance', 'attitude', 'learn'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pcomp': {'motivated'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'simply'}, 'pobj': {'butalso', 'desire'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'establish'}, 'amod': {'relative'}, 'dobj': {'merits'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'ofinformation', 'encountered'}} Long High Low
234 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Qualitative data from McCruddenand Sparks (2014) indicate that students’ adoption of a criti-cal analytic default stance, in association with strong atti- tudes about a topic, manifests in one of two ways 31 12 {'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 7, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4} [PROPN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADP, NUM, NOUN] {'compound': {'default', 'atti-', 'Qualitative', 'McCruddenand'}, 'nsubj': {'adoption', 'data'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'about'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'stance', 'topic', 'tudes', 'association', 'Sparks', 'one'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2014'}, 'ROOT': {'indicate'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'strong', 'analytic', 'criti'}, 'prt': {'cal'}, 'ccomp': {'manifests'}, 'nummod': {'two'}} Long High Medium
235 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Learnersm a ye ng ag ei ne it her belief protection (i.e., scrutinizing con- flicting information in the service of belief maintenance) orbelief reflection (i.e., attitude adjustment or revision in response to conflicting information) 34 9 {'PROPN': 6, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 6, 'X': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT] {'dep': {'con-', 'Learnersm'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'ng', 'ye', 'flicting', 'attitude', 'orbelief'}, 'appos': {'protection', 'ag', 'adjustment'}, 'intj': {'ei'}, 'conj': {'revision', 'ne'}, 'dobj': {'it', 'reflection', 'information'}, 'poss': {'her'}, 'amod': {'belief'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'ROOT': {'scrutinizing'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'maintenance', 'response', 'service'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'pcomp': {'conflicting'}} Long High Low
236 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Both of these processesare supported by learners’ attitude-based motivations for textaccess and skills in source evaluation and information verifi-cation 19 8 {'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Both'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'pobj': {'motivations', 'processesare', 'verifi-cation', 'textaccess'}, 'acl': {'supported'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'learners'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'npadvmod': {'attitude'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'based'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skills', 'information'}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'nmod': {'evaluation'}} Medium High Low
237 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use At the same time, whether students elect to engage in belief reflection or belief protection is the result of the rela- tive strength of their attitudes vis- /C18a-vis their habituation to the critical evaluation of information, as well as other factors(e.g., epistemic beliefs) not specified in the CAEM 48 24 {'ADP': 9, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'PROPN': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, X, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'vis', 'At', 'to', 'in', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'rela-', 'critical', 'epistemic', 'other', 'same', 'belief'}, 'pobj': {'strength', 'habituation', 'information', 'evaluation', 'CAEM', 'time', 'attitudes', 'reflection'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'beliefs'}, 'csubj': {'elect'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'cc': {'or', 'as'}, 'conj': {'protection', 'factors(e.g'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'.', 'result'}, 'compound': {'tive'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'vis-'}, 'npadvmod': {'/C18a'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'specified'}} Long High Medium
238 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Examining how interest drives multiple text use points to the distinction between affectively engaged and criticalanalytic processing 17 5 {'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Examining'}, 'advmod': {'affectively', 'how'}, 'nsubj': {'interest'}, 'ccomp': {'drives'}, 'amod': {'engaged', 'multiple'}, 'compound': {'use', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'points'}, 'prep': {'to', 'between'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'distinction', 'processing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'criticalanalytic'}} Medium High Medium
239 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Specifically, students demonstratinghigh interest in a topic may elect to engage in information accumulation (Bra /C14ten & Str ømsø, 2011) 20 5 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstratinghigh'}, 'dobj': {'interest', '/C14ten'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'accumulation'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'elect'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'compound': {'Bra', 'information'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Str', 'ømsø'}, 'npadvmod': {'2011'}} Long High Low
240 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use However, addi- tional skills are necessary for learners to successfully syn-thesize and integrate this information to achieve cross-textual comprehension 19 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'successfully'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'-', 'addi-', 'cross', 'tional', 'textual'}, 'nsubj': {'skills', 'learners'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'necessary'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'advcl': {'to'}, 'compound': {'syn'}, 'pobj': {'thesize'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'integrate'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'dobj': {'comprehension', 'information'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'achieve'}} Medium High Medium
241 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use When motivation for text access iscoupled with the skills needed to evaluate sources andinformation critically, learners successful adopt a criticalanalytic default stance 22 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'critically'}, 'nsubj': {'learners', 'motivation'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with'}, 'compound': {'default', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'access'}, 'acl': {'iscoupled', 'needed'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'evaluate', 'andinformation'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'sources'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'successful', 'criticalanalytic'}, 'ROOT': {'adopt'}} Long High Medium
242 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use A critical analytic default stance toward text access may further be distinguished from learners’ adoption of an eval- uative default stance 21 8 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'an'}, 'amod': {'eval-', 'uative', 'analytic', 'critical'}, 'compound': {'default', 'text'}, 'nsubjpass': {'stance'}, 'prep': {'from', 'of', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'access', 'adoption'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'advmod': {'further'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'distinguished'}, 'poss': {'learners'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
243 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Both of these default stance profilesare characterized by students having the skills and strate-gies necessary for source evaluation and multiple text inte-gration 22 8 {'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Both'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'compound': {'default', 'stance', 'inte', 'source', 'text', 'strate'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'profilesare', 'evaluation'}, 'acl': {'characterized', 'having'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'dobj': {'skills'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'conj': {'gration', 'gies'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'necessary'}} Long High Low
244 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use At the same time, evaluative students, althoughhabituated to source evaluation, may not have the specificmotivation in place to engage deeply with sources and con-tent 24 12 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'At', 'with', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'same', 'evaluative'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'time', 'place'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'advcl': {'source', 'althoughhabituated'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'dobj': {'specificmotivation', 'evaluation'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'engage'}, 'advmod': {'deeply'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'con'}, 'conj': {'tent'}} Long High Low
245 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use As a result, we may expect such students to approach multiple text comprehension in a perfunctory manner, fol- lowing certain routine rules of thumb, without fully consid-ering the specific evaluative demands posed by particulartask or texts (List et al., 2016b) 40 13 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'without', 'As', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'particulartask', 'manner', 'thumb', 'result'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'expect'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'evaluative', 'routine', 'such', 'multiple'}, 'ccomp': {'approach'}, 'compound': {'perfunctory', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'demands', 'rules', 'comprehension'}, 'dep': {'fol-'}, 'advcl': {'lowing'}, 'advmod': {'fully', 'consid'}, 'pcomp': {'ering'}, 'nmod': {'specific'}, 'acl': {'posed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'texts'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'List', 'et', '2016b'}} Long High Low
246 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For example, evaluativestudents may use a document-type heuristic when judgingtext trustworthiness (e.g., trusting books; Brem et al., 2001;List et al., 2016b) 21 4 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For'}, 'pobj': {'example'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'evaluativestudents'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'use'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'document', 'type', 'judgingtext'}, 'dobj': {'heuristic', '.'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'when'}, 'npadvmod': {'et', 'al', 'trustworthiness'}, 'amod': {'trusting'}, 'appos': {'2016b', 'books', '2001;List', 'et'}, 'nmod': {'Brem'}, 'conj': {'al', '.'}} Long High Medium
247 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use take the added steps of corroborating information across texts or considering additional document features in theirjudgments, like information currency 19 6 {'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'take'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'added', 'additional'}, 'dobj': {'steps', 'features', 'information'}, 'prep': {'like', 'across', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'corroborating'}, 'pobj': {'theirjudgments', 'currency', 'texts'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'considering'}, 'compound': {'document', 'information'}, 'punct': {','}} Medium High Low
248 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use As an additional distinguisher, evaluative students would not be expected to judge texts in a contextuallynuanced way, as may be expected from critical analyticsource users, this being a marker of epistemic competenceor sophistication (Grossnickle Peterson, Alexander, & List, 2017) 39 16 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 8, 'AUX': 5, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'from', 'As', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'epistemic', 'additional', 'evaluative', 'contextuallynuanced'}, 'pobj': {'way', 'sophistication', 'users', 'distinguisher'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'aux': {'would', 'may', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'xcomp': {'judge'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'expected', 'being'}, 'compound': {'competenceor', 'Grossnickle', 'analyticsource'}, 'nsubj': {'this'}, 'attr': {'marker'}, 'appos': {'Peterson'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'List'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017'}} Long High Medium
249 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use An example of contextually nuanced source evalua- tion comes from a study asking undergraduate students tocomplete a multiple text task, featuring both print and digi-tal texts (List, Alexander, & Stephens, 2017) 31 7 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'An', 'a'}, 'nsubj': {'example'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'advmod': {'contextually'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'nuanced', 'multiple', 'tal'}, 'compound': {'evalua-', 'source', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'study', 'tion'}, 'ROOT': {'comes'}, 'acl': {'asking'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'task', 'texts'}, 'advcl': {'tocomplete', 'featuring'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'nmod': {'print'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Stephens', 'digi', 'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'2017', 'List'}} Long High Low
250 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Studentsadopting an evaluative default stance were found to be suc-cessful in distinguishing among more or less trustworthysources (e.g., newspapers vs 20 9 {'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP] {'advcl': {'Studentsadopting'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'more', 'evaluative'}, 'compound': {'default'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'suc', 'cessful'}, 'attr': {'-'}, 'prep': {'vs', 'among', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'distinguishing'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'less'}, 'pobj': {'trustworthysources'}, 'punct': {'(', ','}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'newspapers'}} Long High Low
251 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use At the same time,these students were found to be overly rigid in their assess- ments, neglecting to consider that social media (e.g., Twit- ter), although generally regarded as less trustworthy, mightnevertheless prove informative when issues are unfoldingin real time 39 16 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'At', 'as', 'in'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'trustworthy', 'social', 'real', 'same', 'assess-'}, 'pobj': {'time', 'ments'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students', 'issues'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'were'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'consider'}, 'advmod': {'overly', 'when', 'generally', 'e.g.', 'less'}, 'acomp': {'rigid'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'neglecting', 'regarded', 'unfoldingin'}, 'nsubj': {'media', 'mightnevertheless'}, 'ccomp': {'Twit-'}, 'npadvmod': {'ter', 'time'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'conj': {'prove'}, 'oprd': {'informative'}} Long High High
252 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Source Use Behaviors A default stance may be used not only to profile students’ approaches to multiple text use but also to interpret behav-iors associated with text access 28 12 {'NOUN': 11, 'PROPN': 3, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, ADV, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'default', 'Use', 'profile', 'behav', 'Source', 'text'}, 'npadvmod': {'Behaviors'}, 'det': {'A'}, 'nsubjpass': {'stance'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'access', 'approaches'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'xcomp': {'interpret'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'dobj': {'iors'}, 'acl': {'associated'}} Long High Low
253 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Five text use behaviors may be expected to differ across default stance profiles: (a) time on texts, (b) text access, (c) text processing, (d) sourc-ing, and (e) cessation of text use 31 9 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 20, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 16, 'X': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'Five'}, 'compound': {'default', 'sourc', 'stance', 'use', 'text'}, 'nsubjpass': {'behaviors'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'xcomp': {'differ'}, 'prep': {'on', 'across', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'profiles', 'use', 'texts'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', ','}, 'det': {'a'}, 'appos': {'time', 'access'}, 'nmod': {'e', 'b', 'c'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'ing', 'cessation'}, 'meta': {'d'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
254 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use These behaviors wereidentified as key in earlier models of multiple text compre-hension (i.e., information problem solving using the Inter-net [IPS-I]: Brand-Gruwel, Wopereis, & Walraven, 2009;MD-TRACE: Rouet & Britt, 2011) 29 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 13, 'X': 2, 'PROPN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, X, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'behaviors'}, 'ROOT': {'wereidentified'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'net', 'earlier', 'key'}, 'pobj': {'compre', 'Rouet', '-', 'models', 'hension'}, 'compound': {'information', 'Brand', 'IPS', 'text'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', ']', ','}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'appos': {'problem', 'TRACE', 'Gruwel', '2009;MD', '2011'}, 'acl': {'using', 'solving'}, 'dobj': {'I', '-', 'Inter'}, 'nmod': {'['}, 'conj': {'Walraven', 'Britt', 'Wopereis'}, 'cc': {'&'}} Long High Low
255 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In addition, three out-comes of multiple text processing (i.e., text recall, multiple text integration, and changes within the individual) are examined here in association with students’ default stanceassumption 28 11 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'stanceassumption', 'individual', 'addition', 'association'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'compound': {'default', 'out', 'text'}, 'nsubjpass': {'comes'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'here'}, 'appos': {'recall'}, 'conj': {'changes', 'integration'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
256 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Among the most common behavioral indicators examined in the literature has been the totalamount of time students devote to text use, as well as the amount of time they spend on accessing particular texts (Duggan & Payne, 2011; Kintsch, Kozminsky, Streby,McKoon, & Keenan, 1975; Reader & Payne, 2007) 48 18 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 3} [ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'Among', 'on', 'to', 'in', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'most'}, 'amod': {'accessing', 'behavioral', 'particular', 'common'}, 'pobj': {'texts', 'literature', 'use', 'indicators', 'time'}, 'acl': {'examined'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'attr': {'totalamount'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'devote', 'spend'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'as', '&'}, 'dep': {'amount'}, 'appos': {'1975', 'Duggan', '2007', 'Kozminsky', '2011'}, 'conj': {'Streby', 'Payne', 'McKoon', 'Keenan', 'Reader'}, 'npadvmod': {'Kintsch'}} Long High Low
257 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Timeon texts has been variably interpreted as indicative ofstudents’ effort expenditure (Bra /C14ten et al., 2014) or degree of engagement (Guthrie, Wigfield, Metsala, & Cox, 1999).Considering CAEM established profiles offers insights intothe validity of such interpretations 36 7 {'PROPN': 11, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'1999).Considering', 'effort', 'Timeon', 'Bra'}, 'nsubjpass': {'texts'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advmod': {'variably'}, 'ROOT': {'interpreted'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'indicative', 'such'}, 'poss': {'ofstudents'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'pobj': {'engagement', 'interpretations', 'expenditure'}, 'nsubj': {'profiles', 'Guthrie', '/C14ten'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'CAEM', 'al', 'et'}, 'conj': {'Wigfield', '.', 'Cox', 'degree', 'Metsala'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'advcl': {'established'}, 'ccomp': {'offers'}, 'dobj': {'validity', 'insights'}, 'det': {'intothe'}} Long High Low
258 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students adopting an affectively engaged or critical ana- lytic default stance toward multiple text use may beexpected to devote the most time to text access 25 8 {'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, X, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'acl': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'affectively'}, 'amod': {'engaged', 'most', 'multiple', 'lytic'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'critical'}, 'dep': {'ana-'}, 'compound': {'default', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'time'}, 'prep': {'to', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'access'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'beexpected'}, 'xcomp': {'devote'}} Long High Low
259 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For both ofthese profiles, students’ engagement or interest in the texttopic may be protracted 14 7 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'For', 'in'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'amod': {'ofthese'}, 'pobj': {'profiles', 'texttopic'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'nsubjpass': {'engagement'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'protracted'}} Medium High Low
260 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Indeed, the association betweeninterest and other affective factors and time devoted to textaccess has been documented in studies involving both sin- gle (e.g., Ainley et al., 2002) and multiple (Bra /C14ten et al., 2014) texts 35 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'PROPN': 10, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PROPN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'e.g.'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'affective', 'et', 'Ainley', 'Bra', 'association'}, 'nsubjpass': {'betweeninterest'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'other', 'sin-'}, 'conj': {'multiple', 'time', 'factors'}, 'acl': {'devoted', 'involving'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'textaccess'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'documented'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'dobj': {'.', 'gle', 'texts'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2014', '2002'}, 'dep': {'/C14ten'}, 'nmod': {'.'}} Long High Low
261 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Nevertheless, additional differences in the timespent on particular texts may emerge across the fourprofiles 14 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Nevertheless'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'particular', 'additional'}, 'nsubj': {'differences'}, 'prep': {'on', 'across', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'fourprofiles', 'timespent', 'texts'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'emerge'}} Medium High Low
262 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For example, students adopting a disengaged default stance may be expected to rapidly sequence through textslooking for “the answer” while not spending substantial amounts of time on any one text accessed 31 14 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'through', 'on', 'of', 'for', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'time', 'text', 'example', 'answer'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'csubjpass': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'any'}, 'amod': {'disengaged', 'substantial'}, 'compound': {'default'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'amounts'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'advmod': {'rapidly'}, 'xcomp': {'sequence'}, 'pcomp': {'textslooking'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'spending'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'conj': {'accessed'}} Long High Medium
263 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In contrast, stu- dents in the affectively engaged profile may devote a uni-formly long time to reading all texts addressing a topic ofinterest 23 8 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'profile', 'contrast'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'stu-'}, 'nsubj': {'dents'}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'affectively'}, 'amod': {'-', 'formly', 'engaged', 'ofinterest', 'uni', 'long'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'devote'}, 'dobj': {'topic', 'time', 'texts'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'xcomp': {'addressing'}} Long High Low
264 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Those adopting an evaluative or critical analyticdefault stance may display more varied text-processingtimes, alternating between spending a long time readingreliable sources, providing credible information, andquickly scanning and moving on from texts they consider to be low in trustworthiness 38 14 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Those', 'they'}, 'acl': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'amod': {'varied', 'readingreliable', 'evaluative', 'long', 'credible'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'moving', 'scanning', 'critical'}, 'compound': {'text', 'analyticdefault'}, 'dobj': {'sources', 'stance', 'information', 'processingtimes', 'time'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'display'}, 'advmod': {'andquickly', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advcl': {'providing', 'alternating'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'between'}, 'pcomp': {'spending'}, 'prt': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'texts', 'trustworthiness'}, 'relcl': {'consider'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'low'}} Long High Low
265 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students adopting default stan- ces evidencing a habituation toward text evaluation may beconsidered to be better at discriminating between texts high and low in reliability (Braasch, Bra /C14ten, Str ømsø,& Anmarkrud, 2014; Goldman et al., 2012; Wiley et al.,2009), with such discrimination manifest as variations inaccess time across reliable and unreliable texts (Kammerer,Kalbfell, & Gerjets, 2016) 56 14 {'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 8, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 16, 'PROPN': 16, 'NUM': 3} [NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'csubj': {'adopting'}, 'nmod': {'default'}, 'compound': {'discrimination', 'stan-', 'Bra', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'habituation', 'ces'}, 'xcomp': {'evidencing', 'be'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'prep': {'et', 'in', 'with', 'toward', 'at', 'across', 'as', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'texts', 'manifest', 'evaluation', 'reliability', 'variations'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'beconsidered'}, 'acomp': {'better'}, 'pcomp': {'discriminating'}, 'amod': {'inaccess', 'high', 'such', 'reliable'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Kalbfell', 'al', '.', 'low', 'unreliable', 'Gerjets', 'Anmarkrud', '/C14ten'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ',2009', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'al', '.', 'et', 'Braasch', 'Str', 'Wiley', 'Kammerer', '2016'}, 'advmod': {'ømsø'}, 'dep': {'Goldman'}, 'nummod': {'2012'}, 'npadvmod': {'time'}} Long High Low
266 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use When presented with the opportunity to select from among a set of texts, students differing inassumed default stance may also differ in the number andquality of texts accessed and in their text navigation (i.e.,order of text access) 37 17 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'X': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'When', 'i.e.', 'also'}, 'advcl': {'presented'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'among'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'opportunity', 'texts', 'set', 'navigation', 'access', 'andquality'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'acl': {'differing', 'select', 'accessed'}, 'punct': {',', ',order', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'amod': {'inassumed'}, 'compound': {'default', 'number', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}, 'ROOT': {'differ'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
267 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For students adopting a disengageddefault stance, source access likely unfolds in a sequentialmanner 13 4 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'sequentialmanner'}, 'acl': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'disengageddefault', 'source'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'access'}, 'advmod': {'likely'}, 'ROOT': {'unfolds'}} Medium High Low
268 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students looking to locate a specific answer acrosstexts likely access each available source in order until an acceptable response is identified (i.e., a satisficing strategy ; Reader & Payne, 2007) 30 8 {'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Students', 'acrosstexts', 'response'}, 'acl': {'looking'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'locate'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'each'}, 'compound': {'specific', 'answer'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'likely'}, 'ROOT': {'access'}, 'amod': {'identified', 'available', 'satisficing', 'acceptable'}, 'dobj': {'source'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'order'}, 'mark': {'until'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'attr': {'strategy'}, 'appos': {'Reader'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Payne'}, 'npadvmod': {'2007'}} Long High Medium
269 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Consequently, students may poten-tially access quite a large number of texts in the service ofidentifying an explicitly stated task response 20 7 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, DET, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'tially', 'explicitly', 'Consequently'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'amod': {'large', 'stated', 'poten'}, 'ROOT': {'access'}, 'predet': {'quite'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'number', 'response'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'texts', 'service'}, 'acl': {'ofidentifying'}, 'compound': {'task'}} Long High Low
270 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Reader andPayne (2007) further describe this satisficing approach totext navigation as manifest in students cycling throughtexts, in order, until identifying one meeting their needsand as characteristic of the vast majority of navigation (more than 75% of students; Wilkinson, Reader, & Payne, 2012) 42 15 {'NOUN': 11, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NUM': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, VERB, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, NUM, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'totext', 'approach', 'Reader'}, 'nsubj': {'andPayne'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Wilkinson', '2007', 'Reader'}, 'advmod': {'further'}, 'ROOT': {'describe'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'vast', 'characteristic', 'satisficing', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'%', 'navigation', 'needsand', 'meeting'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'throughtexts', 'manifest'}, 'prep': {'as', 'until', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'majority', 'order', 'navigation'}, 'acl': {'cycling'}, 'pcomp': {'identifying'}, 'nummod': {'one', '75'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Payne'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012'}} Long High Medium
271 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students assuming an affectively engaged default stance likely access texts preferentially, in an order reflecting thestrength of the correspondence between their interest andthe text topic 25 7 {'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Students'}, 'acl': {'assuming', 'reflecting'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'andthe'}, 'advmod': {'affectively', 'preferentially'}, 'amod': {'engaged', 'likely'}, 'compound': {'default', 'access', 'text'}, 'nmod': {'stance'}, 'dobj': {'thestrength', 'topic', 'texts'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'between', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'interest', 'order', 'correspondence'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
272 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Others have likewise identified an interest-driven source selection heuristic (Ainley et al., 2002; Sal-mer/C19on, Kintsch, & Ca ~nas, 2006) 19 4 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 2, 'SYM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Others'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'likewise'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'npadvmod': {'interest', '2006'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', '~nas', ';', '/'}, 'amod': {'driven'}, 'compound': {'selection', 'source', 'et'}, 'dobj': {'heuristic'}, 'nmod': {'Sal', 'Ainley', 'mer'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2002'}, 'conj': {'Kintsch', 'Ca', 'C19on'}, 'cc': {'&'}} Medium High Low
273 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use When texts all address a topic of interest, students adopting this profile may access more texts, as compared to the other profiles 22 11 {'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'texts'}, 'appos': {'all'}, 'advcl': {'address'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'topic', 'profile', 'texts'}, 'prep': {'to', 'compared', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'profiles', 'interest'}, 'punct': {','}, 'csubj': {'adopting'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'access'}, 'amod': {'other', 'more'}, 'mark': {'as'}} Long High High
274 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Further, anevaluative default stance may correspond to studentsaccessing a limited number of texts but being selective andpurposeful in the texts they choose 22 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'limited', 'anevaluative'}, 'compound': {'default'}, 'nsubj': {'stance', 'they'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'correspond'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'studentsaccessing'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'number'}, 'pobj': {'texts'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'being'}, 'acomp': {'andpurposeful', 'selective'}, 'ROOT': {'choose'}} Long High Low
275 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students adhering tothis default stance profile may access texts presentingCOGNITIVE AFFECTIVE ENGAGEMENT MODEL 189 14 1 {'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, NUM] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'acl': {'adhering'}, 'det': {'tothis'}, 'compound': {'default', 'ENGAGEMENT', 'stance', 'AFFECTIVE', 'presentingCOGNITIVE'}, 'dobj': {'profile', 'texts'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'access'}, 'npadvmod': {'MODEL'}, 'nummod': {'189'}} Medium Low Low
276 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use heuristic-based indicators of reliability, like data or cita- tions (e.g., journal articles; Brem et al., 2001) and may beexpected to access multiple texts to corroborate or verifyinformation 27 7 {'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2} [ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'heuristic'}, 'punct': {'-', 'al', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'based', 'multiple'}, 'ROOT': {'indicators'}, 'prep': {'like', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'reliability', 'tions'}, 'nmod': {'Brem', 'data'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'verifyinformation', '.', 'beexpected', 'cita-'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'compound': {'journal'}, 'appos': {'articles', '2001', 'et'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'access'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'advcl': {'corroborate'}} Long High Low
277 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Nevertheless, the total number of texts theyaccess, overall, may be quite limited 12 6 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'advmod': {'quite', 'overall', 'Nevertheless'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'total'}, 'nsubj': {'number'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'texts'}, 'pobj': {'theyaccess'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'limited'}} Medium High Low
278 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Low in engagementor motivation for text access, students assuming an evalua-tive default stance may be expected to refrain from pro-tracted source use 22 7 {'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Low'}, 'prep': {'for', 'from', 'in'}, 'compound': {'default', 'evalua', 'engagementor', 'source', 'tive', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'access', 'motivation'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'acl': {'assuming'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'xcomp': {'refrain'}, 'amod': {'-', 'tracted', 'pro'}} Long High Low
279 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Like students adopting an evaluative default stance, stu- dents falling into the critical analytic default stance profilewould likely access texts evidencing high levels of trust-worthiness 25 4 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'of', 'Like'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'pcomp': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'high', 'critical', 'analytic', 'evaluative'}, 'compound': {'default', 'stu-', 'trust'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'levels', 'texts'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'worthiness', 'dents'}, 'acl': {'evidencing', 'falling'}, 'aux': {'profilewould'}, 'advmod': {'likely'}, 'ROOT': {'access'}} Long High Low
280 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use But unlike their evaluative counterparts, thesestudents may also be likely to access a substantial numberof texts, reflecting engagement with the topic of the task.Although students adopting an evaluative default stancewould likely select texts highest in reliability, regardless of task, those approaching texts in a critical analytic fashion may adapt their evaluative standards to match task demandsand the cognitive products expected 60 22 {'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 18, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'DET': 7, 'SCONJ': 1} [CCONJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'cc': {'But'}, 'prep': {'with', 'unlike', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'evaluative', 'approaching', 'reflecting', 'substantial', 'analytic', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'counterparts', 'topic', 'task', 'reliability', 'fashion'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'products', 'texts', 'thesestudents'}, 'aux': {'may', 'stancewould', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'regardless', 'highest', 'likely', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'be', 'select'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'xcomp': {'access', 'match'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'those'}, 'compound': {'numberof', 'task'}, 'dobj': {'default', 'standards', 'demandsand', 'texts'}, 'npadvmod': {'texts', 'engagement'}, 'mark': {'Although'}, 'advcl': {'adopting'}, 'conj': {'expected', 'adapt'}} Long High Medium
281 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Reader and Payne (2007) described a number of sophisticated navigation str ategies that students, belong- ing to the critical analytic—and to a lesser extent evalu-ative—profiles, may adopt in selecting quality sourcesfor task completion 33 11 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'students', 'Reader'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Payne', 'adopt'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '—', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'2007'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'number', 'ing', 'quality', 'ategies'}, 'prep': {'sourcesfor', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'lesser', 'ative', 'sophisticated', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'completion', 'profiles', 'navigation', 'analytic'}, 'compound': {'str', 'task'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'belong-'}, 'nmod': {'extent'}, 'npadvmod': {'evalu'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'pcomp': {'selecting'}} Long High Low
282 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Among these is sampling or scan- ning through available sources quickly before selecting the best texts to draw on 19 9 {'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP] {'prep': {'through', 'Among', 'before'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'these'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'sampling'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'available', 'scan-', 'best'}, 'conj': {'ning'}, 'advmod': {'quickly'}, 'pcomp': {'selecting'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'relcl': {'draw'}, 'prt': {'on'}} Medium High Low
283 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use More simplistically, strategicnavigation, featuring behav iors like text revisits (i.e., repeated, nonsequential text access) to verify informa-tion, may also be indicative of the adoption of an evalu-ative, or more probably a criti cal analytic, default stance toward multiple text use (Goldman et al., 2012; List &Alexander, 2017; Salmer /C19on & Garc /C19ıa, 2011; Salmer /C19on et al., 2006; Wiley et al., 2009) 62 13 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 22, 'NOUN': 15, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'X': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 19, 'NUM': 5} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, DET, ADJ, X, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'also', 'probably', 'simplistically', 'More', 'i.e.'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'strategicnavigation'}, 'acl': {'featuring'}, 'compound': {'default', 'al', 'informa', 'Salmer', 'et', 'behav', 'text', 'Garc'}, 'dobj': {'iors', 'tion'}, 'prep': {'like', 'of', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'use', 'adoption', 'revisits'}, 'parataxis': {'repeated'}, 'amod': {'ative', 'cal', 'nonsequential', 'multiple', 'analytic'}, 'appos': {'Goldman', 'al', '2017', '.', 'List', '2006', '2009', '2012', 'access', 'et', '/C19on', 'Wiley'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'verify'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'indicative'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'evalu', 'al', '2011', 'et'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'.', '/C19ıa', '/C19on', 'Alexander', 'more'}, 'nmod': {'criti'}} Long High Low
284 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Looking across the four defa ult stance profiles, these may be distinguished by (a) the number of texts studentsaccess (e.g., affective engagement profile), (b) the qualityof texts accessed (e.g., evaluative and critical analyticprofiles), and (c) whether order of access is sequential(e.g., disengaged profile) or more purposeful 46 18 {'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 16, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 18, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'X': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADP, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ] {'advcl': {'Looking'}, 'prep': {'sequential(e.g', 'across', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'compound': {'ult', 'affective', 'texts', 'stance', 'defa', 'engagement', 'qualityof'}, 'pobj': {'profiles', 'access', 'number', 'a', 'studentsaccess'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '.', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'these'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'distinguished'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'more'}, 'appos': {'profile', 'b', 'texts'}, 'acl': {'accessed'}, 'amod': {'disengaged', 'evaluative'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'purposeful', 'analyticprofiles', 'c', 'critical'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'order'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}} Long High Medium
285 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Spe- cifically, they identified students as knowledge seekers,feature explorers, or apathe tic hypertext users 14 3 {'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'Spe-'}, 'advmod': {'cifically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'feature', 'apathe', 'hypertext'}, 'pobj': {'seekers'}, 'conj': {'explorers', 'users'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'tic'}} Medium High Low
286 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Although imperfect analogues, the di fferences among navigation profiles that Lawless et al 13 4 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'amod': {'imperfect', 'Lawless'}, 'ROOT': {'analogues'}, 'punct': {',', 'al'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'navigation', 'di'}, 'appos': {'fferences'}, 'prep': {'among'}, 'pobj': {'profiles'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'et'}} Medium High Medium
287 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Spe cifically, both knowledge seeker and feature explorer profiles accessed materialssignificantly longer than did apathetic hypertext users 17 4 {'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'Spe'}, 'advmod': {'materialssignificantly', 'longer', 'cifically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'compound': {'explorer', 'knowledge', 'feature', 'hypertext'}, 'nsubj': {'seeker', 'users'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'profiles'}, 'ROOT': {'accessed'}, 'mark': {'than'}, 'advcl': {'did'}, 'amod': {'apathetic'}} Medium High Medium
288 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Further, although those int he knowledge seeker profile, corresponding to a critical analytic default stance,accessed more quality hypertext links using more sophis- ticated navigation strategies, feature explorers accessedthe largest number of multimedia sources (e.g., pictures,videos), considered to be of high interest, as we wouldexpect for the affectively engaged.Text processing 49 17 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 11, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 21, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PART, AUX, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'affectively', 'more', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '.', ')'}, 'mark': {'as', 'although'}, 'det': {'a', 'accessedthe', 'the', 'those'}, 'compound': {'default', 'multimedia', 'seeker', 'navigation', 'quality', 'knowledge', 'Text', 'feature', 'int', 'hypertext'}, 'nmod': {'he'}, 'nsubj': {'profile', 'explorers', 'we'}, 'acl': {'considered', 'using', 'corresponding'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'high', 'sophis-', 'analytic', 'ticated', 'more', 'largest'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'sources', 'interest', 'engaged'}, 'ROOT': {'processing', 'accessed'}, 'dobj': {'number', 'strategies', 'links'}, 'appos': {'pictures'}, 'conj': {'videos'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'wouldexpect'}} Long High High
289 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students’ multiple text processing has been differentiated as reflecting skimming (i.e., rapid, selective scanning) or reading (i.e., sustained, linear text processing; Foltz, 1996) 23 4 {'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'X': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'poss': {'Students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'sustained', 'linear', 'rapid', 'reflecting', 'multiple', 'selective'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'nsubjpass': {'processing'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'differentiated'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'pobj': {'skimming'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'appos': {'1996', 'scanning'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'processing'}, 'npadvmod': {'Foltz'}} Long High Low
290 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In turn, reading has been found toinclude both surface- and deep-level text processing (Beiz-huizen & Stoutjesdijk, 1999) 17 5 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In'}, 'pobj': {'turn'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reading'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'oprd': {'toinclude'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'surface-'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'compound': {'Beiz', 'level', 'text'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'Stoutjesdijk'}, 'npadvmod': {'huizen', '1999'}} Medium High Low
291 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Surface-level processing islinear and serialistic , involving students reading through information, in the order in which it appears, and attending to details in text 24 10 {'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 2} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'level', 'Surface'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'processing'}, 'acomp': {'islinear'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'serialistic'}, 'acl': {'reading', 'involving'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'prep': {'through', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'order', 'details', 'information', 'text'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'relcl': {'appears'}, 'pcomp': {'attending'}} Long High Low
292 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Deep-level processing is more global or holistic and includes students drawing inferences and relat- ing aspects of text to one another to formulate conclusions(Beizhuizen & Stoutjesdijk, 1999; Pask, 1976; Salmer /C19on, Naumann, Garc /C19ıa, & Fajardo, 2017) 37 10 {'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 7} [ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM, DET, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Deep', 'relat-', 'ing'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '-', ')'}, 'compound': {'Salmer', 'level', 'Garc'}, 'nsubj': {'processing'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'acomp': {'global'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'holistic', 'aspects', 'includes', '/C19ıa', 'Pask', 'Fajardo', '/C19on', 'Naumann', 'Stoutjesdijk'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'conclusions(Beizhuizen', 'inferences'}, 'acl': {'drawing'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'text'}, 'det': {'another'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'formulate'}, 'appos': {'1976', '2017', '1999'}} Long High Low
293 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Although skimming, surface-level, and deep-level text processing are all necessary for multiple text comprehen-sion, students adopting different default stances may rely on these processing paradigms to varying extents 28 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 14, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PRON, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'amod': {'varying', 'skimming', 'deep', 'different', 'multiple'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'default', 'processing', 'surface', 'comprehen', 'text', 'level'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'level'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'processing'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'dep': {'all'}, 'acomp': {'necessary'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'paradigms', 'extents', 'sion'}, 'csubj': {'adopting'}, 'dobj': {'stances'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'rely'}, 'det': {'these'}} Long High Medium
294 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Specifi- cally, students with a disengaged default stance toward textaccess may primarily engage in skimming, quickly scan-ning sources to find a text-explicit answer 23 7 {'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'text', 'Specifi-'}, 'advmod': {'primarily', 'cally', 'quickly'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in', 'toward'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'ning', 'disengaged', 'scan', 'explicit'}, 'compound': {'default'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'skimming', 'textaccess'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'engage'}, 'dobj': {'sources', 'answer'}, 'relcl': {'find'}} Long High Low
295 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Those adoptingeither an affectively engaged or an evaluative default stancemay be prone to surface-level reading 15 6 {'DET': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, ADV, DET, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'Those', 'an'}, 'dep': {'adoptingeither'}, 'advmod': {'affectively'}, 'preconj': {'engaged'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'evaluative'}, 'compound': {'default', 'surface', 'level'}, 'nsubj': {'stancemay'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'prone'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'reading'}} Medium High Low
296 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students with strongaffective engagement may read texts to accumulate infor-mation of interest to them 14 6 {'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'strongaffective'}, 'pobj': {'interest', 'them', 'engagement'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'dobj': {'mation', 'texts'}, 'advcl': {'accumulate'}, 'compound': {'infor'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'dative': {'to'}} Medium High Low
297 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students with evaluative habits may process texts at the surface level, after validating source quality 15 5 {'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'prep': {'after', 'with', 'at'}, 'amod': {'evaluative'}, 'pobj': {'level', 'habits'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'process'}, 'dobj': {'quality', 'texts'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'surface', 'source'}, 'punct': {','}, 'pcomp': {'validating'}} Medium High Low
298 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In particular, affectively engaged and evalu-ative profiles may best be distinguished by the types ofsources that students access rather than by depth of process-ing evidenced 25 11 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB] {'prep': {'by', 'In', 'of'}, 'amod': {'engaged', 'particular'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'affectively', 'best', 'rather'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than'}, 'npadvmod': {'evalu'}, 'conj': {'evidenced', 'ofsources', 'ative'}, 'nsubjpass': {'profiles'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'distinguished'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'ing', 'types', 'depth'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ccomp': {'access'}, 'compound': {'process'}} Long High Medium
299 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Finally, students adopting a critical analyticdefault stance may be engage in deep-level processing orseek to not only gather information but also work toward acoherent cross-text representation (i.e., cross-textual elabo- ration; Bra /C14ten & Str ømsø, 2011) 36 10 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'Finally', 'i.e.'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'csubj': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'-', 'critical', 'cross', 'elabo-', 'deep', 'acoherent', 'textual', 'text'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'level', 'Bra', 'analyticdefault'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'information'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'toward', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'orseek', 'representation'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'gather'}, 'cc': {'but', '&'}, 'conj': {'work', 'ømsø', 'Str'}, 'appos': {'ration', '2011'}, 'dep': {'/C14ten'}} Long High Low
300 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Substantial differences have been found in the extent to which students engage in sourcing (i.e.,accessing and considering texts’ document information).Nevertheless, consensus seems to be that students engagein sourcing infrequently and rarely without explicit prompt-ing (Britt & Aglinskas, 2002; Gerjets, Kammerer, & Werner, 2011; List et al., 2017; Stadtler & Bromme, 2007) 51 14 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 16, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 11, 'NUM': 4} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Substantial', 'explicit'}, 'nsubjpass': {'differences'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ccomp': {'found', 'engagein'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'extent', 'ing'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'consensus'}, 'relcl': {'engage'}, 'pcomp': {'sourcing'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ',accessing', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'advmod': {'rarely', 'i.e.', 'infrequently'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Britt', 'without', 'Werner', 'Bromme', 'Kammerer', 'Aglinskas', 'Stadtler', 'considering', 'Gerjets'}, 'nmod': {'texts'}, 'compound': {'document', 'prompt', 'List'}, 'dobj': {'.', 'information).Nevertheless'}, 'ROOT': {'seems'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'sourcing'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '2002', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2007', '2017', '2011'}} Long High Medium
301 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The CAEM suggests that whether students access a text’sdocument information is contingent on their default stance.Students adopting an evaluative or critical analytic defaultstance may be expected to frequently engage in sourcing,with students adopting the other two profiles much lessinclined to do so 42 21 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 9, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV] {'det': {'a', 'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'CAEM', 'Students'}, 'ROOT': {'suggests', 'expected'}, 'mark': {'that', 'whether'}, 'csubj': {'access'}, 'compound': {'default', 'text’sdocument'}, 'dobj': {'profiles', 'defaultstance', 'information'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'contingent'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'stance'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'csubjpass': {'adopting'}, 'amod': {'other', 'analytic', 'evaluative'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'critical'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'frequently', 'so', 'much'}, 'xcomp': {'do', 'engage'}, 'pcomp': {'adopting', 'sourcing'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'acl': {'lessinclined'}} Long High High
302 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Those students holding an evaluativedefault stance toward text engagement may access docu- ment information only to make general determinations of text trustworthiness (e.g., to reduce the volume of informa-tion they have to consider; Mason, Boldrin, & Ariasi,2010) 37 14 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT] {'det': {'Those', 'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'acl': {'holding'}, 'compound': {'docu-', 'ment', 'informa', 'text', 'evaluativedefault'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'volume', 'determinations', 'information'}, 'prep': {'of', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'trustworthiness', 'tion', 'engagement'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'access'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'e.g.'}, 'advcl': {'make', 'reduce'}, 'amod': {'general'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'npadvmod': {'Mason'}, 'conj': {'Boldrin', 'Ariasi,2010'}, 'cc': {'&'}} Long High Low
303 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students adopting a critical analytic default stancetoward multiple text use may be likely to attend to the docu-ment information in order to ascertain which sources to190 LIST AND ALEXANDER 29 10 {'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'csubj': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'which', 'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'analytic', 'critical'}, 'nmod': {'default', 'stancetoward'}, 'compound': {'docu', 'ment', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'use', 'LIST'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'xcomp': {'attend'}, 'prep': {'to', 'to190', 'in'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'information'}, 'acl': {'ascertain'}, 'dep': {'sources'}, 'cc': {'AND'}, 'conj': {'ALEXANDER'}} Long High Low
304 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use trust and to reconcile discrepancies across texts (Britt et al., 1999; Wineburg, 1991) 13 3 {'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 2} [PROPN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, X, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'trust'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'conj': {'reconcile', 'Wineburg', '.'}, 'dobj': {'discrepancies'}, 'prep': {'across'}, 'pobj': {'texts'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Britt', '1991', '1999'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}} Medium High Low
305 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Theories of multiple text use have separated students’ accessing of document information and its incorporationinto an intertext model from the use of this information intext integration (i.e., documents model construction; Brittet al., 1999; Perfetti et al., 1999; Rouet & Britt, 2011) 41 10 {'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 3, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 3} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Theories'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'amod': {'intext', 'separated', 'multiple', 'intertext'}, 'compound': {'document', 'model', 'documents', 'text', 'Brittet'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'information'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'det': {'students', 'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'acl': {'accessing'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'nmod': {'incorporationinto'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '1999', 'construction', 'Perfetti', 'model', '2011'}, 'ROOT': {'integration'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'conj': {'Rouet', 'Britt'}} Long High Low
306 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Inthe CAEM, this disjuncture may be understood in terms of motivational factors 12 5 {'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'Inthe', 'this'}, 'dep': {'CAEM'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'disjuncture'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'understood'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'terms', 'factors'}, 'amod': {'motivational'}} Medium High Low
307 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For example, students adopting an evaluative default stance may routinely access documentinformation 12 3 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'For'}, 'pobj': {'example'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'csubj': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'evaluative'}, 'compound': {'default'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'documentinformation'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'advmod': {'routinely'}, 'ROOT': {'access'}} Medium High Low
308 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use However, making use of this document infor-mation in support of multiple text comprehension and inte-gration requires an added level of motivation, such as thatexhibited by students adopting a critical analytic defaultstance toward text access 34 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'csubj': {'making'}, 'dobj': {'mation', 'use', 'level', 'defaultstance'}, 'prep': {'as', 'toward', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'document', 'comprehension', 'students', 'access', 'support', 'motivation'}, 'compound': {'infor', 'inte', 'text'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'such', 'added', 'multiple', 'analytic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'gration'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'pcomp': {'thatexhibited'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'acl': {'adopting'}} Long High Low
309 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Few models have specified what may cause students’ multiple text use to cease 13 5 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB] {'amod': {'Few', 'multiple'}, 'nsubj': {'models', 'use', 'what'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'specified'}, 'ccomp': {'cease', 'cause'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'text'}} Medium High Low
310 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Considering the default stances students adoptallows us to speculate about these factors 12 5 {'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'about', 'Considering'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'compound': {'default'}, 'pobj': {'stances', 'factors'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'adoptallows'}, 'dobj': {'us'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'speculate'}} Medium High Low
311 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For example, forstudents adopting a disengaged default stance, text uselikely concludes once a minimally sufficient task response is identified 19 5 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADV, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'prep': {'For'}, 'pobj': {'example'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'forstudents', 'response', 'text'}, 'acl': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'disengaged', 'sufficient'}, 'compound': {'default', 'task'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}, 'advmod': {'minimally', 'uselikely', 'once'}, 'ROOT': {'concludes'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'identified'}} Medium High Low
312 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students exhibiting an affectively engaged default stance might well persist until their topic interest issatiated 15 5 {'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'nsubj': {'interest', 'Students'}, 'acl': {'exhibiting'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'advmod': {'affectively', 'well'}, 'amod': {'engaged'}, 'compound': {'default', 'topic'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'ROOT': {'persist'}, 'mark': {'until'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'issatiated'}} Medium High Medium
313 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Alternately, for students adopting this type ofdefault stance, cessation may come about through satura- tion(i.e., satiation or when text access is exhaustive such that any additional information gained from texts is redun-dant with information already accumulated) 36 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'already', 'Alternately', 'when', 'such'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.', ')'}, 'prep': {'through', 'for', 'with', 'from'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'access', 'information'}, 'pcomp': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'any', 'this'}, 'nmod': {'type'}, 'compound': {'satura-', 'text', 'ofdefault'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}, 'conj': {'cessation', 'is', 'satiation'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'come'}, 'prt': {'about'}, 'pobj': {'information', 'tion(i.e', 'texts'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'acomp': {'dant', 'exhaustive'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'additional'}, 'acl': {'accumulated', 'gained'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'npadvmod': {'redun'}} Long High High
314 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For students holding an evaluative default stance, source access may be rule based and reflective of a preference for reliable vis- /C18a-vis unreliable texts 24 8 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'X': 1} [ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, X, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'vis', 'for', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'texts', 'students', 'vis-', 'preference', '/C18a'}, 'acl': {'holding'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'amod': {'unreliable', 'evaluative'}, 'compound': {'default', 'source'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'access'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'npadvmod': {'rule'}, 'ROOT': {'based'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reflective'}, 'pcomp': {'reliable'}} Long High Low
315 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students adopting an evaluative default stance may cease source use either whenall the reliable texts available have been accessed or whensome predetermined number of texts have been consulted(e.g., verifying information across two sources) 33 12 {'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 3} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'csubj': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'predetermined', 'available', 'reliable', 'evaluative'}, 'compound': {'default', 'source'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'use', 'number', 'information'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'cease'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'xcomp': {'whenall'}, 'nsubjpass': {'texts'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'conj': {'accessed', 'whensome', 'been'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'prep': {'across', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'texts'}, 'attr': {'consulted(e.g'}, 'punct': {',', '.', ')'}, 'advcl': {'verifying'}, 'nummod': {'two'}} Long High Low
316 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In eithercase, cessation occurs when students reach a thresholdnumber of quality sources (i.e., standards-based cessation) 15 4 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'X': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'eithercase', 'sources'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'cessation', 'students'}, 'ROOT': {'occurs'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'when'}, 'advcl': {'reach'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'thresholdnumber'}, 'compound': {'quality'}, 'npadvmod': {'standards'}, 'amod': {'based'}, 'appos': {'cessation'}} Medium High Medium
317 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Finally, students adopting a critical analytic stance may cease their access only once the expected cognitive prod-ucts have been successfully achieved 21 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'only', 'Finally', 'successfully'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'csubj': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'cognitive', 'expected', 'analytic', 'critical'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'access'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'cease'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'mark': {'once'}, 'compound': {'prod'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ucts'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advcl': {'achieved'}} Long High Medium
318 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For instance, text usemay continue until conceptual understanding is achieved(i.e., cessation through conceptual resolution) 14 4 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'through', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'resolution', 'instance'}, 'punct': {',', '.', ')'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'nsubj': {'usemay', 'understanding'}, 'ROOT': {'continue'}, 'mark': {'until'}, 'amod': {'conceptual'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'achieved(i.e'}, 'dobj': {'cessation'}} Medium High Medium
319 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Shift in Default Stance Although the CAEM describes students as adopting default stances toward multiple text use prior to text engagement, the consistency or stability of these assumed stances throughout text use remains an empirical question 36 12 {'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'csubj': {'Shift'}, 'prep': {'to', 'throughout', 'in', 'of', 'toward', 'as'}, 'compound': {'default', 'Default', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'stances', 'use', 'Stance', 'engagement'}, 'mark': {'Although'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM', 'consistency'}, 'advcl': {'describes'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'stances'}, 'pcomp': {'adopting'}, 'amod': {'assumed', 'multiple', 'empirical'}, 'advmod': {'prior'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'stability'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'attr': {'question'}} Long High Medium
320 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use It seemslikely that shifts in default stance can well occur duringtask performance 12 5 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PROPN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It', 'shifts'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'seemslikely'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'compound': {'default', 'duringtask'}, 'pobj': {'stance'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'occur'}, 'dobj': {'performance'}} Medium High Medium
321 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For instance, students who are initiallydisengaged may become more interested in the topic of atask, transitioning to adopt a more affectively engageddefault stance 23 12 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADV, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'instance', 'atask'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'nsubjpass': {'who'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'initiallydisengaged'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'become'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'acomp': {'interested'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'advcl': {'transitioning'}, 'xcomp': {'adopt'}, 'amod': {'affectively'}, 'compound': {'engageddefault'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}} Long High Low
322 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Conversely, students initially adopting an evaluative default stance may determine that holding suchan orientation is overly taxing and, as a consequence, maymove to being more disengaged 26 10 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'advmod': {'overly', 'initially', 'Conversely', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'csubj': {'adopting', 'holding'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'amod': {'evaluative'}, 'compound': {'default', 'suchan'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'orientation'}, 'aux': {'may', 'is'}, 'ROOT': {'determine'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'taxing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'consequence'}, 'conj': {'maymove'}, 'pcomp': {'being'}, 'acomp': {'disengaged'}} Long High Low
323 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Likewise, evaluative learners may shift to a more task- satisficing approach if they recognize that the texts they areencountering are noncontroversial, representing a generalconsensus on an issue, and therefore do not require particu- lar scrutiny (Braasch et al., 2012) 39 17 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'therefore', 'more', 'Likewise'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'particu-', 'task-', 'lar', 'evaluative'}, 'nsubj': {'learners', 'they', 'texts'}, 'aux': {'may', 'do'}, 'ROOT': {'shift'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'satisficing', 'et'}, 'pobj': {'approach', 'issue'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'recognize', 'representing'}, 'relcl': {'areencountering'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'noncontroversial'}, 'dobj': {'scrutiny', 'generalconsensus'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'require', '.'}, 'appos': {'2012', 'Braasch'}, 'npadvmod': {'al'}} Long High High
324 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Shifts away from or toward a critical analytic default stance may be less likelyto occur 15 7 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2} [NOUN, ADV, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Shifts'}, 'advmod': {'away', 'less'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'toward'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'likelyto', 'analytic', 'critical'}, 'compound': {'default'}, 'pobj': {'stance'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'occur'}} Medium High Low
325 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use This form of engagement requires and is sup-ported by both affective factors and evaluative habits.These may reinforce one another, such that students aremotivated by both their interest in the topic of the task andthe process of evaluating texts and resolving discrepanciesfor deep understanding, itself a cognitively motivating experience (Kintsch, 1998) 50 24 {'DET': 8, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NUM, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'another', 'This', 'a', 'both', 'andthe', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'reinforce', 'form'}, 'prep': {'that', 'discrepanciesfor', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'task', 'affective', 'engagement'}, 'pobj': {'requires', 'students', 'topic', 'interest', 'factors', 'understanding', 'process'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'is', 'habits', 'resolving'}, 'npadvmod': {'sup', '1998'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'acomp': {'ported'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'motivating', 'such', 'evaluative'}, 'nsubj': {'These'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'dobj': {'one', 'texts'}, 'acl': {'aremotivated'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'evaluating'}, 'appos': {'Kintsch', 'itself', 'experience'}, 'advmod': {'cognitively'}} Long High Medium
326 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Task Performance As depicted in Figure 1, the CAEM may be considered to specify multiple source use up to the cessation of textengagement 23 10 {'PROPN': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'Task'}, 'nsubjpass': {'CAEM', 'Performance'}, 'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'depicted'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Figure', 'textengagement', 'cessation'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'xcomp': {'specify'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'dobj': {'source'}, 'conj': {'use'}, 'prt': {'up'}} Long High Medium
327 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Yet, often times, an assigned multiple sourceuse task requires not only cognitive gains to result fromtext access but also for these gains to manifest on measures of text-based task performance 30 13 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'often', 'also', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'npadvmod': {'times', 'text'}, 'det': {'an', 'these'}, 'amod': {'based', 'assigned', 'multiple', 'fromtext', 'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'task', 'sourceuse'}, 'nsubj': {'task', 'gains'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'dobj': {'access', 'gains'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'result'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'conj': {'manifest'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'measures'}} Long High Medium
328 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use It may be expected that students’ assumed default stance and resulting text engage-ment lead to differences in performance 18 7 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'It'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '-'}, 'ccomp': {'assumed'}, 'compound': {'default', 'ment', 'engage', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'resulting'}, 'conj': {'lead'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'differences'}} Medium High Medium
329 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In the sectionsthat follow we consider how the default stances that stu-dents adopt may result in performance differences on com-mon multiple text task outcome measures (i.e., text recall,integration, changes within the individual) 32 11 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 18, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'X': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'within', 'In', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'sectionsthat', 'stu', 'task', 'text', 'performance', 'com', 'outcome'}, 'pobj': {'individual', 'measures', 'follow', 'differences'}, 'nsubj': {'default', 'dents', 'stances', 'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'how'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'relcl': {'adopt'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'result'}, 'nmod': {'mon'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'appos': {'recall'}, 'npadvmod': {'integration'}, 'conj': {'changes'}} Long High Medium
330 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Recall has commonly been used as a text- based performance measure (Bra /C14ten et al., 2011; Duggan & Payne, 2011; Salmer /C19on, Gil, Bra/C14ten, & Str ømsø, 2010; Symons & Pressley, 1993) 32 5 {'PROPN': 16, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 12, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SYM': 1} [PROPN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Recall'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'advmod': {'text-', 'commonly'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'based'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'Str', 'Salmer', 'Bra'}, 'pobj': {'measure'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ',', ';', '/', '/C14ten'}, 'npadvmod': {'2010', '1993', 'Duggan', 'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2011'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Symons', 'Payne', 'Gil', '/C19on', 'Pressley', 'C14ten', 'ømsø'}, 'nmod': {'Bra'}} Long High Low
331 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students varying in the defaultstances they adopt might well perform differently on meas-ures of text recall 16 7 {'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students', 'they'}, 'acl': {'varying'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'ures', 'recall', 'defaultstances'}, 'relcl': {'adopt'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'advmod': {'differently', 'well'}, 'ROOT': {'perform'}, 'compound': {'meas', 'text'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Medium High Low
332 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students with a disengaged default stance may demonstrate the lowest level of text recall 14 5 {'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'disengaged', 'lowest'}, 'compound': {'default', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'recall'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrate'}, 'dobj': {'level'}} Medium High Low
333 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Con- versely, those who are affectively engaged may be expectedto recall the most information from texts 16 8 {'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, AUX, AUX, PROPN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'dep': {'Con-'}, 'advmod': {'versely', 'affectively'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'those', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'engaged'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'compound': {'expectedto'}, 'attr': {'recall'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'most'}, 'dobj': {'information'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pobj': {'texts'}} Medium High Low
334 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Driven by inter-est, these students are more prone to gather and retain infor-mation (i.e., slotting; Anderson et al., 1977), although notnecessarily in a conceptually organized manner 26 9 {'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'advcl': {'slotting', 'Driven'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'manner', '-', 'est', 'inter'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'are', 'Anderson'}, 'advmod': {'conceptually', 'i.e.', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'prone'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'gather'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'retain'}, 'compound': {'infor'}, 'dobj': {'mation'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '1977', 'et'}, 'prep': {'although', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'notnecessarily'}, 'amod': {'organized'}} Long High Medium
335 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Studentsadopting an evaluative default stance could possibly be dis-tinguishable by their strong recall of document information and their ability to accurately associate specific content with its source 27 11 {'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'csubj': {'Studentsadopting'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'strong', 'evaluative'}, 'compound': {'default', 'specific', 'document'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'content'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'possibly', 'accurately'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'dis', '-', 'tinguishable'}, 'prep': {'by', 'with', 'of'}, 'poss': {'its', 'their'}, 'pobj': {'recall', 'source', 'information'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ability'}, 'acl': {'associate'}} Long High Low
336 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Similarly, those students assuming a criticalanalytic default stance may be expected to have high levelsof recall for both text information and document informa-tion and to recall that information in an organized and inte-grated fashion.COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE ENGAGEMENT MODEL 191 38 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, NUM] {'advmod': {'Similarly', 'inte'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.'}, 'det': {'an', 'those', 'a', 'both', 'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'acl': {'assuming'}, 'amod': {'high', 'organized', 'criticalanalytic'}, 'compound': {'default', 'ENGAGEMENT', 'COGNITIVE', 'document', 'AFFECTIVE', 'text', 'levelsof'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'recall', 'information'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'MODEL', 'expected'}, 'xcomp': {'have'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'fashion', 'information'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'grated', 'informa', 'recall', 'tion'}, 'nummod': {'191'}} Long High Low
337 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In a number of studies, students’ multiple text integration has likewise been examined as a higherlevel performance outcome 18 7 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'number', 'outcome', 'studies'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'higherlevel', 'text'}, 'nsubjpass': {'integration'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'advmod': {'likewise'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}} Medium High Low
338 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Integration has been assessedby asking students to recognize sentences accurately orinaccurately formed through combining information pre-sented across two or more sources (e.g., Bra /C14ten, Str ømsø,& Britt, 2009; Bra/C14ten, Str ømsø, & Salmer /C19on, 2011) or by evaluating students’ writing (e.g., Britt & Aglinskas, 2002; Rouet, Britt, Mason, & Perfetti, 1996; Wiley & Voss, 1999) 55 10 {'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NUM': 6, 'CCONJ': 7, 'PUNCT': 22, 'PROPN': 17, 'SYM': 1} [NOUN, AUX, AUX, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Integration'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'attr': {'assessedby'}, 'advcl': {'-', 'asking'}, 'dobj': {'pre', 'writing', 'students', 'information', 'sentences', '/C14ten'}, 'xcomp': {'recognize'}, 'advmod': {'accurately', 'e.g.', 'ømsø', 'orinaccurately'}, 'acl': {'formed'}, 'prep': {'through', 'by', 'across'}, 'pcomp': {'combining', 'evaluating'}, 'conj': {'Mason', 'Britt', 'Rouet', 'sented', 'Aglinskas', 'Perfetti', '/C19on', 'Wiley', 'Voss', 'more'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'Britt'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';', '/'}, 'compound': {'Salmer', 'Bra'}, 'dep': {'Str'}, 'appos': {'Str', '2009', '2002', '1996'}, 'nmod': {'Bra'}, 'npadvmod': {'1999', 'C14ten', '2011'}, 'poss': {'students'}} Long High Low
339 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For students adopting a disengaged default stancetoward multiple text use, performance on measures of inte-gration and evidence of integration in writing would pre-sumably be quite limited 26 10 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADV, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'measures', 'writing', 'integration', 'students', 'gration'}, 'acl': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'disengaged', 'multiple'}, 'compound': {'default', 'inte', 'text'}, 'nmod': {'stancetoward'}, 'dobj': {'use'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'performance'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'evidence'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'pre'}, 'advmod': {'quite', '-', 'sumably'}, 'dep': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'limited'}} Long High Low
340 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Likewise, although studentsadopting an affectively engaged default stance may beexpected to perform well on assessments of text recall, theyare unlikely to put forth the cognitive effort necessary to reconcile discrepancies across texts 32 12 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'affectively', 'well', 'Likewise'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'csubj': {'studentsadopting'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'engaged', 'unlikely', 'necessary', 'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'default', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'effort', 'discrepancies'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'beexpected'}, 'xcomp': {'perform', 'reconcile', 'put'}, 'prep': {'on', 'across', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'assessments', 'recall', 'texts'}, 'dep': {'theyare'}, 'prt': {'forth'}} Long High Medium
341 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students adopting an evaluative default stance may be expected to associate information in texts with documentinformation and may even corroborate information acrosssources, but they may not truly engage in the conflict identi-fication and resolution processes necessary for true multipletext integration 40 17 {'NOUN': 13, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students', 'they'}, 'csubjpass': {'adopting'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'necessary', 'true', 'evaluative'}, 'compound': {'default', 'multipletext', 'resolution', 'information', 'conflict'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'acrosssources', 'information'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'xcomp': {'associate'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'documentinformation', 'integration', 'texts', 'identi-fication'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'advmod': {'even', 'truly'}, 'conj': {'corroborate', 'processes', 'engage'}, 'punct': {','}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Low
342 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For instance, this may manifest in students appropriately citing sources when writing and even identi- fying point of concurrence across texts but being otherwiselimited in composing integrated responses that acknowl-edge and address points of discrepancy 35 15 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'across', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'discrepancy', 'instance', 'texts', 'students', 'concurrence', 'responses'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'this'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'manifest'}, 'advmod': {'appropriately', 'when', 'even', 'identi-'}, 'advcl': {'writing', 'citing'}, 'dobj': {'sources'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'amod': {'composing', 'fying', 'integrated'}, 'conj': {'address', 'point', 'otherwiselimited'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'nmod': {'acknowl', 'edge'}, 'dep': {'points'}} Long High High
343 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use This has been evi-denced in students’ tendencies to simply ignore conflictsarising across texts, rather than engaging in the more effort-ful processes associated with reconciliation or conflict reso-lution (Stadtler & Bromme, 2014) 31 13 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'This'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'npadvmod': {'evi', 'effort'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'acomp': {'denced'}, 'prep': {'with', 'across', 'in'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'tendencies', 'processes', 'reconciliation', 'texts'}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'more', 'rather'}, 'xcomp': {'ignore', 'conflictsarising'}, 'cc': {'or', 'than', '&'}, 'pcomp': {'engaging'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'ful'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'conj': {'Bromme', 'conflict'}, 'compound': {'reso'}, 'dobj': {'lution'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'Stadtler'}} Long High Low
344 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Indeed, the presence of reconciliation and integration may be among the distin- guishing features in the responses of students adopting acritical analytic default stance toward text access 27 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'presence'}, 'prep': {'toward', 'among', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'features', 'students', 'access', 'reconciliation', 'responses'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'integration'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'amod': {'distin-', 'acritical', 'analytic'}, 'compound': {'default', 'guishing', 'text'}, 'acl': {'adopting'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}} Long High Low
345 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Besides recall and inte- gration, a third type of outcome, typically assumed in stud-ies involving multiple texts, occurs within the learner,independent of response formulation 24 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3} [SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'Besides', 'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'nmod': {'recall'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'inte-'}, 'nsubj': {'gration'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'independent', 'multiple', 'third'}, 'appos': {'type'}, 'pobj': {'formulation', 'learner', 'ies', 'outcome'}, 'advmod': {'typically'}, 'acl': {'assumed'}, 'compound': {'response', 'stud'}, 'advcl': {'involving'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'ROOT': {'occurs'}} Long High Medium
346 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Specifically, as a con-sequence of engagement with multiple texts, students may learn new information, resulting not only in knowledge addition but also potentially in knowledge revision or atti-tude change 29 12 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'potentially', 'only', 'Specifically', 'also'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'with', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'con', 'new'}, 'pobj': {'texts', 'engagement', 'revision', 'addition', 'sequence'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'learn'}, 'dobj': {'change', 'information'}, 'advcl': {'resulting'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'atti', 'tude'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'in'}} Long High Low
347 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For example, learners reading a number oftexts on the topic of climate change may not only come toknow more about this topic (i.e., knowledge addition) but,as a result, may start to consider energy conservation to bean important policy issue (i.e., attitude change), ultimatelyresulting in activism or other behavioral change 49 20 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 20, 'PUNCT': 10, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'X': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'For', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'topic', 'example', 'result', 'activism'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'learners', 'toknow', 'conservation'}, 'acl': {'reading'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'policy', 'number', 'climate', 'knowledge', 'attitude', 'energy'}, 'dobj': {'oftexts', 'issue'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'i.e.', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'come'}, 'appos': {'change', 'addition'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'start'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'ccomp': {'bean'}, 'amod': {'other', 'behavioral', 'important'}, 'advcl': {'ultimatelyresulting'}, 'dep': {'change'}} Long High Low
348 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The CAEM offers a limited number of insights regarding how particular changes in knowledge or attitudes may arise.Nevertheless, we may expect that students adopting anaffectively engaged default stance toward text access mayincrease their interest or strengthen their attitudes as a con-sequence of multiple text access 45 19 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 17, 'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'CAEM', 'changes', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'expect', 'offers'}, 'amod': {'limited', 'engaged', 'con', 'particular', 'multiple'}, 'dobj': {'number', 'interest', 'attitudes', 'stance'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'toward', 'as', 'regarding'}, 'pobj': {'mayincrease', 'insights', 'access', 'knowledge', 'sequence'}, 'advmod': {'anaffectively', 'Nevertheless', 'how'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'attitudes', 'strengthen'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'pcomp': {'arise'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'adopting'}, 'compound': {'default', 'access', 'text'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
349 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In the attitude literature,this has been termed attitude polarization , referring to a strengthening of learners’ attitudes as a result of encounter-ing attitude-consistent information (Boysen & Vogel, 2007;Kardash & Scholes, 1996; McCrudden & Sparks, 2014) 35 11 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'as', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'attitude'}, 'pobj': {'literature', 'information', 'attitudes', 'result', 'strengthening'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubjpass': {'this'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'termed'}, 'oprd': {'polarization'}, 'advcl': {'referring'}, 'poss': {'learners'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'npadvmod': {'attitude', 'encounter'}, 'amod': {'ing', 'consistent'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'McCrudden', 'Boysen', '1996'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'2007;Kardash', 'Sparks', 'Vogel', 'Scholes'}} Long High Low
350 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Incontrast, knowledge or attitude revision may be expected toresult only from the deep processing associated with a criti-cal analytic stance toward text access 23 9 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4} [PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Incontrast'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'attitude', 'text'}, 'conj': {'revision'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'oprd': {'toresult'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'cal'}, 'prep': {'with', 'toward', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'analytic', 'criti'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'access', 'stance'}, 'acl': {'associated'}} Long High Low
351 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use PARAMETERS OF THE CAEM After introducing CAEM components, we want to define the scope of this model and outline the aspects of multiple text use it seeks to explain 29 13 {'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB] {'dep': {'PARAMETERS'}, 'prep': {'After', 'OF', 'of'}, 'det': {'this', 'the', 'THE'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'CAEM', 'model'}, 'pcomp': {'introducing'}, 'compound': {'CAEM', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'components', 'aspects', 'scope'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'define', 'explain'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'outline'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'ccomp': {'seeks'}} Long High Low
352 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In the last sections of this articlewe explicitly discuss advantages of the CAEM relative toother models of multiple text use and CAEM limitations 23 9 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PROPN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'last', 'relative'}, 'pobj': {'sections', 'use', 'models', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'articlewe'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly'}, 'ROOT': {'discuss'}, 'dobj': {'advantages', 'limitations'}, 'nmod': {'CAEM'}, 'compound': {'toother', 'text'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'CAEM'}} Long High Low
353 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use We acknowledge that no model—including the CAEM—can account for all possible cognitive or motiva-tional factors relevant to multiple text processing 20 9 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'model', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledge'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'no', 'all', 'the'}, 'punct': {'—'}, 'prep': {'for', 'including', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'CAEM', 'factors'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'account'}, 'amod': {'-', 'possible', 'tional', 'relevant', 'multiple', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'motiva'}, 'compound': {'text'}} Long High Medium
354 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Thatbeing said, parameters of the CAEM were developed in ref- erence to how multiple text use has commonly been investi- gated 21 8 {'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, VERB] {'nsubj': {'Thatbeing'}, 'ROOT': {'said'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'use', 'parameters'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'CAEM', 'erence'}, 'auxpass': {'been', 'were'}, 'ccomp': {'developed'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'ref-'}, 'advmod': {'commonly', 'how'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'dep': {'investi-'}, 'pcomp': {'gated'}} Long High Medium
355 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In general, studies of multiple text use can becharacterized as presenting students with (a) an assignedtaskand (b) a library of multiple texts upon which to draw 26 12 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'X': 1, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PART, VERB] {'prep': {'with', 'of', 'as', 'In', 'upon'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'general'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'studies'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'texts', 'a', 'library', 'use'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'becharacterized'}, 'pcomp': {'presenting'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'nmod': {'assignedtaskand'}, 'dep': {'b'}, 'relcl': {'draw'}} Long High Medium
356 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Commonly, these texts have been (c) controversial in nature and have required students to produce (d) external products as evidence of text processing 23 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Commonly'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nsubj': {'texts'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'attr': {'c'}, 'acomp': {'controversial'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'nature', 'evidence'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'required'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'products'}, 'xcomp': {'produce'}, 'nmod': {'d'}, 'amod': {'external'}, 'compound': {'text'}} Long High Low
357 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use We address each of these four characteristics to delineate the type of multiple text use the CAEM seeks to explain 20 10 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'address'}, 'dobj': {'CAEM', 'type', 'each'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'characteristics'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'delineate'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'dep': {'seeks'}, 'xcomp': {'explain'}} Long High Low
358 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Task Investigations of multiple text use typically examine students’ interactions with texts in response to an assignedtask (e.g., Anmarkrud, McCrudden, Bra /C14ten, & Str ømsø, 2013; Cerd /C19an & Vidal-Abarca, 2008; Wiley & Voss, 1999) 35 5 {'PROPN': 14, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 13, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 3} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Task', 'Cerd', 'Vidal', 'Str', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'Investigations'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'pobj': {'assignedtask', 'use', 'texts', 'response'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'typically'}, 'ROOT': {'examine'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'dobj': {'/C14ten', 'interactions'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'dep': {'Anmarkrud'}, 'appos': {'McCrudden', '2008'}, 'conj': {'ømsø', 'Bra', 'Wiley', 'Abarca', 'Voss'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'2013', '/C19an', '1999'}} Long Low Low
359 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Indeed, in much work, a particular task assignment hasbeen considered to be the initiating event for multiple textuse (Rouet & Britt, 2011) 22 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Indeed'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'multiple', 'much', 'initiating'}, 'pobj': {'textuse', 'work'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'task'}, 'ROOT': {'assignment'}, 'appos': {'hasbeen', 'Rouet'}, 'acl': {'considered'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'event'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Britt'}, 'npadvmod': {'2011'}} Long High Low
360 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The CAEM likewise acknowl-edges task as an important factor guiding learners’ engage- ment with multiple texts 16 4 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'The'}, 'ROOT': {'CAEM'}, 'advmod': {'likewise'}, 'compound': {'acknowl', 'edges', 'engage-', 'factor', 'guiding'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'appos': {'task'}, 'prep': {'as', 'with'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'important'}, 'poss': {'learners'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'ment', 'texts'}} Medium High Low
361 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Specifically, the CAEM seeks to explain students’ multiple text use in response to tasks thatmay be characterized as open-ended, that is, tasks that poseageneral purpose for students’ text processing (McCrud- den & Schraw, 2007), such as forming an argument, arriv-ing at a decision, or justifying an opinion 47 17 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 13, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 15, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically', 'open', 'that', 'is'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'McCrud-', 'CAEM'}, 'ROOT': {'seeks'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'explain'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'poseageneral', 'multiple', 'such', 'ended'}, 'compound': {'arriv', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'argument', 'use', 'opinion'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'in', 'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'tasks', 'decision', 'response'}, 'nsubjpass': {'thatmay'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'characterized', 'purpose'}, 'conj': {'tasks', 'justifying', 'Schraw'}, 'parataxis': {'den'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'2007'}, 'pcomp': {'forming'}, 'appos': {'ing'}} Long High Medium
362 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use These open-ended tasks are not ones that require a single, objectivelycorrect response; rather they allow for a wide variety of responses to be potentially valid, presuming they reflect the comprehension; integration; and, if need be, corroborationof information across texts 39 18 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'These'}, 'amod': {'ended', 'single', 'wide', 'objectivelycorrect', 'open'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'tasks', 'that', 'they', 'need'}, 'ccomp': {'be', 'are', 'reflect'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'ones'}, 'relcl': {'require'}, 'dobj': {'information', 'comprehension', 'response'}, 'advmod': {'potentially', 'rather'}, 'ROOT': {'allow'}, 'prep': {'for', 'across', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'variety', 'responses', 'texts'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acomp': {'valid'}, 'advcl': {'be', 'presuming'}, 'appos': {'integration'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'conj': {'corroborationof'}} Long High Medium
363 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use At the same time, due to itsfocus on the affective factors guiding multiple text use, theCAEM also describes learners’ text processing as reflectinggeneral motivational inclinations (e.g., interest in or192 LIST AND ALEXANDER 32 11 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'At', 'in', 'as', 'due'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'motivational', 'same', 'reflectinggeneral'}, 'pobj': {'LIST', 'factors', 'itsfocus', 'time', 'inclinations'}, 'punct': {',', '('}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'compound': {'or192', 'affective', 'text'}, 'acl': {'guiding'}, 'dobj': {'processing', 'interest', 'use'}, 'nsubj': {'theCAEM'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'describes'}, 'poss': {'learners'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'cc': {'AND'}, 'conj': {'ALEXANDER'}} Long High Low
364 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use curiosity about a topic) that operate regardless of whether tasks are assigned to students or are learner generated 18 9 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADJ, VERB] {'nsubjpass': {'curiosity', 'tasks'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'topic'}, 'punct': {')'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'operate'}, 'advmod': {'regardless'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'pcomp': {'assigned'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'learner'}, 'ROOT': {'generated'}} Medium High Medium
365 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Multiple Texts At the most basic level, studies of multiple text use have been defined merely by the presence of multiple sourcesintroduced to students as part of a designated task (e.g., Bra /C14ten et al., 2009; List et al., 2017; Rouet et al., 1996) 44 14 {'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 14, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 3} [ADJ, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'designated', 'multiple', 'Multiple', 'basic'}, 'nsubjpass': {'studies', 'Texts'}, 'prep': {'At', 'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'merely', 'e.g.', 'most'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'presence', 'part', 'task', 'use', 'multiple', 'level'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'Rouet', 'List', 'et', 'Bra', 'text'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'acl': {'sourcesintroduced'}, 'npadvmod': {'/C14ten', 'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2017', '2009', 'et', '1996'}, 'conj': {'al', '.'}} Long High Low
366 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The need for multiple texts most commonly arises when students elect to or are assigned to investigate complexissues for which no single source may be expected tohave all of the requisite information (Britt et al., 2013).Descriptions of text access in the CAEM are likewisepredicated on learners having access to or being pre-sented with multiple sources of information, such thatth ei nfo rm at io nne ede dt ores olv eat as ki sd is tr ib ut ed across sources, distinctly attr ibuted or differing in format 87 33 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 19, 'ADP': 13, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 15, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 6, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 15, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADV, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'no', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'attr', 'need'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'across'}, 'amod': {'requisite', 'multiple', 'single', 'such'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'sources', 'sd', 'texts', 'access', 'information', 'learners', 'format', 'CAEM', 'dt'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'tohave', 'distinctly', 'most', 'commonly', 'tr'}, 'ccomp': {'arises', 'likewisepredicated'}, 'advcl': {'elect', 'is', 'ores'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are', 'being'}, 'conj': {'.', '2013).Descriptions', 'sented', 'differing', 'assigned'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'investigate'}, 'dobj': {'access', 'complexissues', 'eat'}, 'nsubjpass': {'all', 'source'}, 'relcl': {'expected'}, 'punct': {'(', ','}, 'appos': {'Britt', 'rm'}, 'npadvmod': {'ib', 'al', 'et'}, 'compound': {'nne', 'ede', 'ei', 'io', 'nfo', 'ki', 'olv', 'ut', 'thatth', 'text'}, 'acl': {'having'}, 'acomp': {'pre', '-'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'attr': {'ed'}, 'ROOT': {'ibuted'}} Long High High
367 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Controversy The literature on multiple text use, in recognition of the dubious quality of some of the information on the Internetand the complex nature of knowledge in today’s societies(Coiro, 2003; Goldman & Scardamalia, 2013), has carefully and purposefully selected information sources for students to draw upon during task completion 49 21 {'NOUN': 15, 'DET': 5, 'ADP': 9, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'PART': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 2} [NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'selected', 'Controversy'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'Goldman', 'literature'}, 'prep': {'on', 'during', 'in', 'of', 'upon'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'complex', 'dubious'}, 'compound': {'task', 'information', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'Internetand', 'some', 'societies(Coiro', 'information', 'quality', 'knowledge', 'recognition', 'use', 'completion', 'nature'}, 'punct': {',', ';', ')'}, 'poss': {'today'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'appos': {'2013', '2003'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Scardamalia'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'purposefully', 'carefully'}, 'dobj': {'sources'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'advcl': {'draw'}} Long High High
368 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use These have typicallyvaried in trustworthiness (Bra /C14ten et al., 2011; Bra/C14ten et al., 2009; Kammerer & Gerjets, 2012) and have been deliber-ately assembled to present conflicting views on controver-sial topics, like climate change or genetically modified food(Kienhues, Stadtler, & Bromme, 2011; Rouet et al., 1996;Thomm & Bromme, 2016; Wiley & Voss, 1999) 52 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 19, 'PROPN': 22, 'NUM': 6, 'SYM': 1, 'CCONJ': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'These'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'typicallyvaried'}, 'prep': {'like', 'on', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'topics', 'trustworthiness'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';', '/'}, 'compound': {'climate', 'modified', 'Bra'}, 'npadvmod': {'Rouet', '.', '2009', 'controver', '1999', 'et', '/C14ten', 'deliber'}, 'dobj': {'views', 'al'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2012', '2016', 'et', '2011'}, 'nmod': {'C14ten', 'Bra'}, 'conj': {'food(Kienhues', 'al', 'Bromme', 'Kammerer', '1996;Thomm', 'Stadtler', 'Wiley', 'Gerjets', 'Voss', 'assembled'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advmod': {'ately', 'genetically'}, 'advcl': {'present'}, 'amod': {'conflicting', 'sial'}} Long High Low
369 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Even though motivation and affect have not been explicitly addressed in these studies, there has been the expectationthat controversy or conflict between texts would stimulatelearners’ engagement and result in more deliberate and stra-tegic processing (Anmarkrud, Bra /C14ten, & Str ømsø, 2014) 41 19 {'ADV': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 5, 'AUX': 5, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, DET, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'explicitly', 'more', 'Even'}, 'mark': {'though'}, 'nsubjpass': {'motivation'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'affect', 'result', 'Str', 'conflict', 'ømsø', '/C14ten'}, 'aux': {'would', 'has', 'have'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advcl': {'addressed'}, 'prep': {'between', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'expectationthat', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'processing', 'texts'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'attr': {'engagement', 'controversy'}, 'poss': {'stimulatelearners'}, 'amod': {'deliberate', '-', 'tegic', 'stra'}, 'appos': {'Anmarkrud'}, 'npadvmod': {'2014', 'Bra'}} Long High Medium
370 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The CAEM adopts a broader lens on multiple text com- prehension and integration 13 4 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM'}, 'ROOT': {'adopts'}, 'amod': {'broader', 'multiple'}, 'dobj': {'lens'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'compound': {'com-', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'prehension'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'integration'}} Medium High Low
371 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Specifically, the CAEMattempts to explain learners’ interactions with multiple texts regardless of their comparative trustworthiness, whether the information presented across texts is consistent, comple-mentary, or conflicting in nature, or whether it underscoresor contradicts students’ existing knowledge and attitudes.The CAEM proposes that even the most straightforwardmultiple text task, involving concordant texts of compara-ble trustworthiness, demands that learners engage a host ofhigher level cognitive processes to achieve integration 66 24 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 12, 'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 12, 'NOUN': 22, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'regardless', 'Specifically', 'even', 'most'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.', '’'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'information', 'task', 'learners', 'it', 'CAEM', 'CAEMattempts'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ROOT': {'proposes', 'explain'}, 'poss': {'students', 'learners', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'processes', 'integration', 'texts', 'interactions', 'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'with', 'across', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'straightforwardmultiple', 'ble', 'concordant', 'comparative', 'multiple', 'compara', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'nature', 'texts', 'trustworthiness'}, 'mark': {'that', 'whether'}, 'acl': {'involving', 'presented'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'engage', 'demands'}, 'acomp': {'consistent'}, 'npadvmod': {'comple'}, 'conj': {'conflicting', 'mentary', 'attitudes', 'contradicts'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'csubj': {'underscoresor'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'nmod': {'level', 'host'}, 'dep': {'ofhigher'}, 'advcl': {'achieve'}} Long High High
372 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Such processes include multiple text navigation and the management of information load (Amadieu, Tricot, & Mar-in/C19e, 2010; Madrid, van Oostendorp, & Melguizo, 2009; Rouet & Britt, 2011) and information synthesis and organi-zation (e.g., determining relevance, identifying relationsacross texts; Afflerbach & Cho, 2009; Bra /C14ten & Str ømsø,2011; Rouet & Le Bigot, 2007; Wolfe & Goldman, 2005) 56 7 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 10, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 25, 'PROPN': 20, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 6, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, SYM, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'multiple', 'Such'}, 'nsubj': {'processes'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'compound': {'organi', 'Le', 'information', 'Bra', 'relationsacross', 'van', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'navigation', 'relevance', 'texts'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'Rouet', 'Britt', 'Oostendorp', 'Bigot', 'synthesis', 'Goldman', 'zation', 'management', 'Cho', 'Melguizo', 'Madrid', 'Str', 'Mar', 'Wolfe', 'identifying', '/C14ten', 'ømsø,2011', 'Tricot'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'load', 'C19e'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';', '/'}, 'appos': {'2009', 'Afflerbach', '2010', '2007', 'Amadieu', '2005', '2011'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'acl': {'determining'}} Long Low Low
373 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use As such, multiple text comprehension and integration, ofany form, may be considered a demanding process thatrequires a considerable degree of motivation or effort onthe part of learners 27 11 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3} [ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'As', 'of'}, 'amod': {'ofany', 'considerable', 'such', 'demanding', 'multiple'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'process', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'motivation', 'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'effort', 'integration'}, 'appos': {'form'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'det': {'a', 'onthe'}, 'oprd': {'thatrequires'}, 'dobj': {'degree', 'part'}} Long High Low
374 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Although required when texts are consistent with one another, motivation and multiple text use skills become allthe more necessary when students must resolve disagree- ments across texts or revise their own understanding 32 15 {'SCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NUM, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'advcl': {'required', 'are', 'resolve'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'allthe', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'texts'}, 'acomp': {'necessary', 'consistent'}, 'prep': {'with', 'across'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'texts'}, 'det': {'another'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'skills', 'motivation', 'revise'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'own'}, 'compound': {'use', 'disagree-', 'text'}, 'ROOT': {'become'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'dobj': {'ments', 'understanding'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
375 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use This type of reconciliation or knowledge revision requires thatstudents engage a host of additional processing skills, suchas corroboration and evaluation (Stadtler & Bromme, 2014;Stadtler, Scharrer, Brummernhenrich, & Bromme, 2013;Wolfe & Goldman, 2005) 32 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'type'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'reconciliation'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'knowledge'}, 'conj': {'Goldman', 'Bromme', '2014;Stadtler', '2013;Wolfe', 'revision', 'evaluation', 'suchas', 'Scharrer', 'Brummernhenrich'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'dobj': {'corroboration', 'thatstudents', 'host'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'amod': {'additional'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2005', 'Stadtler'}} Long High Low
376 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Although reconciliation may beconsidered a more demanding process than the synthesis ofmultiple texts (Barzilai, Tzadok, & Eshet-Alkalai, 2015; Britt et al., 1999), students’ reasoning about multiple texts is, nevertheless, uniformly conceptualized in the CAEM asthe joint consequence of motivation and skillfulengagement 41 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'reconciliation'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'advcl': {'beconsidered'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'uniformly', 'nevertheless', 'more'}, 'amod': {'asthe', 'joint', 'demanding', 'ofmultiple', 'multiple'}, 'dobj': {'consequence', 'process'}, 'prep': {'about', 'than', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'Eshet', 'synthesis'}, 'pobj': {'CAEM', 'motivation', 'texts'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'2015', 'Barzilai'}, 'conj': {'al', 'Tzadok', '.', 'skillfulengagement', 'Alkalai'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'1999', 'Britt', 'et'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'conceptualized'}} Long High Medium
377 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use External Products Within this literature, resea rchers have assessed multiple text comprehension and inte gration in a variety of ways, through students’ responses both to objectively scored questions and to writing prompts (Bra /C14ten et al., 2009; Cerd /C19an & Vidal-Abarca, 2008; Wiley & Voss, 1999) 46 12 {'PROPN': 13, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 3} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Cerd', 'Vidal', 'Bra', 'text', 'External'}, 'nsubj': {'rchers', 'Products'}, 'prep': {'through', 'Within', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'variety', 'responses', 'literature'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'resea', 'multiple'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'assessed'}, 'nmod': {'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'to', 'inte', 'Wiley', 'Abarca', 'Voss'}, 'dobj': {'prompts', 'al', '.', 'questions', 'gration'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'advmod': {'both', 'objectively'}, 'acl': {'scored'}, 'pcomp': {'writing'}, 'npadvmod': {'1999', '/C14ten', '/C19an', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2008', '2009'}} Long High Low
378 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Typically, these assessments have resulted in the devel-opment of a physical product (e.g., a written response)thought to correspond to the multiple-text representa-tions readers cognitively construct (Britt et al., 1999).The CAEM, likewise, focuses on the cognitive outcomes of text access (termed cognitive products ) and considersho wt hes em a yb ere fl ec te di ns tudents’ performance on multiple text tasks 62 17 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 13, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 19, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 10, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 2, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, X, PRON, VERB, PRON, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, X, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'Typically', 'likewise', 'cognitively'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'assessments', 'he', 'response)thought'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'performance', 'resulted'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'representa', 'considersho', 'yb', 'ec', 'tions', 'text', 'devel', 'fl'}, 'pobj': {'opment', 'access', 'tasks', 'outcomes', 'readers', 'product'}, 'amod': {'termed', 'written', 'multiple', 'physical', 'cognitive'}, 'relcl': {'correspond', 'construct'}, 'nmod': {'Britt', 'tudents', 'te', 'text', 'ns', 'di'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'conj': {'s', 'al', '.', 'focuses'}, 'nummod': {'1999).The'}, 'dobj': {'CAEM'}, 'appos': {'products'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'intj': {'wt'}, 'attr': {'em'}, 'preconj': {'ere'}} Long High Low
379 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Moreover, due to its motivationalfocus, the CAEM recognizes that noncognitive productsshould likewise result as an outcome of text access.These include learners’ increased interest in a topic orattitudinal change 28 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'likewise'}, 'punct': {',', '.', '’'}, 'prep': {'in', 'as', 'of', 'due'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'motivationalfocus', 'access', 'outcome'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM', 'noncognitive', 'These'}, 'ROOT': {'recognizes', 'include'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'productsshould'}, 'ccomp': {'result'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'dobj': {'learners'}, 'amod': {'increased', 'orattitudinal'}, 'appos': {'interest'}, 'nmod': {'topic'}} Long High Medium
380 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Justification for the CAEM Motivational and skill-based aspects of text processinge nc omp as se di nth eC AE Mar eno tun iqu et om ult i pl etext comprehension; they apply to single text reading aswell (e.g., Guthrie & Wigfield, 1999) 42 8 {'PROPN': 14, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'X': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, X, X, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, X, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Justification', 'they'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'AE', 'etext', 'nc', 'processinge', 'tun', 'et', 'Mar', 'om', 'text', 'pl', 'CAEM', 'eno'}, 'nmod': {'i', 'Motivational'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'skill', '1999'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'based', 'single'}, 'pobj': {'aswell', 'aspects', 'di', 'omp'}, 'pcomp': {'se'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'nth'}, 'ROOT': {'eC', 'apply'}, 'dobj': {'iqu'}, 'conj': {'Wigfield', 'ult'}, 'dep': {'comprehension'}, 'appos': {'Guthrie'}} Long High Low
381 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Nevertheless, theCAEM is a model specific to multiple text comprehen-sion and integration 12 5 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Nevertheless'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'theCAEM'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'model', 'comprehen', 'text'}, 'attr': {'specific'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'pobj': {'sion'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'integration'}} Medium High Low
382 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use First, multiple text processing presents unique informa- tional, cognitive, and motivational demands for students,required to process a much larger volume of informa-tion, integrate that informati on, and engage in evaluative processes to a much more deliberate extent (Rouet,2006) 38 15 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 11, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, X, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'informa-', 'much', 'First', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'deliberate', 'evaluative', 'tional', 'larger', 'unique', 'multiple'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'informa', 'text'}, 'ROOT': {'presents'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'engage', 'integrate', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dobj': {'demands', 'volume'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'that'}, 'pobj': {'processes', 'tion', 'students', 'informati', 'extent'}, 'acl': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'process'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'prt': {'on'}, 'appos': {'Rouet,2006'}} Long High Medium
383 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use single text processing is associated with a focus on how students comprehend not onlyt raditional print texts but also texts in new, multimedia formats and in novel, digi-tal contexts (Bra /C14ten, Braasch, & Salmer /C19on, 2016; Gold- man et al., 2010) 41 11 {'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'tal', 'Gold-', 'single', 'new', 'raditional', 'onlyt'}, 'compound': {'multimedia', 'Salmer', 'Bra', 'text', 'print', 'digi'}, 'nsubjpass': {'processing'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'associated'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'novel', 'formats', 'focus'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'how'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'pcomp': {'comprehend'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', '&'}, 'dep': {'texts'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'in', '/C19on', 'contexts'}, 'appos': {'et', '2010', 'Braasch', 'man', '/C14ten', '2016'}} Long High Medium
384 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use A feature of these digital contexts isthat they require students to engage skills associatedwith effective multiple text use (e.g., strategic naviga-tion, source evaluation) to an even greater extent and to be all the more motivated to do so, particularly in the face of challenge (Coiro, 2003; Dalton & Proctor, 2008;Leu, Kinzer, Coiro, & Cammack, 2004) 55 20 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 15, 'ADV': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 3} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, AUX, DET, PRON, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'A', 'an', 'these', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'feature', 'they'}, 'prep': {'associatedwith', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'digital', 'challenge', 'extent', 'use', 'face'}, 'ROOT': {'contexts'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'skills', 'isthat'}, 'ccomp': {'require'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'do', 'engage'}, 'amod': {'effective', 'naviga', 'greater', 'strategic', 'multiple'}, 'compound': {'source', 'text'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'advmod': {'particularly', 'so', 'e.g.', 'all', 'even', 'the', 'more'}, 'nmod': {'tion'}, 'appos': {'2004', '2003', 'evaluation', '2008;Leu'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Proctor', 'Dalton', 'Cammack', 'be', 'Kinzer', 'Coiro'}, 'acomp': {'motivated'}, 'npadvmod': {'Coiro'}} Long High Low
385 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Across printand digital contexts, the CAEM is focused on under- standing the skills, strategies, habits, and motivationalstores, and their interactions, that impact students’engagement with and integration of multiple texts 29 12 {'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of', 'Across'}, 'pobj': {'printand', 'texts'}, 'compound': {'digital'}, 'dobj': {'skills', 'students’engagement', 'contexts'}, 'punct': {',', 'impact'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'CAEM'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'nsubj': {'under-'}, 'pcomp': {'standing'}, 'conj': {'integration', 'interactions', 'motivationalstores', 'habits', 'strategies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}} Long High Low
386 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use CAEM ADVANTAGES The CAEM draws on both behaviorally and cognitively ori- ented models of multiple source use (e.g., Britt et al., 2013;Britt et al., 1999; Rouet, 2006) 27 5 {'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 10, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 2} [VERB, PROPN, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, X, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'CAEM', 'draws'}, 'punct': {')', 'ADVANTAGES', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'amod': {'behaviorally', 'multiple', 'ented'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'cognitively', 'al'}, 'nmod': {'Britt', 'ori-'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'use'}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'2013;Britt', 'al', '.', 'et'}, 'dobj': {'.'}, 'appos': {'Rouet', '2006', '1999'}} Long High Low
387 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use However, as a point ofdeparture, the CAEM argues that multiple text engagementmay best be understood in terms of students’ motivationalorientations toward a task or topic and habits with regard to source evaluation 32 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'best'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'toward', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'point'}, 'pobj': {'motivationalorientations', 'terms', 'task', 'source', 'regard', 'ofdeparture'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM'}, 'ROOT': {'argues'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'nsubjpass': {'engagementmay', 'text'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'understood'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'topic', 'habits'}, 'dep': {'evaluation'}} Long High Medium
388 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The CAEM offers a number of advan- tages relative to extant models 12 4 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM'}, 'ROOT': {'offers'}, 'dobj': {'number'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'advan-', 'extant', 'relative'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'tages'}} Medium High Low
389 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Like behavioral models, the CAEM understands mul- tiple source use to unfold thr ough a series of text-proc- essing actions (e.g., text se lection, accessing document information) 27 4 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'X': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, VERB, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, X, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'of', 'ough', 'Like'}, 'amod': {'tiple', 'essing', 'accessing', 'behavioral', 'se'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'series', 'actions'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM'}, 'ROOT': {'use', 'understands'}, 'dep': {'mul-'}, 'compound': {'document', 'source', 'text'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'unfold'}, 'dobj': {'thr'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'nmod': {'proc-'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'lection', 'information'}} Long Low Low
390 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use However, in classifying students’ textengagement according to default stances, the CAEMprovides a framework whereby text use behaviors can be differentiated and explained in terms of students’ motivation and habits with re gard to text evaluation 35 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 15, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'whereby', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'prep': {'according', 'to', 're', 'in', 'with', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'classifying', 'textengagement'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'compound': {'default', 'use', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'gard', 'terms', 'evaluation', 'motivation', 'stances'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'CAEMprovides'}, 'appos': {'framework'}, 'nsubjpass': {'behaviors'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'differentiated'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'habits', 'explained'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Medium
391 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use For instance, although existing mod els identify source selec- tion as a key behavior within the larger process of mul-tiple source use (e.g., Brand-Gruwel, Wopereis, &Vermetten, 2005; Britt et al., 2013), the CAEM offerspotential insights into why some students may elect toaccess many texts and others only a few, even when responding to the same task 56 23 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 16, 'PUNCT': 13, 'SCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'PROPN': 11, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'For'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'insights', 'behavior', 'task', 'use', 'process'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'mul', 'offerspotential', 'many', 'larger', 'same', 'key'}, 'compound': {'tiple', 'Brand', 'source', 'mod', 'selec-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'els'}, 'advcl': {'responding', 'identify'}, 'nmod': {'CAEM', 'toaccess', 'source'}, 'dobj': {'Britt', 'Gruwel', 'tion', 'texts'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'into', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'some'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'when', 'why', 'e.g.', 'even'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'others', 'Wopereis', 'Vermetten'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'few', '2005', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2013'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'pcomp': {'elect'}, 'quantmod': {'a'}} Long High High
392 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Further, by examining students’ source use as gui ded by a default stance, seemingly independent behaviors (e.g., source selection,evaluation) can be interpreted and unified through acommon framework 27 9 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'seemingly', 'Further'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', 'e.g.'}, 'prep': {'by', 'as', 'through'}, 'pcomp': {'examining'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'compound': {'default', 'source', 'acommon'}, 'nsubjpass': {'selection', 'use'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'framework', 'gui'}, 'acl': {'ded'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'independent'}, 'appos': {'behaviors', 'evaluation'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'interpreted'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'unified'}} Long High Low
393 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use A key distinction between existing models and the CAEM is their treatment of topic 14 7 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'key'}, 'nsubj': {'distinction'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'topic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'CAEM'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'attr': {'treatment'}} Medium High Low
394 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Although many modelshave conceptualized multiple text use as functioning in sim- ilar ways across domains, the CAEM suggests that students’ engagement with a particular topic is a strongdeterminant of high-level cognitive processing and perfor-mance 34 13 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'amod': {'many', 'high', 'ilar', 'particular', 'multiple', 'sim-', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'CAEM', 'engagement', 'modelshave'}, 'advcl': {'conceptualized'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'dobj': {'use'}, 'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'across'}, 'pcomp': {'functioning'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'processing', 'topic', 'domains'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'suggests'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'strongdeterminant'}, 'nmod': {'level'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'mance', 'perfor'}} Long High High
395 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Further, the CAEM’s focus on task topic alongsidestudents’ skills in source evaluation provides a frameworkfor examining domain-specific text engagement, as hasbeen explored in early studies of multiple text use (Wine- burg, 1991) 32 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'poss': {'CAEM', 'alongsidestudents'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'hasbeen', 'focus'}, 'prep': {'Wine-', 'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'task', 'source', 'text', 'domain', 'specific'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'skills', 'use', 'evaluation', 'burg'}, 'ROOT': {'provides'}, 'dobj': {'frameworkfor', 'engagement'}, 'pcomp': {'examining'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'explored'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'early'}, 'npadvmod': {'1991'}} Long High Medium
396 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In positioning students’ evaluative skills and habits as central to effective multiple source use, in conjunction withmotivation, the CAEM is able to account for a wide rangeof performance outcomes 29 10 {'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'for', 'In', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'positioning'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'amod': {'rangeof', 'effective', 'central', 'evaluative', 'wide', 'multiple'}, 'dobj': {'skills'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'habits'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'conjunction', 'source'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'withmotivation', 'outcomes'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'account'}} Long High Low
397 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In instances where students’ per-formance has been found to differ across tasks, the CAEMexplains such discrepancies as a function of motivation or lack thereof 24 13 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV] {'ROOT': {'In'}, 'pobj': {'formance', 'instances', 'CAEMexplains', 'tasks', 'motivation', 'function'}, 'advmod': {'thereof', 'where'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ','}, 'nmod': {'per'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'found'}, 'xcomp': {'differ'}, 'prep': {'as', 'across', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'appos': {'discrepancies'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'lack'}} Long High Medium
398 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In cases where students perform consistently poorly, limitations in source use skills may be to blame 16 6 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, PART, VERB] {'prep': {'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'skills'}, 'advmod': {'poorly', 'where', 'consistently'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'limitations'}, 'relcl': {'perform'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'use', 'source'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'blame'}} Medium High Medium
399 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Assuch, the CAEM serves as an umbrella framework toexplain the variation in multiple source use task perfor-mance documented across studies (Goldman et al., 2012).More generally, the CAEM offers at least seven keyinsights regarding the nature of students’ engagement withmultiple texts: 1 41 12 {'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 15, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'ADV': 3} [ADJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, NUM, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM] {'npadvmod': {'Assuch', 'et'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ':', '('}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'CAEM', 'variation'}, 'ccomp': {'use', 'serves'}, 'prep': {'regarding', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'across'}, 'compound': {'umbrella', 'withmultiple', 'task', 'perfor'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'texts', 'framework', 'source', 'nature'}, 'advcl': {'toexplain'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'engagement'}, 'dobj': {'1', 'keyinsights', 'mance'}, 'xcomp': {'documented'}, 'appos': {'Goldman', '2012).More'}, 'conj': {'al', '.'}, 'advmod': {'at', 'generally', 'least'}, 'ROOT': {'offers'}, 'nummod': {'seven'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
400 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use While students have general approaches to multi- ple text access, based on their habituated multipletext use skills, they may engage these to greater or lesser extents, depending on task- and topic-specific factors 32 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, PART, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'have'}, 'amod': {'multi-', 'task-', 'greater', 'habituated', 'general'}, 'dobj': {'approaches', 'these'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'depending'}, 'compound': {'multipletext', 'topic', 'use', 'text', 'ple'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'extents', 'access', 'factors'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'engage'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'specific', 'lesser'}} Long High Medium
401 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Multiple text use is a complex process requiring stu- dents to be both motivated and affectively engaged and to possess habituated skills in source evaluation 25 9 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, PART, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'stu-', 'habituated', 'Multiple', 'complex'}, 'compound': {'source', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'use'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'process'}, 'acl': {'requiring'}, 'dobj': {'skills', 'dents'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'acomp': {'motivated'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'affectively'}, 'conj': {'engaged', 'possess'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'evaluation'}} Long High Low
402 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Students’ affective engagement with a particular topic or motivation is central to high-level text proc-essing or multiple text integration 19 6 {'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'poss': {'Students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'level', 'affective', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'engagement'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'high', 'essing'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'text'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'multiple', 'motivation'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'central'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'npadvmod': {'proc'}, 'attr': {'integration'}} Medium High Low
403 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use In many cases, students’ approaches to text use may be classified as disengaged or restricted in motivation and skill use 20 9 {'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'as', 'in'}, 'amod': {'many', 'disengaged'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'use', 'motivation'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'nsubjpass': {'approaches'}, 'compound': {'skill', 'text'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'classified'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'restricted', 'use'}} Long High Low
404 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use There are key qualitative differences among students’ manife st source use behaviors 12 3 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'amod': {'qualitative', 'key'}, 'attr': {'differences'}, 'prep': {'among'}, 'pobj': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'compound': {'manife', 'st'}, 'nsubj': {'source'}, 'ROOT': {'use'}, 'dobj': {'behaviors'}} Medium High Low
405 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Various source use behaviors may be understood as relatedto one another and as arising, systematically, fromdifferences in students’ orientations toward multi-ple texts 22 10 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, DET, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'Various', '-', 'multi', 'ple'}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'nsubjpass': {'use'}, 'dobj': {'behaviors'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'understood'}, 'prep': {'as', 'toward', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'relatedto', 'orientations', 'texts'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'det': {'another'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'as', 'fromdifferences'}, 'pcomp': {'arising'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'advmod': {'systematically'}, 'nmod': {'students'}} Long High Low
406 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Across tasks, students may shift the default stances they adopt in prescribed ways, based on their habits with regard to source evaluation and interest in par-ticular topics 27 11 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'Across', 'in', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'tasks', 'evaluation', 'regard', 'habits', 'topics'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'shift'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'default', 'source'}, 'dobj': {'stances'}, 'relcl': {'adopt'}, 'amod': {'prescribed', 'ticular'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'npadvmod': {'par'}} Long High Low
407 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use FURTHER DIRECTIONS Despite the advantages of the CAEM over other models of multiple source use and the insights garnered, there are sev- eral avenues of research that need to be pursued 31 15 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB] {'amod': {'other', 'FURTHER', 'multiple', 'eral'}, 'advcl': {'DIRECTIONS'}, 'prep': {'of', 'Despite', 'over'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'use', 'CAEM', 'advantages', 'research'}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'insights'}, 'conj': {'garnered'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'sev-'}, 'attr': {'avenues'}, 'relcl': {'need'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'pursued'}} Long High Medium
408 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use The ave- nues identified here are not intended to be a comprehensivelist, as presently much of the CAEM is only conceptuallydefined and therefore speculative 24 15 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'ave-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'nues', 'much'}, 'acl': {'identified'}, 'advmod': {'presently', 'therefore', 'here', 'only'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'intended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'comprehensivelist'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'CAEM'}, 'advcl': {'conceptuallydefined'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'speculative'}} Long High Medium
409 Cognitive Affective Engagement Model of Multiple Source Use Indeed, each componentof the model requires further theoretical specification andempirical support.194 LIST AND ALEXANDER 14 5 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'nsubj': {'componentof'}, 'appos': {'model'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'amod': {'andempirical', 'further', 'theoretical'}, 'nmod': {'specification'}, 'compound': {'support.194'}, 'dobj': {'LIST'}, 'cc': {'AND'}, 'conj': {'ALEXANDER'}} Medium High Low
410 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We conclude by sharing insights we have garnered from this experience that may serve others who are confronting similar issues in their students’ writing abilities 25 13 {'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'We', 'who', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'conclude'}, 'prep': {'by', 'in', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'sharing'}, 'dobj': {'others', 'abilities', 'issues', 'insights'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'are'}, 'relcl': {'confronting', 'garnered', 'serve'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'experience'}, 'amod': {'similar'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'advcl': {'writing'}} Long High Low
411 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Keywords argumentation, argumentative essay, academic writing, comparative writing, summaries The purpose of this article is to describe challenges we have encountered in college students’ argumentation writing that emerged within an innovative course created to improve undergraduates’ ability to learn effectively and effi-ciently, and to share our responses to those challenges 50 19 {'VERB': 9, 'NOUN': 18, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'argumentation', 'purpose', 'Keywords', 'that', 'we'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'amod': {'innovative', 'academic', 'argumentative', 'comparative'}, 'appos': {'essay'}, 'conj': {'effi', 'share', 'writing'}, 'ROOT': {'summaries'}, 'det': {'an', 'The', 'this', 'those'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'challenges', 'article'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'describe'}, 'dobj': {'writing', 'undergraduates', 'ability', 'challenges', 'responses'}, 'relcl': {'emerged', 'encountered'}, 'compound': {'argumentation', 'college'}, 'poss': {'students', 'our'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'acl': {'created', 'learn'}, 'advcl': {'improve'}, 'advmod': {'ciently', 'effectively'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
412 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course What we seek to con-tribute to this special issue and to the literature on argumentation is a nuanced portrayal of how the efforts to improve college students’ knowledge of, interest in, and strategic capacity for learning interface with writing activities meant to record, reveal, and enrich their learning 48 23 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 9, 'NOUN': 16, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2} [PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'dobj': {'learning', 'knowledge', 'What', 'interface'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'csubj': {'seek'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'compound': {'con', 'writing', 'college'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'interest', 'literature', 'argumentation', 'tribute', 'activities'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'nuanced', 'special'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'capacity', 'enrich', 'to', 'reveal'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'portrayal'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'efforts'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'meant', 'improve'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'xcomp': {'record'}} Long High Medium
413 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The theoretical perspective on the con-fluence of learning and writing that guided the design of the course curriculum, and the role ascribed to argumentation writing, was shaped by the integration of a pragmatic view of learning (Dewey, 1910; James, 1890; Peirce, 1905) with a social-cognitive orientation toward writing in academic contexts (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987; Graham, 2018) 57 22 {'DET': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 10, 'PUNCT': 16, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 5} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'pragmatic', 'social', 'academic', 'cognitive'}, 'ROOT': {'perspective'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'toward'}, 'compound': {'course', 'con', 'argumentation'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'pobj': {'orientation', 'writing', 'integration', 'view', 'learning', 'curriculum', 'fluence', 'contexts'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'writing', 'Scardamalia', 'Graham', 'Peirce', 'shaped', 'Bereiter'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'guided'}, 'dobj': {'design'}, 'nsubjpass': {'role'}, 'acl': {'ascribed'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'npadvmod': {'1987', '1910', 'Dewey'}, 'appos': {'2018', '1905', '1890', 'James'}} Long High Low
414 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As such, we placed a premium on the rel-evance of the instructional content of Learning How to Learn (LHL) to stu-dents’ interests, current academic pursuits, and future career goals (Alexander, 2003; Markus & Nurius, 1986; Schoute et al., 2022) 39 13 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 15, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 3} [ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'As', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'future', 'such', 'current', 'academic'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'placed'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'LHL', '.', 'premium'}, 'compound': {'Schoute', 'career', 'stu', 'et', 'rel'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'interests', 'evance'}, 'pcomp': {'Learning'}, 'advmod': {'How'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'Learn'}, 'nmod': {'dents'}, 'conj': {'goals', 'Nurius', 'Markus', 'pursuits'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'appos': {'1986', '2003', 'Alexander', '2022'}, 'npadvmod': {'al'}} Long High Medium
415 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Also, in keeping with the Deweyan principle of “learning by doing” (1916), we engaged students in per - sonally relevant experiences, such as crafting an argumentative essay on a topic that they found controversial and worth investigating 37 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADP': 8, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'per', 'sonally', 'Also'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'by', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'keeping', 'crafting', 'doing'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'such', 'Deweyan', 'argumentative'}, 'pobj': {'principle', 'topic', 'experiences'}, 'npadvmod': {'1916'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'engaged'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'essay'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'found'}, 'acomp': {'controversial'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'worth'}, 'xcomp': {'investigating'}} Long High Low
416 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Moreover, the argumentative essay task, as we envisioned it, would embody planning, thinking, and reasoning processes that had been taught and reinforced over the semester and would build on certain forms of writing (i.e., summaries and comparative analyses) that were integral to the course 44 22 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'X': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'i.e.', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'argumentative', 'comparative'}, 'compound': {'essay', 'reasoning'}, 'nsubj': {'task', 'that', 'we'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'envisioned'}, 'dobj': {'planning', 'it'}, 'aux': {'would', 'had'}, 'ROOT': {'embody'}, 'conj': {'reinforced', 'summaries', 'processes', 'build', 'analyses', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'were', 'taught'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'semester', 'forms', 'writing'}, 'acomp': {'integral'}} Long High Medium
417 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In effect, we wanted students in LHL not only to demonstrate the ability to locate relevant readings on a specific topic and to identify and record key arguments, evidence, and counterarguments from selected readings but also to integrate ideas from those readings into a coherent and cohesive essay that explained and supported their position (Gil et al., 2010; Nussbaum & Schraw, 2007) 62 26 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 9, 'PROPN': 7, 'PART': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 7, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, ADV, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'from', 'in', 'into', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'LHL', 'effect', 'readings', 'essay'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'wanted'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'demonstrate'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'dobj': {'ability', 'readings', 'arguments', 'position', 'ideas'}, 'acl': {'locate'}, 'amod': {'coherent', 'selected', 'specific', 'relevant', 'key'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', '&'}, 'conj': {'Nussbaum', 'al', 'counterarguments', '.', 'cohesive', 'integrate', 'Schraw', 'supported', 'evidence', 'identify', 'record'}, 'relcl': {'explained'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'Gil', '2007', '2010'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
418 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We also wanted students to share their viewpoints and the reasoning underlying judgments with classmates through quality discussions (Murphy et al., 2018) 22 8 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'students', 'We'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'wanted'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'share'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'viewpoints'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'underlying', 'reasoning'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'judgments'}, 'prep': {'through', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'discussions', 'classmates'}, 'compound': {'quality'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Murphy'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
419 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The summary and comparative writing activities in LHL were also meant to be functional—another critical characteristic of pragmatism 18 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'another', 'The'}, 'nsubjpass': {'summary'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'comparative'}, 'compound': {'writing'}, 'conj': {'activities'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'LHL', 'pragmatism'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'functional'}, 'punct': {'—'}, 'parataxis': {'characteristic'}} Medium High Low
420 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Specifically, as a way to increase the value of those writing tasks, students were free to refer to the summaries and compare-and-contrast analyses of readings they had recorded in their personal journals when taking the course exams 37 19 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically', 'when'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'summaries', 'journals', 'way', 'readings', 'tasks'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'recorded', 'increase'}, 'dobj': {'exams', 'value'}, 'compound': {'course', 'writing'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'free'}, 'xcomp': {'refer'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'compare'}, 'conj': {'analyses', 'contrast'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'personal'}, 'advcl': {'taking'}} Long High Medium
421 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Another precept guiding our actions throughout the course was that knowl- edge building is a cornerstone of deep learning that students could transfer to other academic contexts and to their lives outside of college (Alexander, 2018; Alexander & Murphy, 1999) 40 17 {'DET': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2} [DET, VERB, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'Another', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'building', 'precept', 'that', 'students'}, 'xcomp': {'guiding'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'dobj': {'actions'}, 'prep': {'to', 'outside', 'throughout', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'college', 'course', 'learning', 'lives', 'contexts'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'knowl-', 'other', 'academic'}, 'compound': {'edge'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'cornerstone'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'relcl': {'transfer'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Murphy', 'to'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Alexander'}, 'dep': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'1999'}} Long High Medium
422 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course To that end, what we stressed in lectures and modeled through activities (e.g., ideational mapping) was that the knowledge students were acquiring about topics like problem solving, motivation, and transfer should not be regarded as separate either in mind or in practice 42 21 {'ADP': 8, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'through', 'To', 'like', 'in', 'about', 'as'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'practice', 'solving', 'mind', 'lectures', 'end', 'topics', 'activities'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'mapping'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'csubj': {'stressed'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'transfer', 'in', 'modeled', 'motivation', 'regarded'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'amod': {'separate', 'ideational'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'problem'}, 'aux': {'should', 'were'}, 'ccomp': {'acquiring'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'preconj': {'either'}} Long High Medium
423 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Rather, the knowledge garnered about one topic should facilitate learning of other topics, thereby contributing to knowledge building and transfer (Alexander, 2018) 22 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'thereby', 'about', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge'}, 'ROOT': {'garnered'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'topic'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'advcl': {'contributing', 'facilitate'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'topics'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'transfer'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Alexander'}} Long High Low
424 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We applied that same principle to the summary, compare-and-contrast analyses, and the argumentation writing activities built into the fabric of LHL 21 11 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'applied'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'same'}, 'dobj': {'principle'}, 'prep': {'into', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'LHL', 'summary', 'fabric'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nmod': {'compare'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'analyses', 'contrast', 'activities'}, 'compound': {'writing', 'argumentation'}, 'acl': {'built'}} Long High Low
425 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For one, we considered the ability to craft a good article sum-mary to be a prerequisite to students’ ability to compose a comparison of two articles presenting contrasting views on a given subject, such as expertise (Alexander, 2003; Bransford et al., 2000) 42 18 {'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 4, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 5} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'as', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'ability', 'expertise', 'articles', 'subject', 'one'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', 'al', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'article', 'views', 'comparison', 'ability'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'compose', 'craft', 'presenting'}, 'amod': {'given', 'contrasting', 'good', 'such'}, 'compound': {'Bransford', 'sum'}, 'appos': {'mary', '2000', '2003', 'Alexander'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'attr': {'prerequisite'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'oprd': {'.'}} Long High Low
426 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Further, students’ engagement in the writing of an argumentative essay as a culminating activity in the course was not only meant to build on their competencies at summary and compara-tive writing but also to reinforce themes threaded through the curriculum of LHL, such as the need to justify one’s claims with appropriate evidence 53 30 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADP': 10, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NUM, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'poss': {'students', 'one', 'their'}, 'nsubjpass': {'engagement'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'at', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'summary', 'course', 'LHL', 'essay', 'competencies', 'curriculum', 'evidence', 'activity', 'need'}, 'amod': {'such', 'appropriate', 'argumentative', 'culminating'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'build'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'compound': {'compara', 'tive'}, 'conj': {'reinforce', 'writing'}, 'dobj': {'claims', 'themes'}, 'acl': {'threaded', 'justify'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High Low
427 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In effect, we viewed the synergy among teaching, reading, and writing as essential for fostering the habits of mind and habits of action that should lead to deeper and more effective learning (James, 1890; Peirce et al., 1923) 38 16 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'of', 'among', 'for', 'In', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'action', 'effect', 'learning', 'teaching'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'viewed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'habits', 'synergy'}, 'conj': {'reading', 'writing', 'effective', 'habits'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'essential', 'deeper'}, 'pcomp': {'fostering'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'relcl': {'lead'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '1890', 'et', 'James', '1923'}, 'npadvmod': {'Peirce'}} Long High Low
428 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This framing positions the writing activities within LHL, including the argumenta-tive essay, within a “more social than developmental, more situated than con-ceptual” model of writing and learning advocated by Ackerman (1993) in his provocative treatise on “The Promise of Writing to Learn.” Further, it instan-tiates the tenets of Graham’s (2018) Writer(s)-Within-Community Model within a particular community where writing and learning were intertwined 62 29 {'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 15, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 11, 'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 17, 'ADJ': 8, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'This'}, 'compound': {'writing', 'framing', 'tive', 'Community', 'Writer(s)-Within', 'argumenta'}, 'ROOT': {'positions', 'tiates'}, 'dobj': {'Model', 'tenets', 'activities'}, 'prep': {'on', 'including', 'within', 'in', 'of', 'than'}, 'pobj': {'treatise', 'writing', 'Writing', 'Ackerman', 'LHL', 'Graham', 'developmental', 'community', 'social', 'essay', 'model', 'Promise'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'Further', 'more'}, 'advcl': {'situated', 'intertwined'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018', 'con'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'ceptual', 'provocative'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'learning'}, 'acl': {'advocated'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'appos': {'1993'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'Learn'}, 'nsubj': {'instan', 'it'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubjpass': {'writing'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}} Long High Medium
429 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In accordance with Graham’s model, we recognized that the effectiveness of the writing activities meant to promote student learning, such as the argumen-tative essay, would be shaped by (a) the very character of the LHL commu-nity and the goals shared by its members; (b) the affordances and constraints existing within LHL and the general capacities of students populating that community; (c) the variability within the learning community at any point in time and changes manifested in the community over time; and (d) the code-velopment of students’ learning and writing arising from cognitive, social, and motivational/affective forces operating within the community. 100 49 {'ADP': 17, 'NOUN': 36, 'PROPN': 3, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 21, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 11, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 15, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'X': 3, 'CCONJ': 7, 'SYM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, X, ...] {'prep': {'within', 'at', 'from', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'In', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'forces', 'character', 'members', 'students', 'LHL', 'community', 'essay', 'accordance', 'a', 'model', 'nity', 'point', 'time', 'activities'}, 'poss': {'its', 'Graham'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', '.', ')', '(', ',', ';', '/'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'recognized'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'any', 'that', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'effectiveness'}, 'compound': {'writing', 'LHL', 'student', 'learning', 'commu', 'code'}, 'acl': {'shared', 'manifested', 'existing', 'operating', 'arising', 'learning', 'populating', 'meant'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'promote'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'community'}, 'amod': {'very', 'general', 'social', 'motivational', 'tative', 'such', 'cognitive'}, 'nmod': {'argumen'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'shaped'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'goals', 'writing', 'affective', 'constraints', 'variability', 'capacities', 'affordances', 'velopment', 'changes'}, 'meta': {'d', 'b', 'c'}} Long High Medium
430 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 485 In characterizing this learning community, for instance, we would note that the students were freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors majoring in social sciences, physical sciences, life sciences, and applied sciences 31 11 {'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [NUM, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'dep': {'485'}, 'prep': {'for', 'In', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'characterizing'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'life'}, 'dobj': {'community', 'sciences'}, 'punct': {','}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'sciences'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'note'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'attr': {'freshmen'}, 'conj': {'applied', 'sophomores', 'sciences', 'seniors', 'juniors'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'acl': {'majoring'}, 'amod': {'social', 'physical'}} Long High Medium
431 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Thus, there was no singular disciplinary focus to the learning or writing in LHL 14 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'amod': {'disciplinary', 'singular'}, 'attr': {'focus'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'LHL'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'writing'}} Medium High Low
432 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course What these students had in common, however, was a goal to become better learners so that their academic performance would improve or so they would be better prepared for the demands of professional school, graduate studies, or the workforce 39 23 {'PRON': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'performance', 'they'}, 'csubj': {'had'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'better', 'professional', 'common'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'better', 'so', 'however'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'goal', 'learners'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'acl': {'become'}, 'mark': {'that', 'so'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'improve'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'studies', 'be', 'workforce'}, 'acomp': {'prepared'}, 'pobj': {'demands', 'school'}, 'compound': {'graduate'}} Long High High
433 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As to the affordances and constraints that defined this community, we would include the labs that accompanied the lectures, the active and engaged style of instruction, and the informative feedback that students regularly received 34 17 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, ADV, VERB] {'prep': {'As', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'affordances', 'instruction'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'engaged', 'constraints', 'feedback'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that', 'we'}, 'relcl': {'defined', 'received', 'accompanied'}, 'dobj': {'labs', 'that', 'community', 'lectures'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'amod': {'active', 'informative'}, 'appos': {'style'}, 'advmod': {'regularly'}} Long High Low
434 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Given the differences in students’ class standing, major, and future goals, we expected significant variability in students’ writ-ing experiences 19 5 {'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'Given'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'standing', 'students', 'differences'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'writ', 'class'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'amod': {'major', 'significant', 'ing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'future', 'goals'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'dobj': {'variability'}, 'ccomp': {'experiences'}} Medium High Low
435 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For instance, students in history or journalism, compared to students in computer science or mechanical engineering, typically engage in more reading and writing in their major courses 27 11 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'For', 'compared', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'history', 'instance', 'courses', 'science', 'students'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'writing', 'engineering', 'journalism'}, 'compound': {'computer'}, 'amod': {'major', 'mechanical', 'more'}, 'advmod': {'typically'}, 'ROOT': {'engage'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
436 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Nonetheless, we expected that all students, regardless of class standing or major, would show improve-ment in the ability to write and learn effectively over the semester 26 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'regardless', 'effectively', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'prep': {'over', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'improve', 'class'}, 'pobj': {'standing', 'semester', 'ability'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'major', 'learn'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'show'}, 'dobj': {'ment'}, 'acl': {'write'}} Long High Medium
437 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course What became apparent, however, especially after 2 years of the COVID pandemic and online education, was that we needed to reappraise students’ overall writing capacities 25 11 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'What', 'we', 'capacities'}, 'csubj': {'became'}, 'acomp': {'apparent'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'advmod': {'overall', 'especially', 'however'}, 'prep': {'after', 'of'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'pobj': {'years', 'education'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'COVID'}, 'amod': {'pandemic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'online'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'reappraise'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'compound': {'writing'}} Long High Medium
438 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We realized that the students had less understanding of how to write summaries of academic readings or how to compare two read-ings with varied orientations to the same issue than we had previously thought 34 20 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'nsubj': {'students', 'We', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'realized'}, 'mark': {'than', 'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ccomp': {'had'}, 'amod': {'varied', 'same', 'less', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'summaries', 'ings', 'understanding'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'previously', 'how'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'pcomp': {'write'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'orientations', 'issue'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'compare'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'compound': {'read'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'advcl': {'thought'}} Long High High
439 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Consequently, there was more attention on “learning to write” than we had initially envisioned; more time was spent on developing students’ basic knowledge of the purposes and elements of well-written summaries and com-pare-and-contrast analyses 34 18 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'well', 'initially', 'Consequently'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'amod': {'written', 'developing', 'basic', 'more'}, 'attr': {'attention'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'write'}, 'mark': {'than'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'advcl': {'envisioned'}, 'nsubjpass': {'time'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'spent'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'summaries', 'purposes'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'analyses', 'contrast', 'elements'}, 'compound': {'com'}, 'nmod': {'pare'}} Long High Medium
440 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For the writing of argumentation, which was the culminating writing activity, it became important to provide students with spe-cific resources and scaffolding that would facilitate their writing (Engle & Conant, 2002) 31 14 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'with', 'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'resources', 'writing', 'argumentation'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'it', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'facilitate', 'was'}, 'amod': {'-', 'cific', 'spe', 'culminating'}, 'compound': {'writing'}, 'attr': {'activity'}, 'ROOT': {'became'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'provide'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'writing'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'scaffolding', 'Conant'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'2002', 'Engle'}} Long High Low
441 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Moreover, it was evident that we not only had to provide stu-dents with explicit guidance on the forms of writing core to the course, but that students’ relevant knowledge and their personal interest in the topic of the writing also mattered greatly (Alexander et al., 1994) 46 24 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, PART, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'only', 'greatly', 'Moreover', 'also'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'it', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'had'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'provide'}, 'compound': {'stu', 'Alexander', 'et'}, 'dobj': {'.', 'dents', 'core'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'explicit', 'personal'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'writing', 'guidance', 'course', 'topic'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pcomp': {'writing'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'appos': {'knowledge', '1994'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'mattered'}, 'npadvmod': {'al'}} Long High High
442 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Thus, as those leading this community, it fell to us to provide basic content that would be required and to work toward a learning environment that was supportive and motivat-ing if learning and writing were to co-develop to the degree we wanted 42 25 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 11, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'us', 'environment', 'those', 'degree'}, 'acl': {'leading'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'community'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'fell'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'develop', 'provide', 'were'}, 'amod': {'learning', 'supportive', 'basic'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'required', 'was', 'wanted'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'motivat', 'work', 'writing'}, 'acomp': {'ing'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'csubj': {'learning'}, 'xcomp': {'co', '-'}} Long High Medium
443 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Instructional Features of “Learning How to Learn” When the first author designed the “Learning How to Learn” (LHL) course, it was intended to immerse college students in educational psychology research that was pertinent to their continued academic development 38 17 {'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 8, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PART': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2} [ADJ, PROPN, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'first', 'educational', 'Instructional', 'continued', 'academic'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Features', 'it'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'pcomp': {'Learning'}, 'advmod': {'How', 'When'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'Learn', 'immerse'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'author', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'designed'}, 'dobj': {'course', 'LHL', 'Learning', 'students'}, 'relcl': {'Learn', 'was'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'intended'}, 'compound': {'psychology', 'college'}, 'pobj': {'research', 'development'}, 'acomp': {'pertinent'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
444 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 486 Written Communication 40(2) general education course for the university, LHL was expected to draw non- education students from across the university, which in fact, it did 27 11 {'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2} [NUM, VERB, PROPN, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB] {'nummod': {'486'}, 'nmod': {'Written', 'Communication'}, 'amod': {'non-', '40(2', 'general'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'compound': {'education'}, 'npadvmod': {'course'}, 'prep': {'for', 'across', 'in', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'university', 'fact'}, 'nsubjpass': {'LHL'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'draw'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'it'}, 'advcl': {'did'}} Long High Low
445 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Since 2018, LHL has been a large lecture course enrolling 100-150 students each semester from almost every academic unit on campus outside education 23 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 1, 'SYM': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NUM, SYM, NUM, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'Since', 'outside', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'campus', '2018', 'unit', 'education'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'LHL'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'det': {'a', 'each'}, 'amod': {'large', 'academic'}, 'compound': {'lecture'}, 'attr': {'course'}, 'advcl': {'enrolling'}, 'quantmod': {'100'}, 'nummod': {'every', '150'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'npadvmod': {'semester'}, 'advmod': {'almost'}} Long High Medium
446 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Of these students, approximately 15% majored in arts and humanities (e.g., law, English, history, theatre), 53% in natural and computer sciences and engi-neering (e.g., physics, biochemistry, kinesiology, computer science), and 29% in social sciences (e.g., psychology, marketing, economics, community health), and 3% had not decided on a specific field of study 51 15 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 25, 'PUNCT': 23, 'ADV': 4, 'NUM': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'e.g.', 'Of', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'field', 'students', 'arts', 'sciences', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'approximately'}, 'nummod': {'53', '29', '3', '15'}, 'npadvmod': {'%', 'engi', 'law'}, 'ROOT': {'majored'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'theatre', 'marketing', '%', 'history', 'humanities', 'economics', 'science', 'kinesiology', 'health', 'decided', 'biochemistry', 'computer', 'English', 'neering'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'psychology', '%'}, 'amod': {'social', 'natural', 'specific'}, 'dobj': {'physics'}, 'compound': {'computer', 'community'}, 'nsubj': {'%'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Low
447 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Each week, students attended two 50-minute lectures—taught by the first author—and participated in a 50-minute lab session with enrollments of about 20 stu-dents 23 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADV, NUM, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'Each', 'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'week'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'attended'}, 'nummod': {'two', '50', '20'}, 'compound': {'minute', 'lab'}, 'dobj': {'lectures'}, 'acl': {'taught'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'first', 'stu'}, 'pobj': {'author', 'session', 'dents', 'enrollments'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'participated'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'about'}} Long High Low
448 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Although the lecture period included an array of activities, such as group discussions, course projects, individual and group assignments, and assessments, the lab sessions allowed for more intimate discussions, clarifi-cation of lecture content, and focused feedback 36 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 20, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'lecture', 'lab', 'group', 'course', 'clarifi'}, 'nsubj': {'period', 'sessions'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'feedback', 'array'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'discussions', 'content', 'activities'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'such', 'intimate'}, 'conj': {'assessments', 'individual', 'cation', 'focused', 'assignments', 'projects'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'acl': {'allowed'}, 'advmod': {'more'}} Long High Medium
449 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This pairing of lectures with lab sessions is not common to undergraduate courses in the College of Education, especially outside the context of field experiences 25 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'pairing'}, 'prep': {'with', 'outside', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'lectures', 'context', 'experiences', 'Education', 'College', 'sessions'}, 'compound': {'field', 'lab'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'common'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'undergraduate'}, 'dobj': {'courses'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'especially'}} Long High Low
450 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Yet, this struc-ture was deemed critical for a more in-depth examination of key concepts and processes and for more personalized attention to students’ sociocultural back-grounds and academic needs 28 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Yet', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'compound': {'struc'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ture'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'deemed'}, 'oprd': {'grounds', 'critical'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'personalized', 'more', 'sociocultural', 'back', 'academic', 'key'}, 'nmod': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'concepts', 'students', 'depth', 'examination', 'attention'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'for', 'processes', 'needs'}} Long High Low
451 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Combined with increased opportunities for peer interactions, the exchange of ideas, and the ongoing discussions, we saw the lecture-lab structure as a means of enhancing the sense of community among LHL students 32 14 {'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Combined'}, 'prep': {'with', 'among', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'amod': {'increased', 'ongoing'}, 'pobj': {'means', 'opportunities', 'students', 'community', 'interactions', 'ideas'}, 'compound': {'LHL', 'peer', 'lecture', 'lab'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dep': {'exchange'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'discussions'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'saw'}, 'dobj': {'structure', 'sense'}, 'pcomp': {'enhancing'}} Long High Low
452 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The overarching goal of the course—to help students become more effi- cient and effective learners—carried over into reading assignments, as well 21 11 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'overarching'}, 'ROOT': {'goal'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'assignments'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'help', 'carried'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ccomp': {'become'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'more'}, 'amod': {'effi-'}, 'preconj': {'cient'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'effective'}, 'attr': {'learners'}, 'prt': {'over'}} Long High Low
453 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Rather than hand students a textbook that overviewed the content of educa-tional psychology, they were required to read relevant articles or chapters on topics such as learning, problem-solving, strategic processing, expertise, and motivation 33 14 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 13, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'prep': {'on', 'than', 'as', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'hand'}, 'dative': {'students'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'textbook', 'content', 'articles'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'overviewed'}, 'amod': {'-', 'educa', 'tional', 'relevant', 'such', 'strategic'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'psychology', 'topics'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'solving', 'chapters', 'expertise', 'motivation'}, 'npadvmod': {'problem'}} Long High Low
454 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The summaries and comparisons generated for those readings were essential to the students’ performance because the major assessments in LHL consisted of open-ended, multiple-part questions 25 12 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'assessments', 'summaries'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'comparisons'}, 'acl': {'generated'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'performance', 'LHL', 'questions'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'essential'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'amod': {'major', 'multiple', 'ended'}, 'advcl': {'consisted'}, 'advmod': {'open'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'part'}} Long High Medium
455 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Those questions required students to apply what they had learned to novel problems and to justify their responses with references to the readings and lectures 25 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'Those', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'questions', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'responses', 'problems', 'what'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'novel', 'apply'}, 'ccomp': {'learned'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'justify', 'lectures'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'references'}} Long High Low
456 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Another key project in the course was a multiple source use (MSU) task for which the argumentative essay was the final product (Barzilai et al., 2015; List & Alexander, 2019) 30 10 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'Another', 'the'}, 'amod': {'final', 'multiple', 'key', 'argumentative'}, 'nsubj': {'essay', 'project'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'which'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'nmod': {'use'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2015', '2019', 'MSU', 'Barzilai'}, 'attr': {'task', 'product'}, 'relcl': {'was'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'List', 'et'}, 'conj': {'.', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'&'}} Long High Low
457 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course What is characteristic of MSU tasks is that they are focused on a controversial topic for which different points of view are repre-sented in the literature 26 15 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'What', 'points'}, 'csubj': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'repre', 'characteristic', '-', 'sented'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'view', 'topic', 'literature', 'tasks'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'focused'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'different', 'controversial'}, 'relcl': {'are'}} Long High Medium
458 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Students are required to search for, read, and sum-marize several documents addressing the controversy in preparation for crafting their written argument 21 9 {'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Students'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'search'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'conj': {'marize', 'read'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'written', 'several', 'sum'}, 'dobj': {'argument', 'controversy', 'documents'}, 'acl': {'addressing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'preparation'}, 'pcomp': {'crafting'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
459 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We expected that students’ familiarity with writing summaries and comparing course readings would help them deal 16 6 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, VERB] {'nsubj': {'them', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'readings', 'summaries', 'familiarity'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pcomp': {'writing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'csubj': {'comparing'}, 'compound': {'course'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'help', 'deal'}} Medium High Medium
460 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 487 with the demands of synthesizing the content from the documents they chose and integrating that content—both pros and cons—into their argumentative essays 23 13 {'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'487'}, 'prep': {'into', 'with', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'both', 'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'essays', 'demands', 'documents'}, 'pcomp': {'synthesizing'}, 'dobj': {'content'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'chose'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'integrating', 'cons'}, 'punct': {'—'}, 'appos': {'pros'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'argumentative'}} Long High Low
461 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Thus, in the conceptualization of this course, we recognized from the outset that we would be placing high reading and writing demands on the students 25 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'conceptualization', 'students', 'outset'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'recognized'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'be'}, 'ccomp': {'placing'}, 'amod': {'high'}, 'dobj': {'reading', 'demands'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'writing'}} Long High Low
462 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As with others in the field of learning and development, we held that these college students required tools that would allow them to succeed not only in this course and related academic subjects but also in their continued studies and professional careers once they graduated 45 26 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, PART, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB] {'prep': {'with', 'As', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'subjects', 'field', 'course', 'others', 'learning'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'careers', 'in', 'development'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'them', 'they', 'students', 'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'held'}, 'mark': {'that', 'once'}, 'compound': {'college'}, 'ccomp': {'required', 'succeed'}, 'dobj': {'tools'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'allow'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'related', 'professional', 'continued'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'graduated'}} Long High High
463 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In effect, the ability to capture the essence of what they read or hear, to see similarities and differences in whatever infor - mation they encounter, and to think critically and analytically when con-fronted with controversial issues, are foundational to personal and professional growth (Alexander, 1997) 46 22 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 9, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'mation', 'growth', 'effect', 'issues'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'whatever'}, 'nsubj': {'ability', 'they'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'capture', 'see'}, 'dobj': {'similarities', 'what', 'essence'}, 'pcomp': {'read'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'differences', 'hear', 'professional', 'analytically', 'think'}, 'compound': {'infor'}, 'relcl': {'encounter'}, 'advmod': {'critically', 'when'}, 'npadvmod': {'1997', 'con'}, 'advcl': {'fronted'}, 'amod': {'controversial', 'personal'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'foundational'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}} Long High Medium
464 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Course Ideals Meet Performance Realities It is safe to say that we, as instructors and teaching assistants of LHL, were shocked when we discovered that our initial assumption—that students enrolled in this college course had been writing summaries, crafting compari-sons, and even constructing evidence-based arguments during their second-ary and tertiary education—did not hold true 54 26 {'NOUN': 16, 'PROPN': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 9, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ] {'compound': {'college', 'Performance', 'teaching', 'Course', 'Meet'}, 'dep': {'Ideals'}, 'appos': {'Realities'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'It', 'assumption', 'we'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'shocked', 'writing'}, 'acomp': {'safe'}, 'aux': {'did', 'been', 'had', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'say'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'we'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—'}, 'prep': {'as', 'during', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'LHL', 'education', 'instructors'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'assistants', 'tertiary', 'constructing'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'even', 'true'}, 'advcl': {'discovered', 'crafting'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'amod': {'ary', 'initial', 'second', 'based', 'compari'}, 'acl': {'enrolled'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'dobj': {'summaries', 'arguments', 'sons'}, 'npadvmod': {'evidence'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'hold'}} Long High High
465 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We recognized that some of the students enrolled in the course came from majors for which they were expected to read challenging texts (e.g., history or philosophy) or engage more frequently in writing (e.g., journalism or communication) 37 18 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 3} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'We', 'some'}, 'ROOT': {'recognized'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'for', 'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'writing', 'students', 'course', 'majors'}, 'ccomp': {'enrolled', 'came'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'expected'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'amod': {'challenging'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'frequently', 'more'}, 'conj': {'communication', 'history', 'journalism', 'engage', 'philosophy'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}} Long High Medium
466 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We were also aware that all undergraduate students were required to take several writ-ing courses as part of the general education requirements for the university 25 15 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 3} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'ing', 'several', 'general'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ccomp': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'take'}, 'npadvmod': {'writ'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'dobj': {'courses'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'requirements', 'university', 'part'}, 'compound': {'education'}} Long High Medium
467 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Specifically, all students had to first take a 3-credit 100-level English course on expository writing 15 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'first', 'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a', 'all'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'take'}, 'nummod': {'100', '3'}, 'nmod': {'credit'}, 'compound': {'level', 'expository'}, 'amod': {'English'}, 'dobj': {'course'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'writing'}} Medium High Low
468 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This introductory class is then followed by a 3-credit 300-level professional writing course meant to focus on writing specific to students’ majors (e.g., technical writing, business writing, writing for health professions) 31 9 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PART': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'This'}, 'amod': {'introductory', 'professional', 'technical'}, 'nsubjpass': {'class'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'e.g.'}, 'ROOT': {'followed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'300', '3'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'nmod': {'students', 'credit', 'level'}, 'compound': {'business', 'health', 'writing'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'professions', 'majors'}, 'acl': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'focus'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to'}, 'pcomp': {'writing'}, 'dobj': {'specific'}, 'appos': {'writing'}, 'conj': {'writing'}} Long High Low
469 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Despite these experiences and requirements, many students reported that they had never been told how to write a summary and were even more “clueless” about how to compose a compare-and-contrast piece 31 20 {'SCONJ': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'about', 'Despite'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'experiences'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'requirements', 'contrast', 'were'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'amod': {'many'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'neg': {'never'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ccomp': {'told'}, 'advmod': {'even', 'more', 'how'}, 'xcomp': {'write'}, 'dobj': {'summary', 'piece'}, 'acomp': {'clueless'}, 'pcomp': {'compose'}, 'nmod': {'compare'}} Long High High
470 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As the instructors and teaching assistants in this course—all educational psychology researchers—we were well versed in the difficulties many col-lege students have in carrying out an MSU task, especially when that task culminated in an argumentative essay (Bråten et al., 2020; Du & List, 2021) 45 20 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'As', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'this', 'all', 'that', 'the'}, 'nmod': {'instructors'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'teaching', 'List', 'Du'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'essay', 'difficulties', 'assistants'}, 'punct': {'-', '—', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'many', 'educational', 'argumentative'}, 'compound': {'lege', 'psychology', 'col', 'MSU'}, 'dep': {'researchers'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we', 'task'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'especially', 'when'}, 'acomp': {'versed'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'pcomp': {'carrying'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'dobj': {'task'}, 'advcl': {'culminated'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'Bråten'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', '2020', 'et'}} Long High Medium
471 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Yet, we were aware that few, if any, MSU studies took place within the con-text of an ongoing course, especially one that incorporated routine experi-ences meant to scaffold this more advanced form of academic reading and writing 37 18 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'especially', 'Yet', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'few', 'we', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'any'}, 'compound': {'experi', 'con', 'MSU'}, 'ccomp': {'took'}, 'dobj': {'form', 'ences', 'place'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'reading', 'text'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'routine', 'advanced', 'ongoing'}, 'appos': {'one'}, 'relcl': {'incorporated'}, 'acl': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'scaffold'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'writing'}} Long High High
472 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 488 Written Communication 40(2) course requirements would seem to offset certain motivation problems that plague the orchestrated, laboratory-type investigations that populate the MSU literature (List & Alexander, 2017) 28 7 {'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'488', '40(2'}, 'amod': {'Written', 'orchestrated', 'certain'}, 'nmod': {'Communication'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'type', 'laboratory', 'course', 'MSU', 'motivation'}, 'nsubj': {'requirements', 'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'xcomp': {'offset'}, 'dobj': {'investigations', 'problems', 'literature'}, 'relcl': {'populate', 'plague'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'List'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017'}} Long High Low
473 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Nonetheless, as we discovered, writing for these students was undeniably challenging—whether they were writing summaries, comparisons, or an argumentative essay; whether they were freshmen or seniors; and whether they were majoring in biological sci-ences, engineering, business, computer science, or psychology 40 20 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 12, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless', 'undeniably'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ';', '—'}, 'mark': {'as', 'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'discovered', 'writing'}, 'csubj': {'writing'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'ences'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'challenging'}, 'aux': {'were'}, 'dobj': {'summaries'}, 'conj': {'science', 'majoring', 'essay', 'seniors', 'psychology', 'business', 'engineering', 'comparisons'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'amod': {'biological', 'argumentative'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'freshmen'}, 'compound': {'sci', 'computer'}} Long High High
474 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Consequently, although it was not our initial intention to teach writing skills explicitly, it soon became apparent that the ability to learn well and deeply in higher education depended in no small measure on students’ ability to communicate clearly and effectively through writing (Emig, 1977) 45 20 {'ADV': 7, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'explicitly', 'clearly', 'soon', 'well', 'Consequently'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'mark': {'although', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'ability'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'initial', 'higher', 'small'}, 'attr': {'intention'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'communicate', 'teach', 'learn'}, 'compound': {'writing'}, 'dobj': {'skills'}, 'ROOT': {'became'}, 'acomp': {'apparent'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'effectively', 'deeply'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'measure', 'education', 'ability'}, 'ccomp': {'depended'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'appos': {'Emig'}, 'npadvmod': {'1977'}} Long High High
475 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For whatever reason, it appeared to us that the students enrolling in this course had had far less exposure to academic writing than we had anticipated 26 16 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'whatever'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'us', 'writing', 'reason'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'it', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'appeared'}, 'mark': {'than', 'that'}, 'acl': {'enrolling'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'ccomp': {'had'}, 'advmod': {'far'}, 'amod': {'less', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'exposure'}, 'advcl': {'anticipated'}} Long High High
476 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course It was this awareness that led us to systematically analyze the nature of the difficul-ties that these undergraduates were manifesting in their academic writing, especially argumentation, and to consider what could be done pedagogically to help overcome those challenges 39 22 {'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADV, PART, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'undergraduates', 'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'attr': {'ties', 'awareness'}, 'ccomp': {'led', 'overcome', 'done', 'manifesting'}, 'dobj': {'challenges', 'nature', 'us'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to', 'help', 'were'}, 'advmod': {'pedagogically', 'especially', 'systematically'}, 'xcomp': {'analyze'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'difficul', 'writing'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'academic'}, 'appos': {'argumentation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'consider'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Medium
477 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Because of the preparatory role that sum-mary writing and article comparisons played in students’ construction of a well-written argumentative essay based on multiple documents, we want to first overview the challenges they posed for students 35 16 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'of', 'Because', 'for'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'written', 'multiple', 'preparatory', 'argumentative'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'role', 'construction', 'essay', 'documents'}, 'nsubj': {'writing', 'that', 'we', 'they'}, 'compound': {'mary', 'article', 'sum'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'comparisons'}, 'relcl': {'played', 'posed'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'advmod': {'first', 'well'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'overview'}, 'dobj': {'challenges'}} Long High Medium
478 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Documenting Challenges in Students’ Summary Writing When the first author initially designed this course, she required students to create a summary of the articles they were assigned weekly in their journals 31 14 {'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'required', 'Documenting'}, 'dobj': {'course', 'summary', 'students', 'Challenges'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'Students', 'journals'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'compound': {'Summary'}, 'npadvmod': {'Writing'}, 'advmod': {'When', 'initially', 'weekly'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'first'}, 'nsubj': {'author', 'she'}, 'advcl': {'designed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'create'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'assigned'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
479 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Consistent with the text-processing literature, she anticipated abbreviated texts that included essential components of the readings (Dole et al., 1991; Friend, 2001) 22 6 {'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Consistent'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'Friend', 'text'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'processing', 'abbreviated', 'essential'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'literature'}, 'nsubj': {'she', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'anticipated'}, 'dobj': {'components', 'texts'}, 'relcl': {'included'}, 'appos': {'Dole', '2001', 'al'}, 'compound': {'et'}, 'conj': {'.'}, 'nummod': {'1991'}} Long High Low
480 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These components include the source information, the authors’ purpose or overarching goal, and any key points the students would want to retain (e.g., Alhussain, 2017; Hood, 2008) 27 9 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'any', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'components'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'dobj': {'Alhussain', 'information'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'authors'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nmod': {'purpose'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'goal', 'points', 'overarching', 'Hood'}, 'amod': {'key'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'want'}, 'xcomp': {'retain'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'2008', '2017'}} Long High Low
481 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The instructional goals were for students to engage with course readings to the extent that they would be able to garner more information from the lectures and discuss those readings with peers in class 34 19 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'goals', 'students', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'mark': {'for', 'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'in', 'from'}, 'compound': {'course'}, 'pobj': {'lectures', 'peers', 'class', 'readings', 'extent'}, 'acl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'garner'}, 'dobj': {'readings', 'information'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'discuss'}} Long High High
482 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Because of our misguided assumption that students enrolled in LHL would be competent at the reading and writing tasks central to the course, we initially provided them no explicit instruction on the writing of summaries 35 18 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'Because', 'at'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'explicit', 'misguided'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'summaries', 'writing', 'course', 'LHL', 'assumption'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'acl': {'enrolled'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'competent'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'writing'}, 'dobj': {'tasks', 'instruction'}, 'advmod': {'initially', 'central'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'provided'}, 'dative': {'them'}} Long High High
483 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course What also contributed to our overestimation of students’ abilities at this particular task was the fact that the majority of research on improving summary writing seemed to focus on students with learning disabilities (e.g., Gajria & Salvia, 1992; Peterson & French, 1988), EFL, ESL, and ELL learners (e.g., Karbalaei 49 18 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 12, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'majority', 'What', 'abilities'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'also'}, 'csubj': {'contributed'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'at'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'disabilities', 'students', 'task', 'overestimation', 'research'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'particular'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'fact'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'pcomp': {'improving'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'summary', 'ELL'}, 'dobj': {'writing', 'Gajria'}, 'acl': {'seemed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'focus'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Peterson', 'EFL', 'ESL', 'French', 'learners', 'Salvia'}, 'npadvmod': {'1992', 'Karbalaei'}, 'appos': {'1988'}} Long High Medium
484 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 489 & Rajyashree, 2010; Khoshsima & Nia, 2014), or students in developmental writing courses (MacArthur et al., 2015) 18 2 {'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 7, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'489'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'students', 'Rajyashree', '.', 'Nia'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2014', '2010'}, 'ROOT': {'Khoshsima'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'amod': {'developmental'}, 'compound': {'writing', 'MacArthur'}, 'pobj': {'courses'}, 'nmod': {'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '2015'}} Medium Low Low
485 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course There was little, if any, discussion of summary writing interventions for non-identified college students like those in LHL (Luo & Kiewra, 2019) 22 8 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'little'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'advcl': {'any'}, 'attr': {'discussion'}, 'prep': {'like', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'writing', 'summary', 'college'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'LHL', 'interventions', 'those'}, 'amod': {'-', 'non', 'identified'}, 'conj': {'Kiewra', 'Luo'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}} Long High Medium
486 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Thus, in earlier iterations of this course, we simply graded students’ summaries for completion—awarding 0s (not com-pleted) and 1s (completed)—reasoning that students’ engagement with the reading would be sufficient 29 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'simply'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '—', '(', ','}, 'prep': {'with', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'earlier', 'pleted', 'awarding'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'reading', 'iterations', 'completion'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'graded'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'summaries', 'engagement'}, 'dep': {'0s'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'npadvmod': {'com'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'1s'}, 'csubj': {'completed)—reasoning'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'acl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'sufficient'}} Long High Medium
487 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course When we realized that students’ summaries seemed to have little effect on their content mastery, we planned to assess each of the summaries that students wrote in their journals for presence as well as quality to encourage them to improve their summarizations 42 24 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 8, 'VERB': 8, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'as', 'well'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'summaries', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'realized', 'encourage'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ccomp': {'seemed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'improve', 'have', 'assess'}, 'amod': {'little'}, 'dobj': {'summarizations', 'them', 'effect', 'each', 'that'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'content'}, 'pobj': {'presence', 'summaries', 'mastery', 'journals'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'planned'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'relcl': {'wrote'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'conj': {'quality'}} Long High High
488 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course However, the low quality of these summaries precluded the possibility of judging the quality of summaries in depth, forcing us to move to a more simplistic 0-2 system based on the presence and quality of the source information, the identification of the author's purpose, and inclusion of key points from the reading 52 28 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 10, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 17, 'ADP': 10, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'SYM': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NUM, SYM, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'key', 'low', 'simplistic'}, 'nsubj': {'quality'}, 'prep': {'on', '2', 'from', 'to', 'in', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'summaries', 'system', 'points', 'presence', 'information', 'purpose', 'depth'}, 'ROOT': {'precluded'}, 'dobj': {'quality', 'us', 'possibility', 'identification'}, 'pcomp': {'judging'}, 'advcl': {'forcing'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'move'}, 'nummod': {'0'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'quality', 'inclusion'}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'poss': {'author'}, 'case': {''s'}} Long High Low
489 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Common Issues in Students’ Summaries From our inspection of students’ journal entries, we identified substantive aspects of their summaries that were problematic: (a) how to document the source of the reading; (b) what counts as more or less important content to incorporate; (c) how much content to include; (d) how to synthesize text effec-tively; and (e) whether to record exact words or paraphrase content (Chew et al., 2019) 68 30 {'PROPN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 18, 'PUNCT': 22, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'X': 4, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PART': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'journal', 'Common', 'paraphrase', 'text'}, 'dep': {'Issues'}, 'prep': {'From', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'summaries', 'Students', 'entries', 'inspection'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ':', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'2019', 'Summaries'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their', 'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we', 'what'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'amod': {'much', 'substantive', 'exact', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'aspects', 'al', 'effec', 'source', 'words'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'problematic'}, 'meta': {'e', 'd', 'a', 'c', 'b'}, 'advmod': {'tively', 'how'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'document'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ccomp': {'counts'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'content', 'important', 'synthesize', 'less', 'record'}, 'xcomp': {'incorporate', 'include'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'npadvmod': {'Chew', '.', 'et'}} Long High High
490 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For example, we were surprised to find that a number of under - graduates did not know what source information was critical 22 12 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'graduates', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'number', 'we', 'information'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'surprised', 'critical'}, 'aux': {'did', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'find'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'what'}, 'nmod': {'under'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'know', 'was'}, 'compound': {'source'}} Long High Medium
491 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course It was a frequent occurrence to find only an abbreviated title or only authors’ last names or perhaps a date standing in for the basic source information 27 15 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 2} [PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'last', 'abbreviated', 'basic', 'frequent'}, 'attr': {'occurrence'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'find'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'perhaps'}, 'dobj': {'title'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'only', 'authors', 'date'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'appos': {'names'}, 'acl': {'standing'}, 'prt': {'in'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'pobj': {'information'}} Long High Low
492 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This was one issue that we could easily rectify by providing students with a model to follow 17 10 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, AUX, NUM, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB] {'nsubj': {'we', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'attr': {'issue'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'easily'}, 'relcl': {'rectify', 'follow'}, 'prep': {'by', 'with'}, 'pcomp': {'providing'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'model'}} Medium High Medium
493 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course One complicating factor was that much of the subject matter covered in LHL was new to the students, as was reading primary sources rather than textbook distillations 27 14 {'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, VERB, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'amod': {'primary', 'complicating'}, 'nsubj': {'factor', 'much'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'textbook', 'subject'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'LHL', 'matter'}, 'acl': {'covered'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'new'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'sources'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'conj': {'distillations'}} Long High High
494 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This challenge was especially acute for more theoreti-cal papers that did not have a readily discernible text structure 18 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'challenge', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'readily', 'especially', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'acute'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'amod': {'theoreti', 'discernible'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'compound': {'cal', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'papers'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'structure'}} Medium High Low
495 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Even more challenging for a large cross-section of the students was how to effectively synthesize or condense multi-page articles into a summary of reasonable length 25 13 {'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PART, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'effectively', 'Even', 'how'}, 'csubj': {'challenging'}, 'prep': {'into', 'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'multi', '-', 'page', 'reasonable', 'large'}, 'pobj': {'section', '-', 'summary', 'students', 'cross', 'length'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'synthesize'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'condense'}, 'dobj': {'articles'}} Long High Medium
496 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In fact, many students approached summaries in a linear fashion, jot-ting down phrases from the reading as they were encountered rather than identifying more general themes or key points threaded through paragraphs or pages of the text 37 18 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'through', 'from', 'in', 'of', 'than', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'paragraphs', 'reading', 'text', 'fashion', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'ting', 'linear', 'many', 'key', 'more', 'general'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'approached'}, 'dobj': {'phrases', 'summaries', 'themes'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'jot'}, 'prt': {'down'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advcl': {'encountered'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'pcomp': {'identifying'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'threaded', 'points', 'pages'}} Long High Medium
497 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Other students used text features such as bolded or high-lighted words or the headings and subheadings in the text to identify impor - tant ideas or the structure of the reading (Scheiter & Eitel, 2015) 35 15 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Other', 'such', 'bolded'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'compound': {'tant', 'impor', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'ideas', 'features'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'advmod': {'high'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'conj': {'structure', 'headings', 'Eitel', 'lighted', 'subheadings'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'words', 'text'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'appos': {'Scheiter'}, 'npadvmod': {'2015'}} Long High Low
498 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Although attention to signaling in texts has long been a recommended learning and study strategy (Lorch & Lorch, 1995; Meyer et al., 2018; Ozcelik et al., 26 7 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 10, 'NUM': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'nsubj': {'attention'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'signaling'}, 'pobj': {'texts'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'advmod': {'long'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'recommended'}, 'nmod': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'compound': {'study', 'et'}, 'attr': {'strategy'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ','}, 'appos': {'2018', 'al', 'et', 'Lorch', 'Ozcelik'}, 'conj': {'Lorch', '.', 'al'}, 'npadvmod': {'Meyer', '1995'}} Long High Medium
499 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 490 Written Communication 40(2) 2010), this approach was not particularly effective in summary writing for the undergraduates 17 6 {'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [NUM, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nummod': {'2010', '40(2', '490'}, 'compound': {'Written', 'summary'}, 'dep': {'Communication'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'approach'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'particularly'}, 'acomp': {'effective'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'undergraduates', 'writing'}} Medium High Low
500 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course While this strategy served to condense the content in the readings and touched on key terms or ideas, the resulting summaries were largely a smattering of unconnected words, phrases, or sentence fragments 32 14 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'summaries', 'strategy'}, 'advcl': {'served'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'condense'}, 'dobj': {'content'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'words', 'terms'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'phrases', 'fragments', 'ideas', 'touched'}, 'amod': {'resulting', 'unconnected', 'key'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'largely'}, 'attr': {'smattering'}, 'compound': {'sentence'}} Long High Medium
501 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The resulting length of the summaries was also initially problematic for the majority of students 15 8 {'DET': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'resulting'}, 'nsubj': {'length'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'majority', 'summaries'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'initially', 'also'}, 'acomp': {'problematic'}} Medium High Low
502 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Some students wrote as many as four handwritten pages in their journals to summarize a 25-page article, whereas others wrote no more than half a page 26 15 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'no', 'Some'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'others'}, 'ROOT': {'wrote'}, 'advmod': {'as'}, 'amod': {'many', 'handwritten', 'more'}, 'quantmod': {'than', 'as', 'half'}, 'nummod': {'four', '25'}, 'dobj': {'article', 'page', 'pages'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'journals'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'summarize'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'page'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'advcl': {'wrote'}} Long High Medium
503 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Often, the long summaries were not more effective as synopses of the article contents than the painfully short ones 19 10 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'painfully', 'Often', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'short', 'long'}, 'nsubj': {'summaries'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'effective'}, 'prep': {'than', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'contents', 'synopses', 'ones'}, 'compound': {'article'}} Medium High Low
504 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course A substantial minority of the undergraduates (approximately 15%) were overly reliant on the original wording and phrasing used in the source text 22 10 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'amod': {'substantial', 'original'}, 'nsubj': {'minority'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'undergraduates', 'text', 'wording'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'overly', 'approximately'}, 'nummod': {'15'}, 'appos': {'%'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'reliant'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'phrasing'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'compound': {'source'}} Long High Low
505 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This was the case even though we forewarned them that verbatim copying of the source text could be detrimental to a deeper understanding of the content and might unin-tentionally result in plagiarism 32 19 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'copying', 'we', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'case'}, 'advmod': {'even', 'tentionally'}, 'mark': {'though', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'forewarned'}, 'dobj': {'them'}, 'amod': {'unin', 'verbatim', 'deeper'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'pobj': {'plagiarism', 'content', 'understanding', 'text'}, 'aux': {'could', 'might'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'detrimental'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'conj': {'result'}} Long High High
506 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These students seemed either unwilling or unable to paraphrase or synthesize (Alexander & Schoute, 2022) 15 6 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'These'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'seemed'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'oprd': {'unwilling'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Schoute', 'synthesize', 'unable'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'paraphrase'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'2022'}} Medium High Low
507 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In contrast, there were students who were intentional and selective in the use of authors’ exact language, often as a way to preserve an especially salient quote 27 14 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'contrast', 'way', 'language'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'students'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'preserve', 'were'}, 'acomp': {'intentional'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'selective'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'poss': {'authors'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'salient', 'exact'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'especially'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'dobj': {'quote'}} Long High Low
508 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course One shortcoming in the students’ summaries that we had not anticipated was the absence of paragraphs 16 10 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'shortcoming'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'summaries', 'paragraphs'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'anticipated'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'absence'}} Medium High Low
509 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course To be more precise, we were struck by the large portion of students (about 75%) who delivered summaries consisting of a single, uninterrupted paragraph 24 12 {'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'about', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'precise'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'we'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'struck'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'large', 'uninterrupted', 'single'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'paragraph', 'portion'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'nummod': {'75'}, 'appos': {'%'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'delivered'}, 'dobj': {'summaries'}, 'acl': {'consisting'}} Long High Low
510 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course It appeared as if students were oblivious to the function and mechanics of paragraphing 14 8 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'nsubj': {'students', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'appeared'}, 'mark': {'if', 'as'}, 'advcl': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'oblivious'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'function', 'paragraphing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'mechanics'}} Medium High High
511 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In these single-paragraph sum-maries that would run on for more than a page, there were no headings or subheadings to guide the reader 23 15 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'In'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'single', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'paragraph', 'sum'}, 'pobj': {'page', 'maries'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'run'}, 'prt': {'on'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'headings'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'subheadings'}, 'advcl': {'guide'}, 'dobj': {'reader'}} Long High Low
512 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Further, there were no intentional linking words or markers within those written summaries to alert the reader to related ideas (e.g., first or second; Oostdam, 2005) or to indicate any association between text segments (e.g., “in contrast,” “for example,” or “because”) 41 20 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 17, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'first', 'e.g.', 'Further'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'det': {'any', 'no', 'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'written', 'linking', 'related', 'intentional'}, 'attr': {'words'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'markers', 'second', 'because', 'indicate'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'in', 'for', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'summaries', 'segments', 'contrast', 'example', 'ideas'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'alert'}, 'dobj': {'association', 'reader'}, 'appos': {'Oostdam', '2005'}, 'compound': {'text'}} Long High Medium
513 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course It soon became evident that this “paragraphing” problem permeated all their writing, including extended responses on the course assessments 19 8 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It', 'problem'}, 'advmod': {'soon'}, 'ROOT': {'became'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nmod': {'paragraphing'}, 'ccomp': {'permeated'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'writing'}, 'prep': {'on', 'including'}, 'amod': {'extended'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'responses'}, 'attr': {'assessments'}} Medium High Medium
514 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In fact, approximately 45% of the students continued to write summaries without any paragraph breaks well into the semester 19 9 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'without', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'semester', 'breaks', 'fact'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'well', 'approximately'}, 'nummod': {'45'}, 'nsubj': {'%'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'continued'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'write'}, 'dobj': {'summaries'}, 'compound': {'paragraph'}} Medium High Low
515 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The persistence of this problem led the first author to inform students that points would be deduced if written projects or course examinations came without appropriate paragraphing 27 12 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'persistence', 'projects'}, 'prep': {'without', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'problem', 'paragraphing'}, 'ROOT': {'led'}, 'amod': {'first', 'written', 'appropriate'}, 'dobj': {'author', 'students'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'inform', 'came'}, 'nsubjpass': {'points'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'deduced'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'course'}, 'conj': {'examinations'}} Long High Medium
516 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Instructional Response Once these various problems in students’ summary writings began to emerge, we realized that instructional guidance was necessary 20 8 {'PROPN': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'compound': {'summary', 'Instructional'}, 'nsubj': {'problems', 'Response', 'we', 'guidance'}, 'mark': {'Once'}, 'det': {'that', 'these'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'various'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'writings'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'advcl': {'began'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'emerge'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'realized'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'necessary'}} Long High Medium
517 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Armed with this new understanding, we initiated certain instructional actions that we carried forward into subsequent semesters 17 6 {'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Armed'}, 'prep': {'into', 'with'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'subsequent', 'instructional', 'new'}, 'pobj': {'semesters', 'understanding'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'initiated'}, 'dobj': {'actions', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'carried'}, 'advmod': {'forward'}} Medium High Low
518 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We used those initial summaries as a baseline of their ability to preparing concise reports of academic texts 18 9 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'det': {'a', 'those'}, 'amod': {'initial', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'summaries', 'reports'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'baseline', 'ability', 'texts'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'preparing'}, 'compound': {'concise'}} Medium High Low
519 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In Week 2, we contrasted the features of their attempts with the characteristics of quality summaries described in the literature (Anderson & Hidi, 1988; Brown & Day, 1983; Garner, 1982) 30 10 {'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'with', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'summaries', 'Week', 'characteristics', 'attempts', 'literature'}, 'nummod': {'1988', '2'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'contrasted'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'features'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'quality'}, 'acl': {'described'}, 'npadvmod': {'Anderson'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Garner', 'Hidi', 'Day', 'Brown'}, 'appos': {'1982', '1983'}} Long High Low
520 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We also provided students with worked examples of summaries they could use as models 14 7 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We', 'they'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'provided'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'prep': {'with', 'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'worked'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'summaries', 'examples'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ccomp': {'use'}} Medium High Low
521 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course It was that awareness that led us to seek guidance from experts in aca- demic writing, like Dr 18 8 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'that'}, 'attr': {'awareness'}, 'ccomp': {'led'}, 'dobj': {'us', 'guidance'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'seek'}, 'prep': {'like', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'experts', 'writing', 'Dr'}, 'amod': {'aca-', 'demic'}, 'punct': {','}} Medium High Low
522 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Susan De La Paz (De La Paz & McCutchen, 2017; De La Paz et al., 2022), on how to support students who struggled with not only argumentation, but also summary and comparative analysis writing that were precursory to composing a quality argumentative essay 43 14 {'PROPN': 14, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PART, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Susan', 'De', 'et', 'Paz', 'La'}, 'ROOT': {'Paz'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', 'Paz', '2022'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', '&'}, 'conj': {'writing', 'McCutchen', 'summary'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'how'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'pcomp': {'composing', 'support'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'essay', 'analysis'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'struggled', 'were'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'pobj': {'argumentation'}, 'amod': {'argumentative', 'comparative'}, 'acomp': {'precursory'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'nmod': {'quality'}} Long High Medium
523 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course De La Paz, one of the editors for this special issue, helped us develop video models for the course that directly addressed the process and the product of quality summary writing, text comparisons, and written argumentation (Alexander, 2019-2020; van Meerten et al., 2020) 43 14 {'PROPN': 9, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NUM': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SYM': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'summary', 'De', 'video', 'quality', 'text', 'La', 'van'}, 'nsubj': {'us', 'that', 'Paz'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', 'et', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'one', 'Alexander', '2020'}, 'prep': {'for', '2020', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'writing', 'editors', 'issue'}, 'amod': {'written', 'special'}, 'ROOT': {'helped'}, 'ccomp': {'develop'}, 'dobj': {'models', '.', 'process'}, 'advmod': {'directly'}, 'relcl': {'addressed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Meerten', 'argumentation', 'comparisons', 'product'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019', 'al'}} Long High Low
524 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Students have found these videos helpful, and we have seen improvement in their writing after they watched the videos, especially in their summaries (van Meerten et al., 2020) 28 12 {'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Students', 'we', 'they', 'videos'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'ccomp': {'helpful'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'seen'}, 'dobj': {'improvement', 'al', '.', 'videos'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'summaries', 'writing'}, 'mark': {'after'}, 'advcl': {'watched'}, 'advmod': {'especially'}, 'compound': {'van'}, 'appos': {'Meerten', '2020'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Medium
525 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This concerted effort was mutually informative, as we learned more about students’ aca-demic writing capacities and how it could be improved, as well as how sum-maries contributed to students’ learning and further writing 33 18 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB] {'det': {'This'}, 'amod': {'concerted', 'demic'}, 'nsubj': {'effort', 'maries', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'further', 'well', 'mutually', 'as', 'how'}, 'acomp': {'informative'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'learned'}, 'dobj': {'more'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'npadvmod': {'aca'}, 'compound': {'writing', 'sum'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'capacities'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'improved'}, 'conj': {'writing', 'contributed'}} Long High High
526 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course However, because of almost 2 years of online instruction, we have not been able to put this instructional tool to empirical test, which we hope to do in the future 30 19 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, ADV, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'almost', 'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'in', 'to', 'of', 'because'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'pobj': {'future', 'years', 'test', 'instruction'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'online', 'empirical'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'do', 'put'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'which', 'tool'}, 'relcl': {'hope'}} Long High Medium
527 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Despite such serious impediments, we have learned much about college stu-dents’ academic writing as it manifests in this special instructional environ-ment 21 10 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'about', 'Despite', 'in'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'stu', 'such', 'special', 'serious', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'impediments', 'ment', 'college'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'learned'}, 'dobj': {'much'}, 'appos': {'dents'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'manifests'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'compound': {'environ'}} Long High High
528 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We also feel justified in sharing what we have learned as a guide to others interested in academic writing within an existing course structure 24 13 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADP, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We', 'we'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'feel'}, 'acomp': {'justified'}, 'prep': {'as', 'within', 'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'sharing'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ccomp': {'learned'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'pobj': {'structure', 'writing', 'guide', 'others'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'existing', 'interested'}, 'compound': {'course'}} Long High Low
529 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course From then on, students would periodically receive feedback on their jour - nal summaries from the teaching assistants 18 8 {'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADP, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'From', 'on', 'from'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'periodically'}, 'pcomp': {'on'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'receive'}, 'dobj': {'feedback'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'nal', 'jour'}, 'pobj': {'summaries', 'assistants'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'teaching'}} Medium High Low
530 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course What we learned from this instructional approach was that some of the struggles that students had in writing quality summaries could be more easily rectified than others (e.g., recording source information) 31 17 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3} [PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'dobj': {'What', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'csubj': {'learned'}, 'prep': {'in', 'than', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'recording'}, 'pobj': {'others', 'approach', 'struggles'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'summaries', 'some'}, 'relcl': {'had'}, 'pcomp': {'writing'}, 'compound': {'quality', 'source'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'easily', 'more'}, 'ccomp': {'rectified'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'information'}} Long High High
531 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course A more challenging problem, especially in the early weeks of the course, pertained to students’ ability to distinguish more important from less important information in the readings (Garner, 1985) 29 13 {'DET': 4, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'especially', 'more'}, 'amod': {'important', 'early', 'challenging'}, 'ROOT': {'problem'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'students', 'information', 'readings', 'weeks'}, 'acl': {'pertained', 'distinguish'}, 'dobj': {'important', 'ability'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'appos': {'Garner'}, 'npadvmod': {'1985'}} Long High Low
532 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Thankfully, as students become more familiar with the subject matter, their ability to discern more important from less important content improved 21 10 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'important', 'less', 'more', 'Thankfully'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'ability'}, 'advcl': {'become'}, 'acomp': {'familiar'}, 'prep': {'with', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'subject'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'matter'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'discern'}, 'amod': {'important'}, 'ROOT': {'improved'}} Long High Medium
533 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Identifying Problems in Students’ Comparative Analyses One of the overarching goals of LHL was to teach students the power of thinking and writing relationally, that is, the identifying of connections within 31 15 {'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 3} [VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP] {'csubj': {'Identifying'}, 'dobj': {'One', 'Problems', 'power'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'goals', 'Students', 'connections', 'LHL', 'thinking'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'compound': {'Analyses', 'Comparative'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'overarching'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'teach'}, 'dative': {'students'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'writing'}, 'advmod': {'is', 'relationally', 'that'}, 'appos': {'identifying'}} Long High Low
534 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 492 Written Communication 40(2) and across academic content to forge a more cohesive knowledge base, foster memory and recall, and facilitate transfer (Alexander & The Disciplined Reading and Learning Research Laboratory [DRLRL], 2020) 33 9 {'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 8, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'X': 1} [NUM, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, X, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'2020', '40(2', '492'}, 'compound': {'facilitate', 'Disciplined', 'Written', 'knowledge', 'Learning', 'Research'}, 'nsubj': {'Communication'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ']', ',', 'Laboratory'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'transfer', 'Reading', 'recall', 'across', 'Alexander', 'memory'}, 'amod': {'cohesive', 'academic', 'foster'}, 'pobj': {'content'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ROOT': {'forge', 'DRLRL'}, 'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'dobj': {'base'}, 'nmod': {'['}} Long High Low
535 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The emphasis on comparative analysis of assigned readings was one way this goal was reinforced 15 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, NUM, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'emphasis'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'amod': {'assigned', 'comparative'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'analysis'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'attr': {'way'}, 'nsubjpass': {'goal'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'relcl': {'reinforced'}} Medium High Low
536 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As Hamman and Stevens (2003) argued: To be able to compare and contrast concepts or topics is an essential part of students’ conceptual and metacognitive knowledge 26 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PART, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'Hamman'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'concepts', 'Stevens', 'topics', 'metacognitive'}, 'punct': {'(', ':', ')', '’'}, 'appos': {'2003'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'csubj': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'compare'}, 'compound': {'contrast'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'essential', 'conceptual'}, 'attr': {'part'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}} Long High Medium
537 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course .] The process of comparing and contrasting supports learners making cognitive connections between topics and groups of topics to “identify and learn key concepts and networks of information.” (Dickson, 1999,p 30 10 {'PUNCT': 7, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'process', 'Dickson', '.'}, 'punct': {'.', '(', '”', ']', ',', '“'}, 'det': {'The'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'pcomp': {'comparing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'contrasting', 'key', 'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'supports'}, 'conj': {'learners', 'networks', 'groups', 'learn'}, 'acl': {'making'}, 'dobj': {'concepts', 'connections'}, 'pobj': {'topics', 'information'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'identify'}, 'appos': {'1999,p'}} Long High Low
538 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 29) Specifically, students were occasionally assigned two readings representing different perspectives on the same topic 15 5 {'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'29', 'assigned'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'Specifically', 'occasionally'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'dobj': {'readings', 'perspectives'}, 'acl': {'representing'}, 'amod': {'different', 'same'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'topic'}} Medium High Low
539 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In those instances, students were asked to compare these two readings in their journals by identifying key simi-larities and differences 20 10 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'by', 'In', 'in'}, 'det': {'these', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'journals', 'instances'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'compare'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'dobj': {'readings', 'larities'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'identifying'}, 'amod': {'key'}, 'compound': {'simi'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'differences'}} Long High Low
540 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These pieces were meant to be brief, analytical over - views of the more salient points of comparison between the readings, which had already been summarized separately 27 15 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADV] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which', 'pieces'}, 'auxpass': {'been', 'were'}, 'ROOT': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'brief'}, 'punct': {',', 'views', '-'}, 'amod': {'analytical', 'more'}, 'compound': {'salient', 'over'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'comparison', 'points'}, 'advmod': {'already', 'separately'}, 'relcl': {'summarized'}} Long High Low
541 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For example, they read a chapter describing traditional views on expertise (Bransford et al., 2000), followed by an article that offered a contrasting model of expertise development (Alexander, 2003) 29 9 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'article', 'expertise', 'example', 'development'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'dobj': {'views', 'model', 'chapter'}, 'acl': {'describing'}, 'amod': {'contrasting', 'traditional'}, 'appos': {'2000', 'Alexander', 'Bransford'}, 'npadvmod': {'2003', 'et'}, 'conj': {'al', '.'}, 'advcl': {'followed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'relcl': {'offered'}, 'compound': {'expertise'}} Long High Low
542 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course There were quite a number of similarities and differences that the students could have noted in their comparison, such as (a) stages of development; (b) factors differentiating experts from nonexperts; (c) consid-eration of noncognitive forces; (d) the perceived path to expertise; and (e) who could achieve expertise 47 23 {'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 17, 'ADP': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PUNCT': 16, 'ADJ': 2, 'X': 3} [PRON, VERB, DET, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'predet': {'quite'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'number'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'forces', 'nonexperts', 'stages', 'expertise', 'development', 'similarities', 'comparison'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'path', 'differences', 'e', 'factors', 'eration'}, 'dobj': {'experts', 'that', 'expertise'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'who'}, 'aux': {'could', 'have'}, 'relcl': {'noted', 'achieve'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'perceived', 'such', 'noncognitive'}, 'nmod': {'a'}, 'meta': {'d', 'b', 'c'}, 'acl': {'differentiating'}, 'compound': {'consid'}} Long High Low
543 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course What actually appeared in the comparisons for many students was less rich and far less organized, as the following examples illustrate (see Table 1) 24 12 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'What', 'examples'}, 'advmod': {'actually', 'less', 'far'}, 'csubj': {'appeared'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'comparisons'}, 'amod': {'many', 'following'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'rich'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'organized'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'illustrate'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'Table'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Long High Medium
544 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course What immediately became clear when examining the students’ written comparisons was that they did not seem to know how to approach such a task strategically 25 15 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 3} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, DET, NOUN, ADV] {'nsubj': {'What', 'they'}, 'advmod': {'immediately', 'strategically', 'when', 'how'}, 'csubj': {'became'}, 'acomp': {'clear'}, 'advcl': {'examining'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'task'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'amod': {'written'}, 'attr': {'comparisons'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'did', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'seem'}, 'xcomp': {'approach', 'know'}, 'predet': {'such'}} Long High High
545 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Instead, they would sometimes state the obvious, such as that the two readings addressed the same topic, or they would revert to listing salient points for each reading separately 29 17 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, ADV] {'advmod': {'Instead', 'separately', 'sometimes'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'readings', 'they'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'state'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'dobj': {'topic', 'points', 'obvious'}, 'amod': {'same', 'such'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'to'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pcomp': {'listing', 'addressed'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'revert'}, 'compound': {'salient'}, 'pobj': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
546 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Another problem in their compara-tive writing, which carried over to their writing on the class assessments, was students’ failure to explicate the point of comparison being described or to include both sides of the comparison 35 19 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'Another', 'both', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'problem'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'compara'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'compound': {'class', 'tive'}, 'pobj': {'assessments', 'comparison', 'writing'}, 'relcl': {'carried'}, 'prt': {'over'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'attr': {'failure'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'described', 'explicate'}, 'dobj': {'point', 'sides'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'include'}} Long High Low
547 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For the two readings on expertise, for instance, a student might write that the chapter on expertise suggested that anyone can become an expert—leaving it to the reader to guess how the other reading, the research article, differed on this point 41 25 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 8, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'for', 'For', 'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'expertise', 'readings', 'point', 'reader'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'anyone', 'chapter', 'student'}, 'aux': {'can', 'might', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'write'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'suggested', 'differed', 'become'}, 'attr': {'expert'}, 'advcl': {'guess', 'leaving'}, 'dobj': {'reading', 'it'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'appos': {'article'}} Long High High
548 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Still other students jux-taposed two unassociated characteristics from the readings, as shown in Table 1 15 7 {'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NUM] {'advmod': {'Still'}, 'amod': {'other', 'unassociated'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'npadvmod': {'jux'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'taposed'}, 'nummod': {'two', '1'}, 'dobj': {'characteristics'}, 'prep': {'in', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'Table'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'shown'}} Medium High Medium
549 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In effect, students did not seem to recognize that each similarity or difference identified in the comparative analysis should specify the particular 22 12 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'analysis', 'effect'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'similarity'}, 'aux': {'did', 'should', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'xcomp': {'recognize'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'difference'}, 'acl': {'identified'}, 'amod': {'comparative'}, 'ccomp': {'specify'}, 'dobj': {'particular'}} Long High Medium
550 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 493 characteristic or dimension that was the basis for the comparison being made and address that point for both readings 20 12 {'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1} [NUM, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nummod': {'493'}, 'acomp': {'characteristic'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'address', 'dimension'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'both', 'that', 'the'}, 'attr': {'basis'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'nsubjpass': {'comparison'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'made'}, 'npadvmod': {'point'}, 'pobj': {'readings'}} Long High Low
551 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course No clear pattern could be identified as to why, for some, identifying points of similarity seemed more challenging than differences or why the opposite was true for others 28 18 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'No', 'the'}, 'amod': {'clear'}, 'nsubjpass': {'pattern'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'prep': {'than', 'to', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'advmod': {'more', 'why'}, 'punct': {','}, 'pobj': {'others', 'similarity', 'some', 'differences'}, 'csubj': {'identifying'}, 'dobj': {'points'}, 'conj': {'was', 'seemed'}, 'oprd': {'challenging'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'nsubj': {'opposite'}, 'acomp': {'true'}} Long High High
552 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Instructional Response There were several ways in which we attempted to scaffold students’ crafting of comparisons during the semester 19 10 {'PROPN': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'compound': {'Instructional'}, 'npadvmod': {'Response'}, 'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'amod': {'several'}, 'attr': {'ways'}, 'prep': {'during', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'semester', 'comparisons'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'relcl': {'attempted'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'scaffold'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'advcl': {'crafting'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
553 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As with summaries, the first author pro-vided the students with explicit feedback on the shortcomings identified in their comparative writing based on our general criteria for these tasks, which were to state the points of comparison, address both readings or perspectives, and identify whether those points indicated similarities (=) or differences (≠) 52 25 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 16, 'PUNCT': 7, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 8, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'As', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'summaries', 'writing', 'criteria', 'feedback', 'shortcomings', 'tasks', 'comparison'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'both', 'the', 'those', 'these'}, 'amod': {'first', 'explicit', 'general', 'comparative'}, 'nsubj': {'author', 'which', 'points'}, 'ROOT': {'pro'}, 'conj': {'perspectives', 'address', '-', 'differences', 'vided', 'identify'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'similarities', 'points', 'readings'}, 'acl': {'identified'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'agent': {'based'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'state'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'ccomp': {'indicated'}, 'appos': {'≠', '=)'}} Long High Medium
554 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course To improve students’ performance on these three aspects, we introduced Table 1 12 5 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 1} [PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NUM] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'improve'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'Table'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nummod': {'three', '1'}, 'pobj': {'aspects'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'introduced'}} Medium High Low
555 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Strategies Student Writing Examples Listing key or salient aspects of the sources separately“MDL: about achievement and motivation; tells how to achieve expertise; 3 levels > acclimation, competence, expertise, not just novice or expert; MDL is a process; expert helps mold terrain of field and guide others 46 15 {'NOUN': 19, 'PROPN': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, X, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, ADV, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'compound': {'Student', 'Strategies', 'mold', 'Writing'}, 'dep': {'Examples'}, 'advcl': {'Listing'}, 'amod': {'key'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'guide', 'expertise', 'competence', 'motivation', 'salient', 'novice', 'expert'}, 'dobj': {'aspects', 'terrain', 'expertise', 'others'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'achievement', 'field'}, 'aux': {'separately“MDL', 'to'}, 'punct': {',', '>', ';', ':'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'tells'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'how'}, 'xcomp': {'achieve'}, 'nummod': {'3'}, 'appos': {'acclimation', 'levels'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'nsubj': {'MDL', 'expert'}, 'attr': {'process'}, 'ROOT': {'helps'}} Long High Medium
556 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Bransford focused more on the qualities that experts exude.” “They both depend on a large amount of knowledge” 18 10 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'They', 'experts', 'Bransford'}, 'ROOT': {'depend', 'focused'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'amount', 'qualities'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'exude'}, 'punct': {'.', '”', '“'}, 'appos': {'both'}, 'amod': {'large'}} Medium High Low
557 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 494 Written Communication 40(2) what Robinson and Kiewra (1995) would classify as a visual argument strat- egy for comparative analysis 20 6 {'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PART': 1} [NUM, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'494'}, 'compound': {'Written', 'Communication'}, 'ROOT': {'classify', '40(2'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nsubj': {'Robinson'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Kiewra'}, 'appos': {'egy', '1995'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'comparative', 'visual'}, 'pobj': {'argument', 'analysis'}, 'dep': {'strat-'}} Long High Low
558 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In effect, we allowed students to generate a visual representation of the similarities and differences between the readings that were compared 21 11 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'similarities', 'effect', 'readings'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'allowed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'generate'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'visual'}, 'dobj': {'representation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'differences'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'compared'}} Long High Low
559 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course A sample graphic model we provided students (see Table 2) served to remind them to address the three criteria for an effective compara-tive analysis 24 10 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'an', 'the'}, 'nmod': {'sample'}, 'amod': {'graphic', 'effective'}, 'ROOT': {'model'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'Table'}, 'relcl': {'provided'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'criteria', 'them'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'nummod': {'three', '2'}, 'ccomp': {'served'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'address', 'remind'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'compound': {'compara', 'tive'}, 'pobj': {'analysis'}} Long High Low
560 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The first author also used versions of these comparison graphics when juxtaposing different concepts (e.g., knowledge building versus infor - mation management) or constructs (e.g., self-efficacy and attribution theory) in lectures 31 10 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'these'}, 'amod': {'first', 'different'}, 'nsubj': {'author'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'when', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'dobj': {'concepts', 'versions', 'efficacy'}, 'prep': {'versus', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'mation', 'attribution', 'knowledge', 'infor', 'self', 'comparison'}, 'pobj': {'management', 'graphics', 'lectures'}, 'advcl': {'juxtaposing'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'dep': {'building', 'e.g.'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'constructs', 'theory'}} Long High Medium
561 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course There were also times when students would share their compari-sons of the readings in small work groups, occasionally assisted by the teach-ing assistants 23 11 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'also', 'occasionally'}, 'attr': {'times'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'relcl': {'share'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'ing', 'compari', 'small'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'dobj': {'sons'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'assistants', 'groups'}, 'compound': {'work'}, 'advcl': {'assisted'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'npadvmod': {'teach'}} Long High Medium
562 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course There was a marked improvement in students’ comparative analyses over the semester once these instructional steps were initiated 18 9 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'marked', 'comparative'}, 'attr': {'improvement'}, 'prep': {'over', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'semester'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'appos': {'analyses'}, 'mark': {'once'}, 'nsubjpass': {'steps'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advcl': {'initiated'}} Medium High Medium
563 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For one, some students favored the use of Venn diagrams to capture similarities and differences, which caused problems when they tried to make the points of comparison explicit and when they had to pair the similarities and differences they listed 40 22 {'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 8, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'diagrams', 'comparison'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'which', 'points', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'favored'}, 'dobj': {'similarities', 'use', 'problems'}, 'compound': {'Venn'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'capture', 'make', 'pair'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'had', 'differences'}, 'relcl': {'caused', 'listed'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'tried'}, 'ccomp': {'explicit'}} Long High High
564 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For another, it was not always apparent that students invested the time and effort required to under - stand the readings deeply enough to engage in effective comparative analy-sis 29 15 {'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'another', 'sis'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'enough', 'under', 'always', 'deeply'}, 'acomp': {'apparent'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'invested'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'readings', 'time'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'effort'}, 'acl': {'required'}, 'advcl': {'stand'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'amod': {'effective', 'comparative'}, 'compound': {'analy'}} Long High Medium
565 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These continuing challenges may reflect problems in their content knowledge, strategic abilities, or their motivations for learning 17 7 {'DET': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'det': {'These'}, 'amod': {'continuing', 'strategic'}, 'nsubj': {'challenges'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'reflect'}, 'dobj': {'problems'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'content'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'motivations', 'abilities'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Low
566 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We regarded these ongoing problems in students’ comparative analysis as nontrivial for several reasons 14 6 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'regarded'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'amod': {'several', 'ongoing', 'comparative'}, 'dobj': {'problems'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'in'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'reasons', 'analysis', 'nontrivial'}} Medium High Low
567 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For one, if these students cannot recognize points of similar - ity and difference across readings, then it becomes hard for them to build a coherent knowledge base around the topic at hand 33 19 {'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'around', 'For', 'of', 'at', 'across'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'readings', 'hand', 'one', 'ity'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'if', 'for'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'it', 'them'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'recognize', 'build'}, 'dobj': {'points', 'base'}, 'amod': {'coherent', 'similar'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'difference'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'ROOT': {'becomes'}, 'acomp': {'hard'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}} Long High High
568 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For another, we had doubts as to how effective students who struggled with comparative analysis would be at extracting similar or dissimilar claims, sources of evidence, or methodological features among four or more texts (i.e., multiple source use), as they would be required to do for the argumentative essay writing task.Table 2 52 27 {'ADP': 8, 'PRON': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 8, 'AUX': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'X': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADP, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADP, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM] {'prep': {'for', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'among', 'at', 'For', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'another', 'evidence', 'analysis', 'texts'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '.', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'essay', 'we', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'had', 'Table'}, 'dobj': {'task', 'claims', 'doubts'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'how'}, 'amod': {'similar', 'effective', 'argumentative', 'comparative', 'multiple', 'methodological'}, 'relcl': {'struggled'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'pcomp': {'be', 'writing', 'extracting'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'sources', 'dissimilar', 'more', 'features'}, 'nummod': {'four', '2'}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'appos': {'use'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'required'}, 'xcomp': {'do'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High High
569 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Comparison of models of expertise Traditional +/− MDL Purpose Domains Factors Structure Assumptions Role of schooling 16 3 {'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 8} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Comparison', 'Role'}, 'prep': {'+', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'schooling', 'expertise'}, 'amod': {'Traditional'}, 'punct': {'/−'}, 'compound': {'Purpose', 'Structure', 'Assumptions', 'MDL', 'Domains', 'Factors'}} Medium High Low
570 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 495 Struggling With Written Argumentation Within a Multiple Source Use Task Over the course of multiple years of teaching this undergraduate course, all the while conducting classroom-based studies, we came to several important insights about students’ performance in more advanced writing tasks—cen-tered primarily on written argumentation 46 18 {'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 9, 'PROPN': 6, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2} [NUM, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'meta': {'495'}, 'advcl': {'Struggling', 'tered', 'conducting'}, 'prep': {'Over', 'on', 'Within', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'With'}, 'compound': {'Written', 'writing', 'Multiple', 'Use'}, 'pobj': {'insights', 'course', 'years', 'argumentation', 'Argumentation', 'tasks', 'Source', 'performance'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'appos': {'Task'}, 'amod': {'important', 'undergraduate', 'multiple', 'based', 'written', 'advanced', 'several'}, 'pcomp': {'teaching'}, 'dobj': {'course', 'studies'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'dep': {'while'}, 'npadvmod': {'cen', 'classroom'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'came'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'advmod': {'primarily', 'more'}} Long High Low
571 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The various challenges we have documented for students’ writings of summaries and comparisons were amplified when students were tasked with producing argumentative essays based on their analysis, synthesis, and integration of multiple documents they selected on a controversial topic 39 18 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'amod': {'various', 'multiple', 'argumentative', 'controversial'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students', 'challenges'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'they'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'documented', 'selected'}, 'prep': {'with', 'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'summaries', 'topic', 'analysis', 'writings', 'documents'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'integration', 'synthesis', 'comparisons'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'amplified'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'tasked'}, 'pcomp': {'producing'}, 'dobj': {'essays'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'punct': {','}} Long High Medium
572 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As noted at the outset of this article, the multiple source use (MSU) project with the ensuing argumentative essay was a major component of the LHL curriculum in that it tied together a number of the key objectives covered over the semester 42 21 {'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 9, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'noted'}, 'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'at', 'over'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'outset', 'semester', 'essay', 'curriculum', 'objectives', 'article'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'major', 'argumentative', 'ensuing', 'multiple', 'key'}, 'compound': {'LHL', 'source'}, 'nsubj': {'use', 'it'}, 'nmod': {'MSU'}, 'appos': {'project'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'component'}, 'ccomp': {'tied'}, 'advmod': {'together'}, 'dobj': {'number'}, 'acl': {'covered'}} Long High High
573 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In addition to the summary and comparison writings that students regularly produced, there were discussions surrounding the credibility of sources, justification of claims and positions, the integrity of online information, and relational thinking that were directly relevant 37 16 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 15, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'summary', 'information', 'addition', 'claims'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'comparison', 'relational'}, 'conj': {'writings', 'integrity', 'positions', 'thinking'}, 'dobj': {'credibility', 'justification', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'directly', 'regularly'}, 'relcl': {'produced', 'were'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'discussions'}, 'acl': {'surrounding'}, 'amod': {'online'}, 'acomp': {'relevant'}} Long High Medium
574 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We expected that the synergy of the cognitive and social support we provided in this course would foster more effective argumentative writing and learning from sources in the LHL community 30 15 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'we', 'We', 'synergy'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'prep': {'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'effective', 'argumentative', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'social', 'learning'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'sources', 'community', 'support'}, 'relcl': {'provided'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'foster'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'dobj': {'writing'}, 'compound': {'LHL'}} Long High Medium
575 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Although aspects of the MSU task have varied over the years, the core elements have remained consistent across semesters 19 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'nsubj': {'aspects', 'elements'}, 'prep': {'across', 'of', 'over'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'MSU', 'core'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'years', 'semesters'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advcl': {'varied'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'remained'}, 'acomp': {'consistent'}} Medium High Medium
576 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These elements reflect the purpose of the writing experiences envisaged for this course 13 6 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'this', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'elements'}, 'ROOT': {'reflect'}, 'dobj': {'purpose'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'compound': {'writing'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'experiences'}, 'acl': {'envisaged'}} Medium High Low
577 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Specifically, in keeping with Dewey’s tenets of pragmatism, we sought to promote the power of thought by requiring students to produce argumentation writing hinged on thoughtful and deliberate conclusions as opposed to impulse and my-side bias (Dewey, 1910,p 38 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 7, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, PART, ADJ, CCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '('}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'by', 'with', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'keeping', 'requiring'}, 'poss': {'my', 'Dewey'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'pobj': {'thought', 'pragmatism', 'conclusions', 'tenets'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'produce', 'promote'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'bias', 'writing', 'power'}, 'compound': {'side', 'argumentation'}, 'ccomp': {'hinged'}, 'amod': {'thoughtful', 'impulse'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'deliberate'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'opposed'}, 'appos': {'1910,p', 'Dewey'}} Long High Medium
578 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course To support this training of the power of thought, students were always required to summarize the readings they selected in their journals 22 12 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'support'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'readings', 'training'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'thought', 'power', 'journals'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'always'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'xcomp': {'summarize'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'selected'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
579 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Further, to make the content and task personally relevant to the students, a controversial topic was used to frame the task, which was based on what an earlier cohort of students regarded as controver - sial (Alexander, 2003; Markus & Nurius, 1986; Schoute et al., 2022) 46 19 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Further', 'personally'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'make'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'what', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'content'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'task', 'Nurius', 'Schoute', 'Markus'}, 'ccomp': {'relevant'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'Alexander'}, 'amod': {'controversial', 'earlier'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which', 'topic'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'xcomp': {'frame'}, 'dobj': {'task'}, 'relcl': {'based'}, 'pcomp': {'cohort'}, 'acl': {'regarded'}, 'compound': {'et', 'controver'}, 'nmod': {'sial'}, 'npadvmod': {'2003'}, 'appos': {'1986', '.', '2022', 'al'}} Long High Low
580 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Besides heightened perceptions of relevance, we made this decision to let students identify the topic also because the most common topics researched in the MSU literature, such as climate change or vaccinations, generated no contro-versy among the students (Bråten et al., 2011; Monroe et al., 2019) 46 19 {'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 6, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2} [SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'in', 'among', 'of', 'Besides', 'as'}, 'amod': {'heightened', 'such', 'contro', 'common'}, 'pobj': {'perceptions', 'change', 'students', 'literature', 'relevance'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'topics', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'topic', 'decision', 'versy'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'researched', 'let'}, 'ccomp': {'identify'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'most'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'compound': {'climate', 'MSU'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'vaccinations'}, 'advcl': {'generated'}, 'dep': {'Bråten', 'Monroe'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2019', 'al', '.', 'et', '2011'}} Long High High
581 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Over the years, the selected topic for the MSU project varied from whether the over - reliance on technology was cognitively, emotionally, physically, or socially harmful to whether marijuana should be legalized 32 16 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, DET, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, SCONJ, PROPN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'Over', 'on', 'from', 'to', 'for'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'years', 'technology', 'project'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'selected'}, 'nsubj': {'topic', 'reliance', 'marijuana'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'ROOT': {'varied'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nmod': {'over'}, 'pcomp': {'was', 'legalized'}, 'advmod': {'physically', 'emotionally', 'cognitively', 'socially'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'acomp': {'harmful'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High High
582 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In the first iteration of the course-embedded MSU task, students were pre- sented with a library of 10 documents on the topic of the harmful effects of 27 14 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP] {'prep': {'on', 'with', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'first', 'embedded', 'harmful'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'task', 'effects', 'library', 'iteration', 'documents'}, 'npadvmod': {'course'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'pre-'}, 'ROOT': {'sented'}, 'nummod': {'10'}} Long High Low
583 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The documents selected for the task varied by credibility (The New York Times vs 14 5 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'documents'}, 'acl': {'selected', 'varied'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'credibility'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {'('}, 'compound': {'New', 'York'}, 'npadvmod': {'Times'}, 'ROOT': {'vs'}} Medium High Low
584 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Natural News, a fake news website), specific content (an opinion piece based on expert opinion or a data-backed article), genre (feature article or blog), and stances on the topic (pro, con, neutral, or two-sided) 34 11 {'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 16, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT] {'compound': {'opinion', 'news', 'Natural', 'feature', 'expert'}, 'ROOT': {'News'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'fake', 'specific', 'backed'}, 'appos': {'content', 'website', 'piece', 'pro'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'opinion'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'data'}, 'conj': {'stances', 'two', 'neutral', 'sided', 'blog', 'article'}, 'nmod': {'genre'}, 'dep': {'con'}} Long High Low
585 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We presented the documents in a form that mimicked a Google search page 13 6 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'presented'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'page', 'documents'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'form'}, 'relcl': {'mimicked'}, 'compound': {'Google', 'search'}} Medium High Low
586 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For subsequent MSU projects, students were free to conduct their own search and select their own documents from the Internet—a process that they recorded in a search and selection log 30 16 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3} [ADP, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'in', 'from'}, 'amod': {'own', 'subsequent'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'pobj': {'log', 'Internet', 'projects'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'free'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'conduct'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'search', 'documents'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'selection', 'select'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'appos': {'process'}, 'relcl': {'recorded'}, 'nmod': {'search'}} Long High Low
587 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For the past eight semesters, the rubric used for scoring the argumentative essays, which was drawn from the literature on argumentation and from prior MSU studies (Anmarkrud et al., 2014; Barzilai et al., 2015; Toulmin, 1958), has been maintained 39 16 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NUM': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 10, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 9} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'for', 'For', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'past', 'prior', 'argumentative'}, 'nummod': {'eight'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'literature', 'argumentation', 'semesters'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'rubric', 'which'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'pcomp': {'scoring'}, 'dobj': {'essays'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'been'}, 'relcl': {'drawn'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'.', 'from'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'appos': {'2014', '1958', '2015', 'Barzilai', 'Toulmin', 'Anmarkrud'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'maintained'}} Long High Low
588 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As seen in Table 3, the rubric documents include not only mandatory elements (i.e., four documents, position statement, justifica-tions, counterarguments) and evidence of essential component processes (i.e., sourcing, critical analysis, synthesis) but also indicators of writing qual-ity (i.e., cohesion and comprehensibility within and across paragraphs) 45 15 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 19, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 16, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'X': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 4} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'seen'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'paragraphs', 'processes', 'Table'}, 'nummod': {'four', '3'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'essential', 'critical', 'sourcing', 'rubric', 'mandatory'}, 'nsubj': {'documents'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'i.e.', 'also'}, 'dobj': {'ity', '-', 'elements', 'qual'}, 'appos': {'analysis', 'documents'}, 'compound': {'component', 'position', 'justifica'}, 'conj': {'counterarguments', 'synthesis', 'cohesion', 'evidence', 'tions', 'indicators', 'comprehensibility', 'statement', 'across'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'pcomp': {'writing'}} Long High Medium
589 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Further, there was no word limit set for the essay, and the students had more than a week to finalize and submit their written product 25 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'compound': {'word'}, 'attr': {'limit'}, 'acl': {'set'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'essay'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'conj': {'had', 'submit'}, 'amod': {'written', 'more'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'nummod': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'week', 'product'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'finalize'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
590 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Componential Process of Multiple-Document-Based Argumentative Writing The data gleaned from the aforementioned rubric were submitted to Bayesian network analysis (Singh et al., 2019) 23 6 {'PROPN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'network', 'Componential', 'Multiple'}, 'nsubj': {'Process'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'Document', 'et'}, 'amod': {'aforementioned', 'Based', 'Bayesian'}, 'pobj': {'rubric', 'analysis', 'Argumentative'}, 'ROOT': {'Writing'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'data'}, 'acl': {'gleaned'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ccomp': {'submitted'}, 'appos': {'2019', 'Singh'}, 'conj': {'.'}} Long High Low
591 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Bayesian analysis is a statistical method that affords the modeling of componential processes and gives insight into their interrelations, particularly how the change in the performance of one or more components subsequently impacts other components (Jensen & Nielsen, 2007; Pearl & Russell, 2001) 43 17 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'PROPN': 4} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'other', 'componential', 'statistical', 'Bayesian'}, 'nsubj': {'change', 'analysis', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'method'}, 'relcl': {'affords'}, 'dobj': {'modeling', 'components', 'insight'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'components', 'performance', 'interrelations', 'processes'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Russell', 'Pearl', 'Nielsen', 'gives', 'more'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'particularly', 'subsequently', 'how'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'acl': {'impacts'}, 'appos': {'Jensen', '2001'}, 'npadvmod': {'2007'}} Long High Medium
592 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This analysis proved quite revealing about the componential process involved in undergraduates’ construction of an argu-mentative essay based on multiple and varied sources 23 9 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'analysis'}, 'ROOT': {'proved'}, 'advmod': {'quite'}, 'oprd': {'revealing'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'undergraduates', 'componential'}, 'pobj': {'essay', 'construction', 'process', 'sources'}, 'acl': {'based', 'involved'}, 'punct': {'’', '-'}, 'compound': {'argu', 'mentative'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'varied'}} Long High Low
593 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Based on the established literature on argumentation and the relatively recent scholarship on multiple source use, we distilled the process of multiple-document-based argumentative writing into the following components: inclu-sion of multiple relevant sources, furnishing a claim, providing justifications and counterarguments, engaging in critical analysis synthesis, and producing a written piece that exhibits overall cohesion (List & Alexander, 2019; Toulmin, 1958) 60 18 {'VERB': 11, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 18, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 8, 'PUNCT': 14, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'Based', 'in', 'into', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'following', 'critical', 'overall', 'established', 'argumentative', 'based', 'written', 'recent', 'relevant', 'multiple'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'components', 'writing', 'synthesis', 'literature', 'argumentation', 'use'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'advmod': {'relatively'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'producing', 'counterarguments', 'scholarship'}, 'compound': {'inclu', 'analysis', 'source'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we', 'sion'}, 'ROOT': {'distilled', 'Toulmin'}, 'dobj': {'piece', 'cohesion', 'claim', 'justifications', 'process'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019', 'document'}, 'advcl': {'providing', 'furnishing', 'engaging'}, 'relcl': {'exhibits'}, 'appos': {'1958', 'List'}} Long High Low
594 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Foremost, the results demonstrated that the process of writing argumen-tation from multiple documents does not progress linearly from sources to claims to justifications and so on 26 13 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADV] {'advmod': {'linearly', 'Foremost', 'so'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'results', 'process'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrated'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'writing'}, 'dobj': {'argumen', 'tation'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'claims', 'justifications', 'documents'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'progress'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Medium
595 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Instead, composing the essay entails an inter - dependence among elements specified in the rubric 15 5 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Instead'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'csubj': {'composing'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'essay', 'dependence'}, 'ROOT': {'entails'}, 'amod': {'inter'}, 'prep': {'among', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'rubric', 'elements'}, 'acl': {'specified'}} Medium High Low
596 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For instance, we found that critical analysis was crucial for producing relevant justifications and for 15 7 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP] {'prep': {'for', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'instance'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'analysis', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'critical'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'crucial'}, 'pcomp': {'producing'}, 'dobj': {'justifications'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Medium
597 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Critical analysis was, in turn, dependent on the selection of appropriate sources, which was reflected in stronger justifications and the inclusion of more relevant counterarguments 25 12 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'Critical', 'relevant', 'appropriate', 'stronger'}, 'nsubj': {'analysis'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'counterarguments', 'justifications', 'turn', 'selection'}, 'acomp': {'dependent'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'relcl': {'reflected'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'inclusion'}, 'advmod': {'more'}} Long High Low
598 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This componential model of the process of crafting the argumentative essay borne out by the data is presented in Figure 1 21 10 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NUM] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'argumentative', 'componential'}, 'nsubjpass': {'model'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Figure', 'data', 'process'}, 'pcomp': {'crafting'}, 'dobj': {'essay'}, 'acl': {'borne'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'presented'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Long High Low
599 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This Bayesian analysis proved highly informative in uncovering chal- lenges students manifested in writing an argumentative essay 17 4 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'This'}, 'amod': {'chal-', 'argumentative', 'Bayesian'}, 'nsubj': {'analysis'}, 'ROOT': {'proved'}, 'advmod': {'highly'}, 'oprd': {'informative'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pcomp': {'writing', 'uncovering'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'essay', 'lenges'}, 'acl': {'manifested'}} Medium High Low
600 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Before delving into the particulars of those findings, it is essential to note that the majority of students have a limited understanding of what argumentation means and, consequently, what an argumentative essay should encompass 34 19 {'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'into', 'of', 'Before'}, 'pcomp': {'means', 'delving'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'findings', 'particulars'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'majority', 'it', 'essay', 'argumentation'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'essential'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'note'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'amod': {'limited', 'argumentative'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'understanding'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'consequently'}, 'conj': {'encompass'}} Long High Medium
601 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Repeatedly, in discussions following the MSU project, students explained that they had been taught that the goal of argumentation, whether written or oral, was to success-fully defend one’s espoused position or viewpoint 32 16 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, NUM, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Repeatedly', 'fully', 'success'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'discussions', 'argumentation'}, 'acl': {'written', 'following'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'dobj': {'position', 'project'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'goal'}, 'ROOT': {'explained'}, 'mark': {'that', 'whether'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ccomp': {'was', 'taught'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'oral', 'viewpoint'}, 'xcomp': {'defend'}, 'poss': {'one'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'espoused'}} Long High High
602 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course It was not about objec-tively weighing alternative viewpoints and conflicting evidence in order to arrive at a reasoned and well-grounded position 21 11 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'prep': {'about', 'at', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'objec', 'well', 'tively'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'weighing', 'alternative', 'reasoned', 'conflicting'}, 'pobj': {'viewpoints', 'position', 'order'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'evidence', 'grounded'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'arrive'}, 'det': {'a'}} Long High Low
603 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As such, the online search was conducted to identify documents that supported their position 14 7 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2} [SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'such'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'online'}, 'nsubjpass': {'search'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'conducted'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'dobj': {'position', 'documents'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'supported'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Medium High Medium
604 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For sources addressing the opposing viewpoint, students selected those that were intentionally less trustworthy or that made less-compelling arguments 19 10 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For'}, 'pobj': {'sources'}, 'acl': {'addressing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'opposing', 'compelling'}, 'dobj': {'arguments', 'those', 'viewpoint'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'selected'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'intentionally'}, 'acomp': {'trustworthy'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'made'}} Medium High Low
605 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The laudable intent of MSU studies to open students’ minds to deeper reflection on controversial topics (Barzilai et al., 2015) seems to have been lost on the undergraduates in LHL, and we would predict on many college students 38 17 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 6, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PART, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'many', 'controversial', 'laudable', 'deeper'}, 'nsubj': {'intent', 'we'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'MSU', 'college'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'reflection', 'students', 'LHL', 'undergraduates', 'topics'}, 'aux': {'would', 'have', 'to'}, 'acl': {'open'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'minds'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2015', 'Barzilai'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'predict'}, 'ROOT': {'seems'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'xcomp': {'lost'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
606 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Given this, in our Bayesian study, we found evidence that the pro-cess of argumentation begins to flounder when students are unable to con-sider perspectives and data that run counter to their stances or viewpoints 34 16 {'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, PRON, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'of', 'to', 'in', 'Given'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'this', 'argumentation', 'stances', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'amod': {'Bayesian'}, 'nsubj': {'-', 'students', 'that', 'we', 'cess', 'pro'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'dobj': {'evidence'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'begins'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'flounder'}, 'advmod': {'counter', 'when'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'unable'}, 'compound': {'con', 'sider'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'viewpoints', 'data'}, 'relcl': {'run'}} Long High High
607 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In fact, 40% of students failed to provide even one counterargument (Singh et al., 2019) 15 5 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'one', '40'}, 'nsubj': {'%'}, 'ROOT': {'failed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'provide'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'dobj': {'counterargument'}, 'appos': {'2019', 'Singh'}, 'compound': {'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.'}} Medium High Low
608 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course While this outcome could be due, in part, to students’ limited understanding of argumentation or argumentative writing, that is not suffi-cient to account for the challenges that endure from semester to semester, even with project modifications 36 21 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'outcome'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'be', 'is'}, 'acomp': {'due'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'modifications', 'students', 'semester', 'argumentation', 'part', 'challenges'}, 'amod': {'limited', 'argumentative'}, 'attr': {'suffi', 'understanding'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'writing'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'cient'}, 'xcomp': {'account'}, 'relcl': {'endure'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'compound': {'project'}} Long High Medium
609 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For instance, based on findings from the Bayesian study and subsequent empirical studies (Alexander & DRLRL, 2020; Schoute et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2020), we decided not to ask students Figure 1 33 8 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 11, 'NUM': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, PART, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, NUM] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'findings', 'instance', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'advcl': {'based'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'subsequent', 'empirical', 'Bayesian'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'studies', 'al', 'DRLRL'}, 'appos': {'Sun', '2021', '.', '2020', 'Alexander'}, 'compound': {'Schoute', 'et'}, 'nsubj': {'al', 'we'}, 'dep': {'.'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'ROOT': {'decided'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'ask'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'Figure'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Long High Low
610 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We hoped this decision would reduce the amount of my-side bias we witnessed in the essays (Wolfe & Britt, 2008) 20 11 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'decision', 'We', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'hoped'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'reduce'}, 'dobj': {'amount'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'my'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'side'}, 'pobj': {'essays', 'bias'}, 'relcl': {'witnessed'}, 'appos': {'Wolfe'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Britt'}, 'npadvmod': {'2008'}} Long High Low
611 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course While that decision may have ameliorated the search for confirming evidence, it did not eliminate the students’ belief that they should use the project to “win” the argument 28 16 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 2} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'that', 'While'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'decision', 'it'}, 'aux': {'to', 'should', 'did', 'may', 'have'}, 'advcl': {'ameliorated'}, 'dobj': {'search', 'project', 'evidence', 'belief', 'argument'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pcomp': {'confirming'}, 'punct': {',', '“', '”', '’'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'eliminate'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'acl': {'use'}, 'xcomp': {'win'}} Long High High
612 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Moreover, it remains clear that a quality argumentative essay hinges on students’ ability to engage in critical analysis of source materials and to effectively compare and contrast, synthesize, and integrate relevant information across those written docu-ments 36 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'effectively'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'acomp': {'clear'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'those'}, 'nmod': {'quality', 'students'}, 'amod': {'written', 'relevant', 'argumentative', 'critical'}, 'compound': {'essay', 'source', 'docu'}, 'ccomp': {'hinges'}, 'prep': {'on', 'across', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'ments', 'analysis', 'ability', 'materials'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'engage'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'compare', 'synthesize', 'contrast', 'integrate'}, 'dobj': {'information'}} Long High Medium
613 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Each of these essential components represents a challenge for the undergraduates who enroll in LHL 15 8 {'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2} [PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Each', 'who'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'essential'}, 'pobj': {'LHL', 'components', 'undergraduates'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'dobj': {'challenge'}, 'relcl': {'enroll'}} Medium High Low
614 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Profiling Argumentative Writing From Multiple Documents Students’ struggles with the effective use of multiple documents in building integrated argumentation were also evident in two profile analyses of their engagement with information sources (Schoute et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2020) 40 12 {'NOUN': 10, 'PROPN': 12, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 5} [NOUN, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Documents', 'Profiling', 'profile', 'Multiple', 'Argumentative', 'information'}, 'nsubj': {'struggles', 'Writing'}, 'prep': {'From', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'Students', 'analyses', 'engagement', 'use', 'documents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'integrated', 'effective'}, 'pcomp': {'building'}, 'dobj': {'argumentation'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Schoute', '2021', '2020', 'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'Sun', 'al', '.', 'et'}, 'conj': {'al', '.'}} Long High Low
615 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Unlike the Bayesian network analysis that revealed the general componential process, the profile analyses allowed us to gain a more nuanced understand-ing of the differential source processing patterns the undergraduates demon-strated, which afforded insights into the variability in the strategic capacity and motivational/affective engagement among these students 47 19 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 9, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 16, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SYM': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, SYM, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'Unlike', 'in', 'into', 'among', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'differential', 'componential', 'motivational', 'strategic', 'nuanced', 'Bayesian', 'general'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'affective', 'understand', 'profile', 'network', 'source'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'analysis', 'variability', 'capacity', 'patterns'}, 'nsubj': {'us', 'which', 'analyses', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'revealed', 'afforded'}, 'dobj': {'ing', 'undergraduates', 'process', 'insights'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '/'}, 'ROOT': {'allowed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'gain'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'npadvmod': {'demon'}, 'acomp': {'strated'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'engagement'}} Long High Low
616 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course By using this learner-centered analytic approach, we were able to identify the specific chal-lenges different groups of students faced and understand the prevalence of those problems 26 12 {'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'By', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'using'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'npadvmod': {'learner'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'different', 'centered', 'specific', 'analytic'}, 'dobj': {'approach', 'groups', 'prevalence'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'compound': {'chal'}, 'nmod': {'lenges'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'problems'}, 'acl': {'faced'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'understand'}} Long High Low
617 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In the first profile analysis we conducted, we sought to char - acterize students’ source use behaviors when working with a predefined library (Sun et al., 2020) 27 9 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'with'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'first', 'predefined'}, 'compound': {'profile', 'acterize', 'et'}, 'pobj': {'library', 'analysis', 'source'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'relcl': {'conducted'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'npadvmod': {'Sun', 'al', 'char'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'advcl': {'use', 'working'}, 'dobj': {'behaviors', '.'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'appos': {'2020'}} Long High Medium
618 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In the second profile analysis, we studied students’ search and selection of documents in an open online environment (Schoute et al., 2021) 22 7 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'online', 'second', 'open'}, 'compound': {'profile'}, 'pobj': {'analysis', 'environment', 'documents'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'studied'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'search'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'selection'}, 'appos': {'Schoute', '2021'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Low
619 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As noted, we first conducted a clus- ter analysis based on the quantity and quality (e.g., source credibility, posi- tion on the topic) of the documents students accessed, read, summarized, and cited from a given set of 10 documents (Sun et al., 2020) 43 15 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'noted'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'advmod': {'first', 'e.g.'}, 'ROOT': {'conducted'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'clus-', 'ter', 'source', 'posi-'}, 'dobj': {'analysis'}, 'acl': {'based', 'summarized'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'set', 'topic', 'quantity', 'documents'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'quality', 'al', '.', 'cited'}, 'appos': {'credibility', 'Sun', 'read', 'tion'}, 'relcl': {'accessed'}, 'amod': {'given'}, 'nummod': {'10'}, 'npadvmod': {'2020', 'et'}} Long High Medium
620 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Disengaged (n = 14): students who accessed few documents and cited the minimum number of readings in their argumentative essays; 2 21 7 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2} [PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Disengaged'}, 'punct': {'(', '):', ';', '='}, 'appos': {'students', 'n'}, 'nummod': {'14'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'accessed'}, 'amod': {'minimum', 'few', 'argumentative'}, 'dobj': {'number', 'documents'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'2', 'cited'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'essays'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
621 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Noncritical (n = 15): students who accessed a relatively large number of documents but were not critical about the credibility of the ones they chose to read or cite; 3 30 13 {'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2} [NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, PART, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Noncritical'}, 'punct': {'(', '):', ';'}, 'dep': {'n'}, 'nmod': {'='}, 'nummod': {'15'}, 'appos': {'students'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'accessed', 'chose'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'relatively'}, 'amod': {'large'}, 'dobj': {'number'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'credibility', 'ones', 'documents'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'cite', '3', 'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'critical'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}} Long High Low
622 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Casebuilder (n = 30): students who mainly read and cited documents with a view that supported their own preexisting positions on the 22 9 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON] {'ROOT': {'Casebuilder'}, 'punct': {'(', '):', '='}, 'appos': {'students', 'n'}, 'nummod': {'30'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'who'}, 'advmod': {'mainly'}, 'relcl': {'supported', 'read'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'cited'}, 'dobj': {'positions', 'documents'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'the', 'view'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'own'}, 'compound': {'preexisting'}} Long High Low
623 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 500 Written Communication 40(2) topic but were not highly evaluative of the credibility of the docu- ments they chose; and 4 21 9 {'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, VERB, PROPN, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM] {'nummod': {'40(2', '500'}, 'amod': {'Written'}, 'nmod': {'Communication'}, 'punct': {';', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'topic', 'they'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'highly'}, 'acomp': {'evaluative'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'credibility', 'ments'}, 'compound': {'docu-'}, 'relcl': {'chose'}, 'conj': {'4'}} Long High Low
624 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Critical-Analytics (n = 36): students who chose credible sources repre- senting alternative views and cited those opposing views in their essays 21 5 {'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'compound': {'Critical'}, 'punct': {'(', '):', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'Analytics', 'who'}, 'appos': {'students', '36', 'n'}, 'nmod': {'='}, 'relcl': {'chose'}, 'amod': {'opposing', 'alternative', 'credible'}, 'dobj': {'sources', 'views'}, 'ROOT': {'repre-'}, 'xcomp': {'senting'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'cited'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'essays'}} Long High Low
625 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These profiles predicted the quality of the final written argumentation stu-dents produced, as assessed by the rubric in Table 3, with the disengaged students scoring lower than the other groups 30 13 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'profiles'}, 'ROOT': {'predicted'}, 'dobj': {'quality'}, 'prep': {'than', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'other', 'written', 'final', 'disengaged'}, 'compound': {'stu', 'argumentation'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'rubric', 'dents', 'groups', 'Table'}, 'acl': {'produced'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'assessed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'3'}, 'pcomp': {'scoring'}, 'advmod': {'lower'}} Long High Medium
626 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These profiles corresponded to the theoretically defined stances toward MSU tasks described by List and Alexander (2017) 17 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'profiles'}, 'ROOT': {'corresponded'}, 'prep': {'to', 'toward'}, 'advmod': {'theoretically'}, 'amod': {'defined'}, 'pobj': {'stances', 'tasks', 'List'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'acl': {'described'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Alexander'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2017'}} Medium High Low
627 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As those authors indicated, these profiles reflected not only students’ evaluations of the readings and integration of them into the written products but also their affective engagement with the MSU task (e.g., potential bias by their prior positions on the topic) 41 21 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'mark': {'As'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'profiles', 'authors'}, 'advcl': {'indicated'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'reflected'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'e.g.', 'also'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'evaluations'}, 'prep': {'on', 'by', 'into', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'them', 'topic', 'readings', 'task', 'products', 'positions'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'integration', 'engagement'}, 'amod': {'potential', 'written', 'prior'}, 'compound': {'MSU', 'affective'}, 'appos': {'bias'}} Long High Medium
628 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As this cluster analysis revealed, only about one-third of the students who completed the MSU task demonstrated a critical-analytic stance, meaning they were able to critically evaluate the credibility of the documents and to consider both sides of the arguments 40 22 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 8, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'det': {'a', 'both', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'cluster', 'MSU'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'analysis', 'they', 'who'}, 'advcl': {'meaning', 'revealed'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'about', 'critically'}, 'quantmod': {'third'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'arguments', 'documents'}, 'relcl': {'completed'}, 'dobj': {'task', 'credibility', 'stance', 'sides'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrated'}, 'amod': {'analytic', 'critical'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'evaluate'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'consider'}} Long High Medium
629 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course A majority of the students (about 65%) manifested limited levels of critical evaluation of sources in building their arguments, either biased by their prior stances on the issue (the casebuilders) or limited by their ability or willingness to discern reliable from unreliable documents (the noncritical and the disengaged) 48 23 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 8, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'majority'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'issue', 'students', 'ability', 'evaluation', 'stances', 'documents'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'about', 'reliable'}, 'nummod': {'65'}, 'appos': {'noncritical', '%', 'levels', 'casebuilders'}, 'amod': {'manifested', 'critical', 'limited', 'unreliable', 'prior'}, 'pcomp': {'building'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'arguments'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'acl': {'discern', 'biased'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'limited', 'disengaged', 'willingness'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Low
630 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Such outcomes again sup-port the contention that these undergraduates may have been operating from a misconception as to the intent of the MSU task and what constitutes an argumentative essay 30 18 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'Such', 'argumentative'}, 'nsubj': {'undergraduates', 'outcomes', 'what'}, 'advmod': {'again'}, 'compound': {'sup', 'MSU'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'ROOT': {'port'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'contention', 'essay'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'been'}, 'relcl': {'operating'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'intent', 'misconception'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'constitutes'}} Long High Medium
631 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course With the goal to further characterize the ways in which different profiles of students processed the contents of the documents, we analyzed the sum-mary notes they prepared for their selected sources, as well as their use of those notes in their essays 42 24 {'ADP': 8, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'With', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'sources', 'notes', 'goal', 'students', 'essays', 'documents'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advmod': {'further', 'as', 'well'}, 'acl': {'characterize'}, 'dobj': {'ways', 'contents', 'notes'}, 'amod': {'different', 'selected'}, 'nsubj': {'profiles', 'we', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'prepared', 'processed'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'analyzed'}, 'compound': {'mary', 'sum'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'conj': {'use'}} Long High Low
632 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Specifically, we randomly selected 10 cases from each cluster and coded those students’ summary notes for the presence of several key components on a binary basis (i.e., 1 = present, 0 = not present) 34 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'X': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NUM, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, X, AUX, PART, ADJ, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'i.e.', 'Specifically', 'randomly'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'1', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'selected'}, 'nummod': {'0', '10'}, 'dobj': {'cases', 'notes'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'those', 'the', 'each'}, 'pobj': {'cluster', 'components', 'basis', 'presence'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'present', 'coded'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'summary'}, 'amod': {'present', 'several', 'binary', 'key'}, 'parataxis': {'='}, 'aux': {'='}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Low
633 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These components included ••meta-information about the documents (e.g., authors and genre type); ••general claims presented in those readings; ••specific evidence substantiating those claims; ••whether the information students noted was consistent or conflicting with their pre-existing positions on the topic; ••whether their notes were copied verbatim from the readings, para-phrased, or substantially transformed by the students (e.g., synthesiz-ing information within and between documents); and ••whether they included any evaluative comments about the information that they included in the summary. 78 33 {'DET': 11, 'NOUN': 24, 'VERB': 14, 'PUNCT': 17, 'ADP': 10, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'X': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, X, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'any', 'those', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'components', 'they', 'students', 'information', 'evidence', 'claims'}, 'ccomp': {'was', 'copied', '••whether', 'included', 'presented'}, 'compound': {'genre', '••meta', 'information'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'dobj': {'comments', 'information', 'authors', 'claims', 'that'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'from', 'in', 'with', 'about'}, 'pobj': {'summary', 'students', 'topic', 'information', 'readings', 'positions', 'documents'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'type', '••whether', 'transformed', 'conflicting', 'between'}, 'amod': {'pre', '-', 'existing', '••general', 'synthesiz', 'phrased', 'evaluative', 'ing', '••specific'}, 'acl': {'noted', 'substantiating'}, 'acomp': {'consistent'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ROOT': {'••whether'}, 'nsubjpass': {'notes'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'substantially', 'verbatim'}, 'npadvmod': {'para'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'relcl': {'included'}} Long High Low
634 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 501 For the argumentative essays written by those selected students, we documented ••the numbers of higher- and lower-credibility sources cited; ••the number of cited documents that supported and contradicted stu-dents’ positions on the topic; ••whether a document was cited with elaboration or merely mentioned without any reference to its details; ••whether students drew on specific evidence or data described in the doc-uments as support of their own arguments and as counterevidence; ••whether students referred to source information of the documents they cited; and ••whether students provided any critiques of the document content in the essays 95 40 {'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 16, 'DET': 13, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 30, 'VERB': 16, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PRON': 5, 'CCONJ': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SYM': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1} [NUM, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, SYM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ...] {'dep': {'501', '••whether'}, 'prep': {'on', 'without', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'For'}, 'det': {'••the', 'those', 'a', 'any', 'the'}, 'amod': {'selected', 'own', 'cited', 'lower', 'stu', 'specific', 'argumentative'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'content', 'doc', 'students', 'essays', 'topic', 'details', 'support', 'elaboration', 'evidence', 'arguments', 'counterevidence', 'reference', 'documents'}, 'acl': {'written', 'described'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '-', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'students', 'number', 'that', 'we'}, 'ccomp': {'documented', '••whether', 'drew', 'cited'}, 'dobj': {'critiques', 'numbers', 'information', 'uments', 'positions'}, 'nmod': {'dents', 'higher-'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'contradicted', 'data', 'provided', 'credibility', 'mentioned', 'as'}, 'advcl': {'cited'}, 'relcl': {'supported', 'cited'}, 'nsubjpass': {'document'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'merely'}, 'poss': {'its', 'their'}, 'compound': {'••whether', 'document'}, 'ROOT': {'referred'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'source'}, 'dative': {'••whether'}} Long High Low
635 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These follow-up descriptive analyses afforded more insights into the degree of critical analysis and synthesis of multiple documents that each profile exhibited 22 10 {'DET': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'det': {'each', 'the', 'These'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'follow', 'descriptive', 'multiple', 'more'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'nsubj': {'analyses', 'profile'}, 'ROOT': {'afforded'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'insights'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'analysis', 'degree', 'documents'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'synthesis'}, 'relcl': {'exhibited'}} Long High Low
636 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For instance, the disengaged students’ summary notes focused on the major claims or stated positions of the authors without refer - ring to the evidence authors used to substantiate their claims or positions 33 14 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'without', 'to', 'of', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'ring', 'authors', 'claims', 'instance'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'disengaged', 'major', 'stated'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'evidence', 'refer', 'summary'}, 'nsubj': {'notes'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'positions'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'substantiate'}, 'dobj': {'claims'}} Long High Low
637 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Further, these disengaged students’ argumentative essays consisted largely of personal opinions or experiences not connected to the documents they read 20 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'Further', 'largely'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'disengaged', 'personal', 'argumentative'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'nsubj': {'essays', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'consisted'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'opinions', 'documents'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'experiences'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acl': {'connected'}, 'relcl': {'read'}} Long High Low
638 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Only the non-critical students failed to consider source credibility or critically analyze the content of the documents they selected 19 8 {'ADV': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'critically', 'Only'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'-', 'non', 'critical'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'failed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'dobj': {'credibility', 'content'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'analyze'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'documents'}, 'relcl': {'selected'}} Medium High Low
639 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In their sum-mary notes, these students mainly recorded general claims and the support-ing evidence without evaluating the credibility of the source or its content 24 11 {'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'without', 'In', 'of'}, 'poss': {'its', 'their'}, 'amod': {'ing', 'general', 'sum'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'mary'}, 'pobj': {'source', 'notes'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'advmod': {'mainly'}, 'ROOT': {'recorded'}, 'dobj': {'credibility', 'claims'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'npadvmod': {'support'}, 'conj': {'content', 'evidence'}, 'pcomp': {'evaluating'}} Long High Low
640 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Consequently, in their argumentative essays, they tended to incorporate low-credibility information as support for their arguments and include unsubstantiated or weak conclusions 22 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Consequently'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'unsubstantiated', 'low', 'argumentative'}, 'pobj': {'essays', 'support', 'arguments'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'tended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'incorporate'}, 'compound': {'credibility'}, 'dobj': {'conclusions', 'information'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'weak', 'include'}} Long High Low
641 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In contrast to the disengaged and the non-critical students, casebuilders tended to record relatively detailed information on the specific evidence pre-sented in the readings 24 10 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'disengaged', 'evidence', 'contrast'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'-', 'detailed', 'critical', 'specific', 'non'}, 'conj': {'students'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'casebuilders'}, 'ROOT': {'tended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'record'}, 'advmod': {'relatively'}, 'dobj': {'information'}, 'acl': {'pre'}, 'advcl': {'-'}, 'acomp': {'sented'}} Long High Low
642 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Interestingly, as they read the documents with similar positions as their own, these students often copied segments of the sources verbatim 21 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ] {'advmod': {'often', 'verbatim', 'Interestingly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'read'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'segments', 'documents'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'amod': {'similar'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'own', 'positions'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ROOT': {'copied'}} Long High Medium
643 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course By having this verbatim content in their journals, these students were able to cite specific evidence to support their claims in the argumentative essays 24 11 {'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2} [ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'By', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'having'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'amod': {'verbatim', 'specific', 'argumentative'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'claims', 'evidence'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'essays', 'journals'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'cite'}, 'acl': {'support'}} Long High Low
644 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Not surprisingly, however, they failed to address counterarguments or counterevidence sufficiently, even when these counterpoints were recorded in their journals 20 11 {'PART': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PART, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'neg': {'Not'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'sufficiently', 'however', 'surprisingly', 'even'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'failed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'address'}, 'dobj': {'counterarguments'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'counterevidence'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'counterpoints'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advcl': {'recorded'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'journals'}} Long High Medium
645 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Finally, the students who populated the critical-analytic cluster appeared to engage more deeply with their selected readings 17 7 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Finally', 'deeply', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'populated'}, 'amod': {'selected', 'analytic', 'critical'}, 'dobj': {'cluster'}, 'ROOT': {'appeared'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'readings'}} Medium High Low
646 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course There was more paraphrasing and synthesizing in their journals as they recorded authors’ major claims and the evidence substantiating those claims 21 11 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'attr': {'paraphrasing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'evidence', 'synthesizing'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'poss': {'authors', 'their'}, 'pobj': {'journals'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'advcl': {'recorded'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'major'}, 'dobj': {'claims'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'acl': {'substantiating'}} Long High Medium
647 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 502 Written Communication 40(2) critical-analytic students presented more critiques and evaluative comments on the cited information, and importantly, addressed counterpoints and coun-terevidence more explicitly and elaboratively 26 8 {'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 4} [NUM, VERB, PROPN, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, ADV, CCONJ, ADV] {'nummod': {'502'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'cited', 'evaluative', 'Written', 'analytic', 'addressed', 'more'}, 'nmod': {'Communication'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly', 'importantly', 'more', '40(2'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'presented'}, 'dobj': {'critiques'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'elaboratively', 'comments', 'terevidence'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'information'}, 'appos': {'counterpoints'}, 'compound': {'coun'}} Long High Low
648 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course However, even among this group of students, we saw room for improvement in terms of cohesion and integration of cross-document content in their argumentative essays 25 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'even'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'among', 'in'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'cohesion', 'terms', 'group', 'students', 'essays', 'improvement'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'saw'}, 'dobj': {'room'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'integration'}, 'amod': {'document', '-', 'cross', 'argumentative'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
649 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This profile analysis highlighted limitations in students’ conception of argumentation, their abilities to critically evaluate source reliability and con-tent quality, to deeply analyze and synthesize information within and across documents, and to integrate opposing perspectives and evidence cohesively in the final essay 42 16 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 16, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'PART': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'advcl': {'profile'}, 'nmod': {'analysis'}, 'amod': {'opposing', 'final', 'con', 'highlighted'}, 'dobj': {'reliability', 'perspectives', 'limitations', 'information'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'essay', 'conception', 'argumentation', 'documents'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'abilities'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advmod': {'critically', 'cohesively', 'deeply'}, 'ROOT': {'evaluate'}, 'compound': {'tent', 'source'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'synthesize', 'integrate', 'quality', 'evidence', 'analyze', 'across'}} Long High Low
650 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The different manifestations of these limitations in the identified profiles point to the potential for more focused interventions per - taining to the use of multiple documents to address a critical question, as well as the writing of a quality argumentative essay 42 21 {'DET': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'The', 'these'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'identified', 'argumentative', 'different', 'focused', 'multiple'}, 'ROOT': {'manifestations'}, 'prep': {'per', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'interventions', 'limitations', 'essay', 'use', 'point', 'potential', 'documents'}, 'compound': {'profiles'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pcomp': {'taining'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'address'}, 'dobj': {'question'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'conj': {'writing'}, 'nmod': {'quality'}} Long High Low
651 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We recognize that the clusters identified from this analysis were con- strained by the setup of the MSU task and the clustering variables included in the analysis 27 14 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'clusters', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'recognize'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'acl': {'included', 'identified'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'setup', 'analysis'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'attr': {'con-'}, 'acomp': {'strained'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'clustering'}, 'conj': {'variables'}} Long High Medium
652 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course (2020) study only applied to situations when students were given a prespecified set of readings 15 6 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'2020'}, 'nsubj': {'study'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'when'}, 'ROOT': {'applied'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'situations'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advcl': {'given'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'prespecified'}, 'dobj': {'set'}} Medium High Medium
653 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In stu-dents’ day-to-day encounters with informational sources, however, it is often the case that they need to search for information online 21 12 {'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADV] {'prep': {'for', 'to', 'In', 'with'}, 'amod': {'stu', 'informational'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ','}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'day', 'dents', 'encounters', 'information'}, 'nmod': {'day'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'online', 'however'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'case'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'need'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'search'}} Long High Medium
654 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course What search terms they choose and how they decide which sources to read and use for argumen-tation are critical for the quality of the resulting written products 27 14 {'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'which', 'What', 'the'}, 'compound': {'argumen', 'search'}, 'dobj': {'terms'}, 'nsubj': {'sources', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'choose'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'csubj': {'decide'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'read'}, 'conj': {'use', 'are'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'quality', 'tation', 'products'}, 'acomp': {'critical'}, 'amod': {'written', 'resulting'}} Long High Medium
655 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We thus made modifications to the subsequent MSU task to incorporate the online search process and conducted a second profile analysis to understand patterns in students’ source search and selection processes 31 12 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'advmod': {'thus'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'dobj': {'processes', 'modifications', 'analysis', 'process', 'patterns'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'online', 'second', 'subsequent'}, 'compound': {'source', 'profile', 'MSU', 'search'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'students'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'understand', 'incorporate'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'selection', 'conducted'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'nmod': {'search'}} Long High Low
656 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In a sub- sequent iteration of the MSU project, we deliberately moved away from a preselected library of documents and, instead, allowed students to select their sources by means of an open online search 34 14 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'by', 'In', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'away', 'sub-', 'instead', 'deliberately'}, 'amod': {'sequent', 'online', 'preselected', 'open'}, 'pobj': {'means', 'search', 'project', 'library', 'iteration', 'documents'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'moved'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'allowed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'select'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'sources'}} Long High Low
657 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This change allowed us to examine students’ specific search behaviors, their reasons behind source selection, and how the search and selection patterns linked to their argumentative essay 27 11 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'change', 'us', 'patterns'}, 'ROOT': {'allowed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'examine'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'specific', 'argumentative'}, 'compound': {'source', 'search'}, 'dobj': {'behaviors'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'reasons'}, 'prep': {'behind', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'selection', 'essay'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nmod': {'search'}, 'conj': {'selection', 'linked'}} Long High Medium
658 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course From a theoretical perspective, an understanding of how students approach informa-tion search and selection is critical for forming a more complete conception of the process of using multiple sources 29 14 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'From', 'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'multiple', 'complete'}, 'pobj': {'process', 'perspective'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'understanding'}, 'advmod': {'more', 'how'}, 'pcomp': {'forming', 'using', 'approach'}, 'compound': {'informa', 'tion'}, 'dobj': {'sources', 'conception', 'search'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'selection'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'critical'}} Long High Medium
659 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course According to the Integrated Frame-work of Multiple Texts (IF-MT; List & Alexander, 2019), students’ search for information is affected by the task-specific parameters, their knowledge, motivation, and competencies, and any preexisting biases toward the contro-versial topic at the heart of the task (List & Alexander, 2017) 46 18 {'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 6, 'PROPN': 10, 'PUNCT': 17, 'NOUN': 13, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'at', 'to', 'According', 'of', 'toward', 'for'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Integrated', 'Frame', 'Multiple'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'pobj': {'heart', 'topic', 'information', 'task', 'work', 'Texts', 'parameters'}, 'nmod': {'IF'}, 'appos': {'2019', 'List', 'MT'}, 'conj': {'List', 'biases', 'knowledge', 'competencies', 'motivation', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'nsubjpass': {'search'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'affected'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'npadvmod': {'task', '2017'}, 'amod': {'contro', 'specific', 'versial', 'preexisting'}} Long High Low
660 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course First, during the preparation stage, students consider the task parameters and make initial 13 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ] {'advmod': {'First'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'during'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'preparation', 'task'}, 'pobj': {'stage'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'dobj': {'initial', 'parameters'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'make'}} Medium High Low
661 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In the execution stage, students activate behavioral and (meta-)cognitive strategies as they read, summarize, and analyze the materials they have chosen 21 9 {'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'In'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'execution'}, 'pobj': {'stage'}, 'punct': {',', '('}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'activate'}, 'dobj': {'behavioral', 'materials'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'meta-)cognitive'}, 'conj': {'analyze', 'strategies', 'summarize'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'read'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'chosen'}} Long High Medium
662 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Finally, in the pro - duction stage, students synthesize and integrate what they have learned about the task topic in order to create their final product, which was the argumenta-tive essays for LHL 33 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'for', 'about', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'argumenta', 'final', 'pro'}, 'compound': {'task', 'duction', 'tive'}, 'pobj': {'LHL', 'topic', 'order', 'stage'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'which', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'synthesize'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'integrate'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'product'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'learned'}, 'acl': {'create'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'relcl': {'was'}, 'attr': {'essays'}} Long High Low
663 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As students conducted their open searches, they documented their activi- ties by means of a search log that recorded ••number of searches, ••exact search terms used in each search, ••number of sources scanned, opened, and read, ••epistemic (e.g., relevancy, trustworthiness) and nonepistemic (e.g., length, position in search results) criteria they applied to decide which sources to read and summarize in their journals, and ••usefulness and credibility ratings of the sources they read and sum-marized in preparation for the argumentative essay 80 32 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 30, 'VERB': 14, 'PRON': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 16, 'ADP': 10, 'DET': 5, 'CCONJ': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'sources', 'terms', 'they', 'students', '••number', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'conducted'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'activi-', 'open', 'argumentative', 'scanned'}, 'dobj': {'searches', 'ties', '••number'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'ccomp': {'documented', 'read'}, 'prep': {'in', 'by', 'e.g.', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'results', 'means', 'journals', 'preparation', 'search', 'log', 'essay', 'searches'}, 'det': {'which', 'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'compound': {'••exact', 'credibility', 'search'}, 'relcl': {'recorded', 'read', 'applied'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'conj': {'trustworthiness', 'marized', 'summarize', 'position', 'ratings', 'opened', '••usefulness'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'relevancy', 'read', 'length', 'nonepistemic', '••epistemic'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'ROOT': {'criteria'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'decide'}, 'npadvmod': {'sum'}} Long High Medium
664 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The cluster analysis based on the information from the search logs indi- cated four distinct profiles (Schoute et al., 2021): 1 21 6 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'cluster', 'search'}, 'nsubj': {'analysis'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'logs', 'information'}, 'appos': {'Schoute', 'indi-'}, 'ROOT': {'cated'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'amod': {'distinct'}, 'dobj': {'profiles'}, 'punct': {'(', '):', ','}, 'npadvmod': {'2021', 'al', '.', '1', 'et'}} Long High Low
665 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Uninvested (n = 37): students who conducted the least number of searches, used biased search terms, and seemed to focus on meeting the minimum requirements of the task; 2 29 12 {'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM] {'nsubj': {'Uninvested', 'students', 'who'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ';', '=', '):'}, 'appos': {'n'}, 'nummod': {'37'}, 'relcl': {'conducted'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'least', 'minimum', 'biased'}, 'dobj': {'number', 'requirements', 'terms'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'searches', 'task'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'compound': {'search'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'seemed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'focus'}, 'pcomp': {'meeting'}, 'npadvmod': {'2'}} Long High Low
666 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Nonstrategic (n = 34): students who conducted a considerable number of searches and applied all criteria indiscriminately when choosing which sources to read and summarize; 3 26 9 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Nonstrategic'}, 'punct': {'(', '):', ';', '='}, 'appos': {'students', 'n', '3'}, 'nummod': {'34'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'conducted'}, 'det': {'which', 'a', 'all'}, 'amod': {'considerable'}, 'dobj': {'number', 'sources', 'criteria'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'searches'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'applied', 'summarize'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'indiscriminately'}, 'advcl': {'choosing'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'read'}} Long High Medium
667 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Biased (n = 28): students who recorded the highest number of searches but were highly selective in the sources they chose to read and sum-marize, likely to find documents that aligned with their preexisting viewpoints rather than based on the credibility of the documents; and 4 46 21 {'VERB': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PRON': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 2} [VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Biased'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', ',', ';', '=', '):'}, 'dep': {'n'}, 'conj': {'marize', '28', '4', 'were'}, 'appos': {'students'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'that', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'recorded', 'chose', 'aligned'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'highest', 'likely', 'preexisting'}, 'dobj': {'number', 'documents'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'based', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'viewpoints', 'credibility', 'searches', 'documents'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than', 'but'}, 'advmod': {'highly', 'rather'}, 'acomp': {'selective'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'find', 'read'}, 'compound': {'sum'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
668 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Open-minded (n = 25): students who conducted a planful and unbi- ased search using neutral search terms and based their document selection primarily on source credibility rather than the viewpoint represented These resulting profiles were generally consistent with the different stances toward MSU tasks described by List and Alexander (2017, 2019) and were similar to clusters unearthed in our previous study (Sun et al., 2020) 65 22 {'ADJ': 9, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 5, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 7} [ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'minded', 'neutral', 'planful', 'different', 'Open', 'resulting', 'ased', 'previous'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', '):'}, 'dep': {'n'}, 'nmod': {'='}, 'nummod': {'25'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'profiles', 'who', 'viewpoint'}, 'relcl': {'conducted'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'These'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than'}, 'conj': {'based', 'unbi-', 'Alexander', 'were'}, 'dobj': {'selection', 'search', 'terms'}, 'acl': {'using', 'unearthed', 'described'}, 'compound': {'source', 'document', 'MSU', 'search'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'advmod': {'primarily', 'generally', 'rather'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'stances', 'List', 'clusters', 'tasks', 'credibility', 'study'}, 'ROOT': {'represented'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'similar', 'consistent'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'appos': {'2017', '2020'}, 'npadvmod': {'Sun', '2019', 'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Low
669 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For instance, the uninvested students appeared to exert the least effort in the MSU task, similar to the disengaged students in the Sun et al 25 11 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'Sun', 'instance', 'students'}, 'punct': {',', 'al'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'similar', 'disengaged', 'least', 'uninvested'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'appeared'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'exert'}, 'dobj': {'effort'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
670 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 504 Written Communication 40(2) The biased cluster is comparable to the casebuilders in the earlier analysis in that these students seemed to use the task to reinforce or “prove” their initial views 32 15 {'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'40(2', '504'}, 'amod': {'Written', 'initial', 'earlier', 'biased'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'Communication'}, 'punct': {'”', ')', '“'}, 'det': {'The', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'cluster'}, 'acomp': {'comparable'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'analysis', 'casebuilders'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'seemed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'reinforce', 'use'}, 'dobj': {'task', 'views'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'prove'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
671 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In contrast, the open-minded students seemed to exhibit more thought-ful consideration of the controversial issue 15 7 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'contrast', 'issue'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'ful', 'minded', 'thought', 'controversial', 'open'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'seemed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'exhibit'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'dobj': {'consideration'}} Medium High Low
672 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course They also tended to evaluate the credibility of sources they ultimately selected in a manner similar to the crit-ical-analytic students that Sun et al 24 11 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 3} [PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'They', 'that', 'they'}, 'advmod': {'ultimately', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'tended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'evaluate'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'credibility'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'sources', 'manner'}, 'relcl': {'selected'}, 'amod': {'similar', 'ical', 'analytic'}, 'npadvmod': {'crit'}, 'punct': {'-', 'al'}, 'dep': {'Sun'}, 'appos': {'et'}} Long High Low
673 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This profile reflected problems in students’ information search that the previous profile study could not capture, as the Sun et al 21 8 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'profile', 'study'}, 'ROOT': {'reflected'}, 'dobj': {'problems', 'that'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'profile', 'information'}, 'pobj': {'Sun', 'search'}, 'amod': {'previous'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'capture'}, 'punct': {',', 'al'}, 'appos': {'et'}} Long High Low
674 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The emergence of the nonstrategic profile highlighted new challenges for some students when facing an unlimited amount of information online 20 9 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV] {'det': {'an', 'The', 'the', 'some'}, 'nsubj': {'emergence'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'unlimited', 'new', 'nonstrategic'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'profile', 'information'}, 'ROOT': {'highlighted'}, 'dobj': {'challenges', 'amount'}, 'advmod': {'online', 'when'}, 'advcl': {'facing'}} Long High Medium
675 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course (2021) profile analysis also revealed was that only 20.2% of the 124 (n = 25) students populated the open-minded cluster, whereas the majority (57.3%,n = 71) of students fell into the less optimal uninvested and nonstrategic groups 37 14 {'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SYM': 2, 'ADJ': 5} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADV, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, ADV, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'prep': {'2021', 'into', 'of', '='}, 'csubj': {'profile'}, 'dobj': {'cluster', 'analysis'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'less', 'also'}, 'acl': {'revealed'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'whereas', 'that'}, 'nummod': {'71', '20.2'}, 'nsubj': {'majority', '%'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'124', '='}, 'cc': {'and', 'n'}, 'conj': {'25', 'nonstrategic'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'groups'}, 'ccomp': {'populated'}, 'amod': {'uninvested', 'minded', 'open', 'optimal'}, 'appos': {'57.3%,n'}, 'advcl': {'fell'}} Long High High
676 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These data suggest that a lack of motiva-tion or limited strategic knowledge may have prohibited more effective infor - mation search and selection for these students 26 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'these', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'data', 'lack'}, 'ROOT': {'suggest'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'compound': {'mation', 'infor', 'motiva'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'tion'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'amod': {'limited', 'strategic', 'effective'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'selection'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'ccomp': {'prohibited'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'dobj': {'search'}} Long High Medium
677 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Perhaps more importantly, these cluster analyses revealed that undergraduate students’ struggles to com-pose quality argumentative essays begin long before they put words on the page 25 10 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Perhaps', 'importantly', 'more', 'long'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'compound': {'cluster', 'com', 'pose'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'essays', 'analyses', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'mark': {'before', 'that'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'quality', 'argumentative'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ccomp': {'struggles'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'begin'}, 'advcl': {'put'}, 'dobj': {'words'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'page'}} Long High High
678 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Indeed, the quality of those resulting essays reflected deeper problems rooted in these students’ beliefs about the nature of argumentation but also their motivation and cognitive abilities to consider two sides of an argu-ment—problems that then carry forward into their plans for searching, locat-ing, summarizing, and subsequently integrating relevant sources into a written argument 54 25 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADP': 8, 'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'also', 'subsequently', 'forward', 'then'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—'}, 'det': {'an', 'those', 'a', 'these', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'quality', 'that'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in', 'into', 'of', 'about'}, 'amod': {'deeper', 'written', 'relevant', 'resulting', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'ment', 'essays', 'argumentation', 'argument', 'nature', 'beliefs', 'plans'}, 'ROOT': {'reflected'}, 'dobj': {'sources', 'problems', 'motivation', 'sides'}, 'acl': {'rooted', 'consider'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'locat', 'abilities', 'ing', 'summarizing', 'integrating'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'compound': {'argu'}, 'appos': {'problems'}, 'relcl': {'carry'}, 'pcomp': {'searching'}} Long High Low
679 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Instructional Response Both the Bayesian network analysis and the two profile analyses proved quite informative as to the impediments to quality argumentative writing for the undergraduates enrolled in LHL—impediments that warranted instructional responses 33 14 {'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'quality', 'profile', 'Instructional', 'network'}, 'nsubj': {'Response', 'that'}, 'preconj': {'Both'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'argumentative', 'Bayesian'}, 'appos': {'analysis', 'impediments'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'conj': {'analyses'}, 'ROOT': {'proved'}, 'advmod': {'quite'}, 'oprd': {'informative'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'LHL', 'undergraduates', 'impediments'}, 'advcl': {'enrolled'}, 'punct': {'—'}, 'relcl': {'warranted'}, 'dobj': {'responses'}} Long High Medium
680 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For one, we needed to confront students’ misconceptions about the goals of MSU tasks, particularly when controversial topics are involved 20 9 {'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'about', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'goals', 'one', 'tasks'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'confront'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'misconceptions'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'particularly'}, 'amod': {'controversial'}, 'nsubjpass': {'topics'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'involved'}} Long High Medium
681 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For another, we wanted to make students aware of more or less optimal strategies for planning and executing an effective online search for relevant and credible documents that addressed both sides of a controversy 34 18 {'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 3} [ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'another', 'planning', 'documents', 'strategies', 'controversy'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'wanted'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}, 'ccomp': {'aware'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'online', 'effective', 'more'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'credible', 'executing', 'less', 'optimal'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'both'}, 'dobj': {'search', 'sides'}, 'relcl': {'addressed'}} Long High Low
682 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Further, it was evident from the componential analysis that these students also required assistance in understanding how to bring the information that they had gathered in the form of an integrated, cohesive, and well-structured argumentative essay 36 21 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'well', 'also', 'Further', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'it', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in', 'from'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'structured', 'cohesive', 'argumentative', 'componential', 'integrated'}, 'pobj': {'essay', 'form', 'analysis'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'required', 'gathered'}, 'dobj': {'assistance', 'that', 'information'}, 'pcomp': {'understanding'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'bring'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Medium
683 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These practices continue to be an integral part of the LHL course today 13 7 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'practices'}, 'ROOT': {'continue'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'amod': {'integral'}, 'attr': {'part'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'LHL'}, 'pobj': {'course'}, 'npadvmod': {'today'}} Medium High Low
684 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As we have typically done in LHL, we do not lecture students on these points a priori but use their actual performance data to reveal the specific strengths and weaknesses in their execution 33 18 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'to', 'have', 'do'}, 'advmod': {'typically'}, 'advcl': {'done'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'execution', 'LHL', 'points'}, 'punct': {','}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'lecture'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'priori', 'strengths', 'data'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'use', 'weaknesses'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'specific', 'actual'}, 'compound': {'performance'}, 'xcomp': {'reveal'}} Long High Medium
685 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In effect, we contrast their demon-strated behaviors and outcomes to what is considered optimal 14 7 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ] {'prep': {'to', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'effect'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'contrast'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'npadvmod': {'demon'}, 'amod': {'strated'}, 'dobj': {'behaviors'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'outcomes'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'considered'}, 'oprd': {'optimal'}} Medium High Low
686 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For instance, we have each student summarize and chart their data from the search logs and then we compile those data by majors and for the entire class—a procedure that we use often throughout LHL 35 21 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'by', 'For', 'throughout', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'LHL', 'class', 'majors', 'logs'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'student'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'det': {'a', 'those', 'the', 'each'}, 'ccomp': {'summarize'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'for', 'compile', 'chart'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'data', 'that'}, 'compound': {'search'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'often'}, 'amod': {'entire'}, 'appos': {'procedure'}, 'relcl': {'use'}} Long High Low
687 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Once those analyses are done, we reveal search data from the Schoute et al 14 7 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'mark': {'Once'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubjpass': {'analyses'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'done'}, 'punct': {',', 'al'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'reveal'}, 'compound': {'search', 'et'}, 'dobj': {'data'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pobj': {'Schoute'}} Medium High Medium
688 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We then ask the students to compare their individual and group data to those reported in the 2021 study and to judge which cluster best fit their performance 28 14 {'PRON': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'which', 'cluster', 'We'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'best'}, 'ROOT': {'ask'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'performance', 'data'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'compare'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nmod': {'individual'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'group', 'judge'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'study', 'those'}, 'acl': {'reported'}, 'nummod': {'2021'}, 'ccomp': {'fit'}} Long High Low
689 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Against this backdrop, we turn to the students’ misguided beliefs about what constitutes argumentation within MSU tasks, particularly when they are probing a topic that they have decided is controversial for them and their peers 35 20 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 7, 'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'Against', 'within', 'to', 'about', 'for'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'backdrop', 'tasks', 'them'}, 'punct': {',', 'peers', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'turn'}, 'advcl': {'probing', 'misguided'}, 'dobj': {'topic', 'argumentation', 'that', 'beliefs'}, 'pcomp': {'constitutes'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'particularly'}, 'aux': {'have', 'are'}, 'relcl': {'decided'}, 'conj': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'controversial'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
690 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In effect, the students come to recognize that the open-minded profile regarded as optimal is regrettably exhibited by only a small number of them, an outcome that can be easily altered once they recognize the rationale for such searches 39 21 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'as', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'number', 'effect', 'them', 'searches'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'come'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'recognize'}, 'mark': {'that', 'once'}, 'amod': {'minded', 'such', 'small', 'open', 'optimal'}, 'nsubjpass': {'profile', 'that'}, 'acl': {'regarded'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'regrettably', 'easily'}, 'ccomp': {'exhibited'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'appos': {'outcome'}, 'relcl': {'altered'}, 'dobj': {'rationale'}} Long High High
691 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Finally, while these steps help to set the stage for a quality argumentative essay, we also must instruct students in how to use what they have learned through the search process to craft a quality product 36 19 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'also', 'Finally', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'steps', 'we', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'help', 'craft'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to', 'must'}, 'xcomp': {'set'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'what', 'stage', 'product'}, 'prep': {'through', 'for', 'in'}, 'amod': {'quality', 'argumentative'}, 'pobj': {'essay', 'process'}, 'ROOT': {'instruct'}, 'pcomp': {'use'}, 'ccomp': {'learned'}, 'compound': {'quality', 'search'}} Long High High
692 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In keeping with the pragmatic principles and social-cognitive orientation to our instructional approaches, we work toward that end in LHL in several ways 23 12 {'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'toward', 'In'}, 'pcomp': {'keeping'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'pragmatic', 'social', 'several', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'LHL', 'end', 'approaches', 'principles'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'conj': {'orientation'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'work'}} Long High Low
693 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For one, we remind the students that their summaries will be invaluable sources of infor - mation for their essays, so they should choose what to summarize more pur - posefully 31 17 {'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 3} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADV] {'prep': {'for', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'mation', 'one', 'essays'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'summaries', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'remind'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'pur'}, 'mark': {'that', 'so'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to', 'will'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'amod': {'invaluable'}, 'attr': {'sources'}, 'compound': {'infor'}, 'advcl': {'choose'}, 'dep': {'what'}, 'xcomp': {'summarize'}, 'advmod': {'posefully', 'more'}} Long High Medium
694 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We also let them use the tools of compare-and-contrast analyses previously described to juxtapose arguments and evidence from opposing perspectives 20 9 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'them', 'We'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'previously'}, 'ROOT': {'let'}, 'ccomp': {'use'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'tools', 'arguments'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'nmod': {'compare'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'evidence', 'contrast'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'analyses'}, 'acl': {'described'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'juxtapose'}, 'amod': {'opposing'}} Long High Low
695 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In doing so, we reinforce the functionality of the summary and comparative writing activities they have practiced by demonstrating how these tools can help them see the connection among points within and across selected documents and thus formulate better-integrated arguments and counterarguments 42 24 {'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 9, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'by', 'among', 'of', 'In'}, 'pcomp': {'demonstrating', 'doing'}, 'advmod': {'better', 'thus', 'so', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'them', 'tools', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'reinforce'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'connection', 'functionality', 'arguments'}, 'pobj': {'points', 'summary', 'documents'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'selected', 'integrated', 'comparative'}, 'compound': {'writing'}, 'conj': {'counterarguments', 'across', 'formulate', 'activities'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have'}, 'relcl': {'practiced'}, 'ccomp': {'help', 'see'}} Long High Medium
696 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In addition, we provide them with the specific criteria for judging argumentation quality with the intention to fill the knowledge gap or correct any misconceptions about what good argumentation entails 30 14 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'about', 'for', 'with', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'addition', 'intention', 'criteria'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'argumentation', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'provide'}, 'dobj': {'quality', 'gap', 'misconceptions', 'them'}, 'det': {'any', 'what', 'the'}, 'amod': {'good', 'specific'}, 'pcomp': {'entails', 'judging'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'argumentation'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'fill'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'correct'}} Long High Low
697 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course With these criteria, students can self-evaluate their written products and identify areas for improvement 14 6 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'With'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'pobj': {'improvement', 'criteria'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'ROOT': {'evaluate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'written'}, 'dobj': {'areas', 'products'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'identify'}} Medium High Low
698 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Further, we have students use their summary notes and essays to engage in a critical-analytic discussion on the controversial topic, with an emphasis on uptake of the ideas expressed by another 31 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'ccomp': {'use'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'summary'}, 'dobj': {'notes'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'essays'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'controversial', 'analytic', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'another', 'uptake', 'topic', 'emphasis', 'discussion', 'ideas'}, 'acl': {'expressed'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
699 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These discussions are not only help-ful in engaging them more deeply with different arguments around the con-troversy but also serve to illustrate how arguments are connected and thus 28 17 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADV] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'discussions'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'deeply', 'thus', 'more', 'how'}, 'attr': {'help'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'dep': {'ful'}, 'prep': {'with', 'around', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'engaging'}, 'dobj': {'them'}, 'amod': {'different'}, 'pobj': {'troversy', 'arguments'}, 'compound': {'con'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'serve'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'illustrate'}, 'nsubjpass': {'arguments'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'connected'}} Long High Medium
700 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Participating in meaningful conversa- tions with peers about the controversial topic also serves to increase their motivation in the task 20 9 {'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'csubj': {'Participating'}, 'prep': {'about', 'with', 'in'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'controversial', 'conversa-'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'topic', 'tions', 'peers'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'serves'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'increase'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'motivation'}} Long High Low
701 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Lastly, we foreground to students that the final exam would have a brief argumentative essay component, in which they would have to address an equally controversial point forwarded by Heather Wilson about the increasingly fragmented nature ofU.S 37 17 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NUM] {'advmod': {'Lastly', 'increasingly', 'equally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'exam', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'foreground'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'which', 'nature', 'Wilson'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'argumentative', 'controversial', 'brief', 'final', 'fragmented'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'compound': {'essay', 'Heather'}, 'dobj': {'component', 'point'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'xcomp': {'address'}, 'acl': {'forwarded'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'ofU.S'}} Long High Medium
702 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course higher education and a resulting lack of expertise among graduates (Wilson, 2011) 12 4 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'higher', 'resulting'}, 'ROOT': {'education'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'conj': {'lack'}, 'prep': {'among', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'graduates', 'expertise'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Wilson'}, 'npadvmod': {'2011'}} Medium High Low
703 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course By doing so, we try to instigate their interest in improving their argumentative skills, guided by the extensive feedback we leave to their first argumentative assignment, both for better achievement in the course and for developing abilities to address more critical questions of importance to them 46 25 {'ADP': 9, 'VERB': 8, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 7, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 6, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'By'}, 'pcomp': {'improving', 'developing', 'doing'}, 'advmod': {'so', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'try'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'address', 'instigate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'skills', 'interest', 'questions', 'abilities'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'first', 'extensive', 'argumentative', 'better'}, 'advcl': {'guided'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'assignment', 'achievement', 'them', 'course', 'feedback', 'importance'}, 'relcl': {'leave'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'for'}, 'dative': {'to'}} Long High Low
704 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Taken together, we seek to strengthen students’ task-related knowledge and beliefs, strategic competency, and motivated engagement by interweaving the cognitive, social, and motivational forces that are concomitantly at work in shaping students’ writing development 34 12 {'VERB': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Taken'}, 'advmod': {'concomitantly', 'together'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'seek'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'strengthen'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'npadvmod': {'task'}, 'amod': {'related', 'social', 'strategic', 'motivated', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'knowledge', 'forces', 'development'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'competency', 'beliefs', 'engagement'}, 'prep': {'by', 'at', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'shaping', 'interweaving'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'pobj': {'work'}, 'acl': {'writing'}} Long High Low
705 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Conclusions and Implications As we noted throughout this article, the context in which we came to focus on undergraduates’ academic writing, and particularly their ability to craft argu-mentative essays, was a course designed to alter their habits of mind and habits of action that should translate into deeper and more effective learning about learning (James, 1890; Peirce et al., 1923) 60 27 {'NOUN': 16, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Conclusions', 'we', 'that'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'effective', 'Implications', 'ability', 'habits'}, 'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'noted', 'focus'}, 'prep': {'on', 'throughout', 'in', 'into', 'of', 'about'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'mind', 'action', 'undergraduates', 'learning', 'article'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', 'context', 'et', '1923'}, 'relcl': {'translate', 'came'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'deeper'}, 'dobj': {'essays', 'writing', 'habits'}, 'advmod': {'particularly', 'more'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'acl': {'craft', 'designed'}, 'compound': {'argu', 'mentative'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'course'}, 'xcomp': {'alter'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'npadvmod': {'Peirce', '1890', 'James'}} Long High Medium
706 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course While we are not experts in the field of writing, we have expertise in learning and academic development and an understanding of how the interplay of reading and writing contributes to students’ general and domain-specific learning 36 20 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 3} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'nsubj': {'interplay', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'experts'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'writing', 'students', 'field'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'contributes', 'expertise'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'general'}, 'conj': {'writing', 'specific', 'understanding', 'development'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'reading'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}} Long High High
707 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This background, com-bined with growing concerns about students’ approaches to learning, led the first author to design the Learning How to Learn (LHL) course 24 10 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'background', 'approaches'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'npadvmod': {'course', 'com'}, 'amod': {'bined', 'first', 'growing'}, 'prep': {'about', 'with', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'concerns', 'learning'}, 'ROOT': {'led'}, 'dobj': {'author', 'Learning'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'design'}, 'advmod': {'How'}, 'nmod': {'Learn'}, 'parataxis': {'LHL'}} Long High Medium
708 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Every read-ing and writing activity in LHL was purposefully included to provide stu-dents with knowledge and strategies that should help them become more competent learners in whatever career path they pursued 31 15 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'det': {'Every', 'whatever'}, 'nmod': {'read'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'competent', 'ing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'writing', 'strategies'}, 'nsubjpass': {'activity'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'LHL'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'purposefully', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'provide'}, 'compound': {'career', 'stu'}, 'dobj': {'dents'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'them', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'help', 'pursued'}, 'ccomp': {'become'}, 'attr': {'learners'}, 'pcomp': {'path'}} Long High Low
709 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As educational researchers, we also recognized the necessity of gathering data within and across semesters that would illustrate what features and pro-cesses were having the desired effect on students’ academic development, and which were not 35 19 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART] {'prep': {'on', 'As', 'within', 'of'}, 'amod': {'desired', 'educational', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'researchers', 'semesters', 'development'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'what', 'features', 'that', 'we'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'recognized'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'effect', 'necessity', 'data'}, 'pcomp': {'gathering'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'-', 'pro', 'cesses', 'across', 'were'}, 'aux': {'would', 'were'}, 'relcl': {'illustrate'}, 'ccomp': {'having'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Low
710 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course In essence, we would characterize the ongoing research on LHL as an ecologically valid design experiment carried out over eight semesters (Alexander & DRLRL, 2020; Cobb et al., 2003) 29 10 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, X, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'as', 'In', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'LHL', 'essence', 'semesters', 'experiment'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'characterize'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'valid', 'ongoing'}, 'dobj': {'research'}, 'advmod': {'ecologically'}, 'compound': {'design'}, 'acl': {'carried'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'nummod': {'eight'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', 'et', '2020', '2003', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'DRLRL'}, 'npadvmod': {'Cobb'}} Long High Low
711 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course It was through this continuous analysis that we became aware of the challenges in under - graduates’ argumentation writing that we described herein 23 14 {'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'prep': {'through', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'continuous'}, 'pobj': {'challenges', 'analysis', 'graduates'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'described', 'writing', 'became'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'nmod': {'under'}, 'punct': {'’', '-'}, 'compound': {'argumentation'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'herein'}} Long High Low
712 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Over the eight semesters of this ongoing design experiment, we have learned much about college students’ capacities and variabilities as learners 21 11 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'Over', 'about', 'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nummod': {'eight'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'capacities', 'semesters', 'experiment'}, 'amod': {'ongoing'}, 'compound': {'design', 'college'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'learned'}, 'dobj': {'much'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'variabilities'}} Long High Low
713 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 507 and writers; what affordances and constraints exist within the instructional community of Learning How to Learn that facilitates or frustrates their growth; and what we must do as instructors and teaching assistant to shore up students’ knowledge and abilities while ensuring that they remain interested and invested in the community’s shared goal of becoming more effective and efficient learners (Graham, 2018) 62 32 {'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 8, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 12, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PART': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, SCONJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'npadvmod': {'507'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'constraints', 'frustrates', 'writers', 'abilities', 'efficient', 'teaching', 'invested', 'do'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'what', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'affordances', 'that', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'exist'}, 'prep': {'as', 'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'instructional', 'effective'}, 'pobj': {'goal', 'community', 'instructors'}, 'pcomp': {'becoming', 'Learning'}, 'advmod': {'How', 'more'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'advcl': {'ensuring', 'Learn'}, 'ccomp': {'remain', 'facilitates'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their', 'community'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'growth', 'what', 'assistant'}, 'xcomp': {'shore'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'case': {'’', '’s'}, 'mark': {'while', 'that'}, 'acomp': {'interested'}, 'attr': {'learners'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Graham'}} Long High High
714 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We conclude this article by sharing the main insights we have garnered from this undertaking in hopes of informing others who see writing generally and argumentation writing more particu-larly as integral to effective learning 34 17 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'argumentation', 'We', 'who', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'conclude'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'writing', 'particu', 'insights', 'others', 'article'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'by', 'of', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'sharing', 'informing'}, 'amod': {'main', 'effective', 'more', 'integral'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'see', 'garnered'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'undertaking', 'hopes'}, 'advmod': {'larly', 'generally'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'writing'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Long High Low
715 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Specifically, we would contend that: ••Among college instructors and teaching assistants, there is quite likely an underestimation of the influence students’ writing abilities exert on their academic development 28 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'quite', 'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'abilities'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'contend'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'teaching', 'influence', '••Among', 'college'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'instructors'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'assistants'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'exert'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'attr': {'underestimation'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'development'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'acl': {'writing'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'academic'}} Long High Medium
716 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course As the developer of the “Learning How to Learn” course, the first author came to that undertaking with 40 years of college teaching experience and expertise in learning and academic development (e.g., Alexander, 1997, 2006) 35 15 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'As', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'experience', 'developer', 'years', 'learning', 'Learning', 'undertaking'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'advmod': {'How', 'e.g.'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'Learn'}, 'dobj': {'course'}, 'amod': {'first', 'academic'}, 'nsubj': {'author'}, 'ROOT': {'came'}, 'nummod': {'40'}, 'compound': {'teaching', 'college'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'expertise', 'development'}, 'npadvmod': {'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'1997', '2006'}} Long High Medium
717 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Yet, those multiple decades of experience did not prepare her or the other instructors and teaching assistants for the realization of how ill-pre-pared and generally uncomfortable high-achieving college students are in academic writing 33 17 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'high', 'generally', 'Yet', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'pre', '-', 'achieving', 'pared', 'other', 'ill', 'multiple', 'academic'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'decades'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'experience', 'realization'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'prepare'}, 'dobj': {'her'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'uncomfortable', 'assistants', 'instructors'}, 'compound': {'teaching', 'college'}, 'pcomp': {'are'}} Long High Medium
718 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We were aware that argumentation was a challenging form of writing and is often a writing genre relegated to older students 21 11 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'argumentation', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'older', 'writing', 'challenging'}, 'attr': {'genre', 'form'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'writing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'acl': {'relegated'}} Long High Medium
719 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Within the multiple-source research, there is the recognition that the writing of quality arguments will be cognitively and motivationally demanding for students 22 12 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'Within', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'quality', 'source'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'research', 'arguments'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'recognition'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'writing'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'acl': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'cognitively', 'motivationally'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'acomp': {'demanding'}} Long High Medium
720 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course However, we were taken aback to realize how demanding writing argumenta-tion was for the students—to say nothing about the summaries and compari-sons that were precursors to the argumentative essay 29 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'aback', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—'}, 'nsubjpass': {'we'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'taken'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'realize'}, 'acomp': {'demanding'}, 'xcomp': {'say', 'writing'}, 'compound': {'argumenta'}, 'dobj': {'nothing', 'tion'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'prep': {'about', 'for', 'to'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'essay', 'summaries'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'compari', 'argumentative'}, 'conj': {'sons'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'attr': {'precursors'}} Long High Medium
721 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Even more unsettling for us was our growing awareness that the very goal of this special course—improved learning in academic domains— was undermined by students’ less-than-optimal writing performance 28 16 {'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 5} [ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, AUX, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'Even'}, 'acomp': {'unsettling'}, 'prep': {'than', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'us', 'domains', 'students'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'very', 'growing', 'less', 'special', 'academic', 'improved', 'optimal'}, 'attr': {'awareness'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'goal'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', '—'}, 'appos': {'learning', 'performance'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ccomp': {'undermined'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'conj': {'writing'}} Long High Medium
722 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course It would seem that learning to write and writing to learn are inextricably intertwined 14 8 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubjpass': {'learning'}, 'xcomp': {'write'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'writing'}, 'advcl': {'learn'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'inextricably'}, 'ccomp': {'intertwined'}} Medium High Medium
723 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course ••Even high-achieving undergraduates representing a range of college majors struggle with academic writing 13 3 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'••Even', 'achieving', 'academic'}, 'advmod': {'high'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'nsubj': {'undergraduates'}, 'acl': {'representing'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'range'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'compound': {'college'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'majors'}, 'ROOT': {'struggle'}} Medium High Low
724 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Perhaps naively, we initially operated under the assumption that high- achieving students who were admitted to universities such as ours would have been experienced and somewhat competent at academic writing 30 16 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Perhaps', 'initially', 'naively', 'somewhat'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'operated'}, 'prep': {'under', 'at', 'to', 'as'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'universities', 'ours', 'assumption'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'high-'}, 'amod': {'such', 'achieving', 'academic'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students', 'who'}, 'auxpass': {'been', 'were'}, 'relcl': {'admitted'}, 'aux': {'would', 'have'}, 'acl': {'experienced'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'competent'}} Long High Medium
725 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Although there is ample research indicating that writing can be problematic for undergraduates who have certain learning difficulties (Graham et al., 1991) or whose mother tongue is not English (Reichelt, 1999), no 32 14 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV] {'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'ample'}, 'attr': {'research', 'English'}, 'acl': {'indicating'}, 'nsubj': {'tongue', 'writing', 'who'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'problematic'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'undergraduates'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'mother'}, 'dobj': {'difficulties'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1991', 'Graham', 'Reichelt'}, 'npadvmod': {'1999', 'al', 'et'}, 'conj': {'is', '.'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'intj': {'no'}} Long High High
726 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 508 Written Communication 40(2) comparable literature exists for capable or high-achieving college students 13 2 {'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, VERB, PROPN, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'508'}, 'amod': {'Written', 'capable', 'comparable'}, 'nmod': {'Communication', '40(2'}, 'punct': {'-', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'literature'}, 'ROOT': {'exists'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'advmod': {'high'}, 'conj': {'achieving'}, 'compound': {'college'}, 'pobj': {'students'}} Medium High Low
727 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Nonetheless, this has not been our experience in the “Learning How to Learn” course 14 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'How', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'this'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'attr': {'experience'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'Learning'}, 'relcl': {'Learn'}, 'appos': {'course'}} Medium High Medium
728 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This is not a developmental course for those with documented prob-lems in learning, nor is it a developmental writing course that focuses on students with identified writing issues 28 15 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'it', 'that', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'documented', 'identified', 'developmental'}, 'attr': {'course'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'lems', 'students', 'issues', 'those', 'learning'}, 'compound': {'prob', 'writing'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'nor'}, 'conj': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'focuses'}} Long High Low
729 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Further, this course has often been populated largely by juniors and seniors who are preparing to go to professional or graduate school 22 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'often', 'Further', 'largely'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'course'}, 'aux': {'has', 'are', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'populated'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'juniors', 'school'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'seniors', 'graduate'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'preparing'}, 'xcomp': {'go'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'amod': {'professional'}} Long High Low
730 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Thus, there was no reason for us to expect that academic writing, especially of summaries or comparative analyses, would pose such challenges for many of the students—but it clearly did 30 19 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'clearly', 'especially'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'no', 'that', 'the'}, 'attr': {'reason'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'nsubj': {'us', 'it'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'expect'}, 'amod': {'such', 'academic', 'comparative'}, 'dobj': {'challenges', 'writing'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'many', 'summaries', 'students'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'did', 'analyses', 'pose'}} Long High High
731 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course When we discuss such writing issues with the students, they often mention that they did little writing in high school and even less in col-lege 25 15 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'often', 'less', 'even'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'discuss'}, 'amod': {'high', 'such', 'little'}, 'compound': {'col', 'writing'}, 'dobj': {'writing', 'issues'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'lege', 'school'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'mention'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'did'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High High
732 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Understandably, this claim was more often voiced by students majoring in engineering, the biological sciences, computer science, and the like 20 9 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ] {'advmod': {'Understandably', 'often', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'claim'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'voiced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'engineering'}, 'acl': {'majoring'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'amod': {'biological'}, 'conj': {'science', 'sciences'}, 'compound': {'computer'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'intj': {'like'}} Long High Low
733 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course But it was also our social science majors in such areas as psychology, history, or education that reported similar trends in their education backgrounds 24 12 {'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 1} [CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'cc': {'or', 'But'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'amod': {'social', 'similar', 'such'}, 'compound': {'education', 'science'}, 'attr': {'majors'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'psychology', 'areas', 'backgrounds'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'history', 'education'}, 'relcl': {'reported'}, 'dobj': {'trends'}} Long High Low
734 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Whether these self-reports are accurate or not, we no longer take academic writing ability for granted for any of the undergraduate students we teach 24 14 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, PART, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'mark': {'Whether'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'compound': {'self', 'writing'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'reports'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'accurate'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'not'}, 'neg': {'no'}, 'advmod': {'longer'}, 'ccomp': {'take'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'ability'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'granted'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'any'}, 'ROOT': {'teach'}} Long High Medium
735 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course ••There are numerous factors, both external and internal, that seemingly contribute to college students’ struggles with academic writing 18 6 {'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2} [PROPN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', '••There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'numerous', 'external', 'academic'}, 'attr': {'factors'}, 'punct': {','}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'internal'}, 'advmod': {'seemingly'}, 'relcl': {'contribute'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to'}, 'compound': {'college'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'struggles'}} Medium High Low
736 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course One insight we garnered from these semester-long design experiments is that there are both cognitive and affective/motivational factors that seem to support or inhibit students’ academic writing 27 14 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SYM': 1, 'PART': 1} [NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, SYM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'insight', 'that', 'we'}, 'relcl': {'seem', 'garnered'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'det': {'both', 'these'}, 'npadvmod': {'semester'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', '/'}, 'amod': {'cognitive', 'academic', 'affective', 'long'}, 'compound': {'design'}, 'pobj': {'experiments'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'inhibit'}, 'attr': {'factors'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'support'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'advcl': {'writing'}} Long High Medium
737 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For example, as edu-cational psychologists, we are well aware of the impact that learners’ motivations have on learning and performance 20 11 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'as', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'impact', 'psychologists', 'example'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'cational', '-', 'edu'}, 'nsubj': {'motivations', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'poss': {'learners'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance'}} Long High Low
738 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For those students populating disengaged or uninvested clusters, for instance, there were multiple indica- tors that the less-than stellar argumentative essays they produced were at least partially reflective of the underwhelming time and attention they devoted to planning and executing the assigned MSU task 44 21 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, ADP, ADJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'For', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'time', 'instance'}, 'acl': {'populating', 'were'}, 'amod': {'argumentative', 'stellar', 'disengaged', 'indica-', 'assigned', 'underwhelming', 'multiple'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'executing', 'attention', 'uninvested'}, 'dobj': {'clusters', 'task'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'tors'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'than', 'least', 'partially', 'less', 'at'}, 'nsubj': {'essays', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'produced', 'devoted'}, 'acomp': {'reflective'}, 'pcomp': {'planning'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}} Long High Medium
739 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course List and Alexander (2017) discussed affective/emotional factors in the CAEM model for MSU projects 14 4 {'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'SYM': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, SYM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'List'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Alexander'}, 'punct': {'(', '/', ')'}, 'appos': {'2017'}, 'ROOT': {'discussed'}, 'npadvmod': {'affective'}, 'amod': {'emotional'}, 'dobj': {'factors'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'CAEM', 'MSU'}, 'pobj': {'model', 'projects'}} Medium High Low
740 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Yet, it was surprising to us that these factors should be as evident in the “Learning How to Learn” course, where the reading and writing were integral to their learning and performance and not done as part of a disassoci-ated experimental, laboratory-type study 43 28 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'How', 'as', 'where', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'reading', 'it', 'factors'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'surprising', 'evident', 'integral'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'part', 'learning', 'us', 'Learning', 'study'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'Learn', 'were'}, 'dobj': {'course'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'writing', 'done'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'npadvmod': {'disassoci'}, 'amod': {'experimental', 'ated'}, 'compound': {'type', 'laboratory'}} Long High High
741 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These internal factors were perhaps exacerbated by such external condi- tions as lack of face-to-face instruction for more than 18 months (Usher et al., 2021); an educational environment that favors multiple-choice, declarative knowledge assessments that require little, if any, writing (Scouller, 1998); and the potential effects of word-processing (with its grammar and spelling 53 22 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 10, 'NOUN': 18, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 8, 'PUNCT': 16, 'NUM': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'the', 'These'}, 'amod': {'external', 'internal', 'such', 'educational', 'declarative', 'potential', 'multiple', 'more'}, 'nsubjpass': {'factors'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'perhaps'}, 'ROOT': {'exacerbated'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'word', 'condi-'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'al', 'grammar', 'lack', 'face', 'tions', 'months', 'instruction'}, 'prep': {'to', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'nmod': {'choice', 'face'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'nummod': {'18'}, 'appos': {'2021', '.', 'Usher', 'Scouller', 'environment'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998', 'et'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'require', 'favors'}, 'dobj': {'assessments', 'little'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'advcl': {'any'}, 'conj': {'effects', 'writing', 'spelling'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High Medium
742 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 509 checks) in the crafting of connected discourse (Morphy & Graham, 2012) 12 3 {'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'509'}, 'ROOT': {'checks'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'discourse', 'crafting'}, 'amod': {'connected'}, 'appos': {'Morphy'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Graham'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012'}} Medium High Low
743 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course The instruction prior to LHL the students may or may not have received about useful strategies or techniques to improve their writing would be another factor likely to separate the more capable from the less capable writ-ers in our course (Juzwik et al., 2006) 44 23 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 5, 'AUX': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADV, ADP, PROPN, DET, NOUN, AUX, CCONJ, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'another', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'instruction'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'prior', 'more'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'LHL', 'ers', 'strategies'}, 'relcl': {'may'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'aux': {'would', 'may', 'have', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'received'}, 'amod': {'likely', 'useful', 'capable'}, 'conj': {'techniques', 'be'}, 'advcl': {'improve'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'dobj': {'writing'}, 'attr': {'.', 'al', 'factor'}, 'xcomp': {'separate'}, 'acomp': {'capable'}, 'compound': {'writ', 'Juzwik'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'appos': {'2006'}} Long High Low
744 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course ••Reshaping undergraduates’ beliefs about the nature of argumentation and altering their approaches to writing quality argumentation is an uncertain enterprise for college instructors and teaching assistants 26 10 {'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'••Reshaping'}, 'csubj': {'undergraduates'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'approaches', 'argumentation', 'beliefs'}, 'prep': {'for', 'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'nature', 'argumentation', 'instructors'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'xcomp': {'altering'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'writing'}, 'compound': {'quality', 'teaching', 'college'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'uncertain'}, 'attr': {'enterprise'}, 'conj': {'assistants'}} Long High Low
745 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Speaking of somewhat surprising realizations—we were not prepared for the fact that the students in “Learning How to Learn” came armed with the entrenched belief that argumentation, whether written or oral, was about proving oneself right 36 18 {'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, ADP, VERB, PRON, ADV] {'advcl': {'Speaking', 'written'}, 'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'about', 'for'}, 'advmod': {'How', 'somewhat'}, 'amod': {'surprising', 'entrenched'}, 'pobj': {'belief', 'fact', 'realizations'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '—', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'argumentation', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'armed', 'prepared'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'mark': {'that', 'whether'}, 'pcomp': {'Learning', 'proving'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'Learn'}, 'acl': {'was', 'came'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'oral'}, 'dobj': {'oneself'}, 'ccomp': {'right'}} Long High High
746 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course If we accept these students’ explanations for their ori-entation to the MSU task and the culminating argumentative essay, it is understandable why so few exhibited critical analysis or open-mindedness of the form we researchers of critical thinking, evidence-based reasoning, or multiple source use, tout 44 20 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, ADV, ADJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ] {'mark': {'If'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'few', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'accept'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'analysis', 'explanations'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'-', 'form', 'thinking', 'task', 'entation', 'ori'}, 'compound': {'MSU', 'source'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'argumentative', 'based', 'culminating', 'multiple', 'open'}, 'conj': {'mindedness', 'essay', 'reasoning', 'use'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'understandable'}, 'advmod': {'tout', 'so', 'why'}, 'ccomp': {'exhibited'}, 'dep': {'we'}, 'appos': {'researchers'}, 'npadvmod': {'evidence'}} Long High High
747 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course From the vantage point of these students, my-side bias is not a flaw in reasoning or logic but a viable strategy to succeed at sup-porting their position 27 16 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'From', 'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'compound': {'vantage', 'side'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'reasoning', 'point'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'poss': {'my', 'their'}, 'nsubj': {'bias'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'flaw'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'strategy', 'logic'}, 'amod': {'viable'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'succeed'}, 'npadvmod': {'sup'}, 'pcomp': {'porting'}, 'dobj': {'position'}} Long High Low
748 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course If, in fact, this is the orientation to argumentation to which these students have been long exposed, then it will take more than specifying the criteria for a quality argumentative essay to dismantle their beliefs and alter their behaviors 39 24 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'DET': 4, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PART, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'for', 'than', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'essay', 'fact'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'this'}, 'advcl': {'is', 'dismantle'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'attr': {'orientation'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to', 'will'}, 'relcl': {'exposed', 'argumentation'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'long'}, 'ROOT': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'behaviors', 'criteria', 'beliefs', 'more'}, 'pcomp': {'specifying'}, 'amod': {'quality', 'argumentative'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'alter'}} Long High Medium
749 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course ••Undergraduates’ struggles to summarize or synthesize what they read and to recognize different and even opposing perspectives or claims within and across multiple documents undermine their abilities to pro-duce quality argumentation 31 14 {'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'••Undergraduates', 'struggles', 'they'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'summarize'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'synthesize', 'opposing', 'recognize', 'claims', 'across'}, 'dobj': {'perspectives', 'what', 'abilities'}, 'ccomp': {'read'}, 'amod': {'-', 'duce', 'different', 'multiple', 'pro'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'argumentation', 'documents'}, 'ROOT': {'undermine'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'quality'}} Long High Low
750 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course From the outset of this course, we operated under the assumption that the writing challenges for these students would be nested within the argumenta-tive essay 25 15 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'under', 'within', 'From', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'outset', 'course', 'students', 'essay', 'assumption'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'operated'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'writing', 'tive'}, 'nsubjpass': {'challenges'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'acl': {'nested'}, 'amod': {'argumenta'}} Long High Medium
751 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course We did not presume that writing summaries or creating compara-tive analyses would be trying for these students 17 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'aux': {'did', 'be', 'would'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'presume'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'writing'}, 'dobj': {'summaries', 'analyses'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'creating'}, 'amod': {'compara'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'compound': {'tive'}, 'ccomp': {'trying'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'pobj': {'students'}} Medium High Medium
752 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Yet, as we have repeatedly noted, this expectation could not be upheld when assessing students’ writ-ing 16 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'repeatedly', 'Yet', 'when'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'could', 'have'}, 'advcl': {'noted', 'assessing'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'expectation'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'upheld'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'writ'}, 'dobj': {'ing'}} Medium High High
753 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course More to the point for this article, we would conclude that students who cannot synthesize information, distinguish more important from more tan-gential information in what they read, or identify significant points of simi-larity or difference across information sources are likely to struggle when called upon to construct a quality argumentative essay 51 27 {'ADJ': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PART': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'More', 'important', 'when', 'more'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'across', 'upon'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'larity', 'information', 'point', 'article'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'we', 'who'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to', 'can'}, 'ROOT': {'conclude'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'synthesize'}, 'dobj': {'essay', 'points', 'what', 'information'}, 'ccomp': {'distinguish'}, 'amod': {'gential', 'significant', 'argumentative', 'tan', 'simi', 'more'}, 'pcomp': {'read'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'difference', 'are', 'identify'}, 'compound': {'information'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'xcomp': {'struggle', 'construct'}, 'advcl': {'called'}, 'nmod': {'quality'}} Long High High
754 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course This is especially true when the foundation for that essay is meant to come from the distillation of readings that examine a controversial topic from varied perspectives 27 14 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'especially'}, 'acomp': {'true'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'foundation'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'essay', 'perspectives', 'distillation'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'come'}, 'relcl': {'examine'}, 'amod': {'controversial', 'varied'}, 'dobj': {'topic'}} Long High Medium
755 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course 510 Written Communication 40(2) was shown in the Bayesian study of the components of argumentative writ- ing, the orchestration of multiple cognitive processes is required before the endpoint of a well-formed essay is reached 34 15 {'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'nummod': {'510', '40(2'}, 'amod': {'formed', 'writ-', 'argumentative', 'Written', 'Bayesian', 'multiple', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubjpass': {'orchestration', 'Communication'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'was'}, 'ccomp': {'shown'}, 'prep': {'before', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'components', 'processes', 'ing', 'essay', 'endpoint', 'study'}, 'csubjpass': {'required'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'ROOT': {'reached'}} Long High Low
756 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Moreover, the progression of those cognitively demanding components of argumentation are unlikely to be achieved without instructional support and guidance, a base of relevant topic or subject-matter knowledge, along with knowledge specific to written argumentation 35 16 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'cognitively'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'progression'}, 'prep': {'without', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'along'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'specific', 'written', 'relevant', 'demanding'}, 'pobj': {'components', 'topic', 'argumentation', 'support', 'knowledge'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'unlikely'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'achieved'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'guidance'}, 'attr': {'base'}, 'compound': {'subject', 'matter'}} Long High Low
757 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course ••Even if undergraduates’ knowledge about quality summaries, com-parisons, and argumentation can be significantly improved, it remains to be seen whether they are willing to exert the effort required to achieve such quality 32 15 {'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'••Even', 'significantly'}, 'mark': {'if', 'whether'}, 'advcl': {'undergraduates'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ','}, 'dobj': {'quality', 'knowledge', 'effort'}, 'prep': {'about'}, 'compound': {'quality', 'com'}, 'pobj': {'summaries'}, 'conj': {'parisons', 'improved'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubjpass': {'argumentation'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'xcomp': {'seen', 'exert', 'achieve'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'willing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'required'}, 'amod': {'such'}} Long High High
758 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Finally, we as instructors and teaching assistants in “Learning How to Learn,” have developed a deeper appreciation for the power of human motiva-tion to either foster or frustrate efforts to change habits of mind and habits of action related to academic writing—or any of the other abilities we hope to foster in the students 54 28 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'ADP': 10, 'NOUN': 15, 'CCONJ': 5, 'VERB': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'How', 'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '—', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'mind', '-', 'writing', 'tion', 'motiva', 'action', 'students', 'power', 'abilities', 'efforts', 'instructors'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'teaching'}, 'conj': {'any', 'frustrate', 'assistants', 'habits'}, 'pcomp': {'Learning'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'foster', 'Learn'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'foster', 'deeper', 'human', 'other', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'habits', 'appreciation'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'acl': {'change', 'related'}, 'relcl': {'hope'}} Long High Medium
759 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Even those students who are committed to achieving high grades in our course, even if they do not really care about the content in any deep or personal way, still manifested nonoptimal motivations over the semes-ter 36 21 {'ADV': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'even', 'really', 'Even', 'still'}, 'det': {'any', 'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'committed'}, 'prep': {'over', 'about', 'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'achieving'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'high', 'nonoptimal'}, 'dobj': {'motivations', 'grades'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'content', '-', 'semes', 'way', 'course', 'ter'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'care'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'personal'}, 'ROOT': {'manifested'}} Long High Medium
760 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course These students who fit the profile of compliers, or what Alexander (2018) refers to as information managers, may well succeed at scoring points in their college classes, but they will likely complete their education without a deep understanding of what is truly required to become competent in any profession that demands more of them than rote memorization or superficial reasoning 60 32 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'PRON': 8, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 9, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'These', 'any'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'who', 'students', 'that', 'Alexander'}, 'relcl': {'fit', 'demands'}, 'dobj': {'profile', 'education', 'memorization', 'more'}, 'prep': {'without', 'at', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'what', 'them', 'points', 'managers', 'understanding', 'classes', 'compliers', 'profession'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'conj': {'refers', 'reasoning', 'complete'}, 'compound': {'scoring', 'college', 'information'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to', 'will'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'likely', 'truly'}, 'ROOT': {'succeed'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'superficial'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'required'}, 'xcomp': {'become'}, 'acomp': {'competent'}, 'mark': {'than'}, 'advcl': {'rote'}} Long High Medium
761 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Closing Thoughts Despite the many challenges we have documented herein, we remain opti-mistic that a well-conceived and well-executed intervention carried out within an ongoing course like “Learning How to Learn” can prove successful at elevating college students’ academic writing 39 18 {'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 9, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Closing', 'college'}, 'nsubj': {'intervention', 'Thoughts', 'we'}, 'prep': {'like', 'at', 'within', 'Despite'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'many', 'academic', 'ongoing', 'conceived'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'challenges'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'documented'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'herein'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', '”', ',', '“'}, 'ROOT': {'remain'}, 'attr': {'opti'}, 'acomp': {'mistic'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'How', 'well'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'writing', 'executed'}, 'acl': {'carried'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'pcomp': {'elevating', 'Learning'}, 'xcomp': {'Learn'}, 'ccomp': {'prove'}, 'oprd': {'successful'}} Long High High
762 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Further, we retain the belief that as students’ academic writing improves, so does students’ ability to learn more effectively 19 9 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADV] {'advmod': {'more', 'effectively', 'so', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'writing', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'retain'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'belief', 'ability'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'academic'}, 'advcl': {'improves'}, 'acl': {'does', 'learn'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Medium High High
763 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Of course, we appreciate that more and varied research studies are required within the context of existing courses to both address the challenges and build on the insights we have shared here 32 18 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV] {'advmod': {'course', 'here', 'Of'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'appreciate'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'more'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'varied', 'build'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'nsubjpass': {'studies'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'required'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'courses', 'context', 'insights'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'advcl': {'address'}, 'dobj': {'challenges'}, 'relcl': {'shared'}} Long High Medium
764 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course For one, it falls to us to create an intervention that achieves the overarching goals of this course devoted to learning and academic development 24 13 {'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'one', 'us'}, 'punct': {',', 'development'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'falls'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'create'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'intervention', 'goals'}, 'relcl': {'achieves'}, 'amod': {'overarching'}, 'acl': {'devoted'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'academic'}} Long High Low
765 Confronting the Challenges of Undergraduates’ Argumentation Writing in a “Learning How to Learn” Course Yet, we look to others who teach in higher education to consider their courses as meaningful contexts in which to investigate the effects of argumentation or other forms of writing on the depth and quality of student learning. 38 21 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Yet'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'look'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'writing', 'education', 'argumentation', 'others', 'meaningful', 'learning', 'depth'}, 'relcl': {'teach'}, 'amod': {'other', 'higher'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'investigate', 'contexts', 'consider'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'courses'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'quality', 'forms'}, 'compound': {'student'}} Long High Low
766 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Engagement and literacy: reading between the lines As the designated commentator for the Special Issue, I have the distinct pleasure of im- mersing myself in the writings of international scholars sharing their insights on the topicof literacy engagement 38 18 {'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'X': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, X, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN] {'dep': {'Engagement'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'literacy'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'advcl': {'reading', 'sharing'}, 'prep': {'on', 'As', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'between'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'commentator', 'scholars', 'writings', 'lines', 'Issue', 'engagement'}, 'amod': {'designated', 'distinct', 'international'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'topicof', 'literacy'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'im-'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'pleasure', 'myself', 'insights'}, 'pcomp': {'mersing'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
767 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines For this commentary, I have made it my purpose to uncover the common ground occupied by the contributing authors 19 11 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'For'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'authors', 'commentary'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'it'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'ccomp': {'purpose'}, 'acl': {'occupied', 'uncover'}, 'amod': {'contributing', 'common'}, 'dobj': {'ground'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Medium High Low
768 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines This common ground largely takes the form of shared perceptions of literacy engagement, engaged readers and writers and lit-eracy environments conducive to engagement 23 7 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, PART, VERB] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'common'}, 'nsubj': {'ground'}, 'advmod': {'largely'}, 'ROOT': {'takes'}, 'dobj': {'readers', 'form'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'perceptions', 'engagement'}, 'compound': {'lit', 'literacy', 'eracy'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'conj': {'engaged', 'conducive', 'environments', 'writers'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'engagement'}} Long High Low
769 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines For that reason, I have cast these shared per- ceptions as guiding principles that can inform future research and instructional practice 21 9 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, VERB, X, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'For'}, 'det': {'that', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'principles', 'reason'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'cast'}, 'amod': {'guiding', 'shared', 'instructional', 'future'}, 'dep': {'per-'}, 'dobj': {'ceptions', 'research'}, 'relcl': {'inform'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practice'}} Long High Low
770 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Although these guiding principles are echoed in each article, their manifestations vary tosome extent as a result of the authors ’purposes, methodologies and the data upon which they rely 29 15 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these', 'each'}, 'amod': {'guiding'}, 'nsubjpass': {'principles'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'echoed'}, 'prep': {'as', 'upon', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'purposes', 'article', 'result'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'manifestations', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'vary'}, 'compound': {'tosome'}, 'dobj': {'extent'}, 'nmod': {'authors'}, 'conj': {'methodologies', 'data'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'relcl': {'rely'}} Long High High
771 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines When warranted, I have taken note of particular variations that help to exemplify these guiding principles 16 7 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'advcl': {'warranted'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'taken'}, 'dobj': {'principles', 'note'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'guiding', 'particular'}, 'pobj': {'variations'}, 'relcl': {'help'}, 'xcomp': {'exemplify'}, 'det': {'these'}} Medium High Medium
772 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Yet, what I regard as my foremost obligation as a commentator is to reveal the story of literacy engagement that cannot be found in the speci fic words or phrases these authors put to paper 35 21 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Yet'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dobj': {'story', 'what'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'authors'}, 'csubj': {'regard'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'amod': {'foremost'}, 'pobj': {'commentator', 'engagement', 'obligation', 'paper', 'words'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'reveal'}, 'compound': {'literacy', 'fic', 'speci'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'found', 'put'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'phrases'}} Long High Low
773 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines This is the story of engagement and literacy that exists between the lines , in what is not said or in the questions not asked 25 16 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 2} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB] {'nsubj': {'that', 'This'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'story'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'lines', 'questions', 'engagement'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'literacy', 'in'}, 'relcl': {'exists'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'pcomp': {'said'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}} Long High Low
774 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines I, by no means, wish to imply anything nefarious on the authors ’part in this regard 16 10 {'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'in'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'authors', 'means', 'regard'}, 'ROOT': {'wish'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'imply'}, 'dobj': {'anything'}, 'amod': {'nefarious'}, 'appos': {'part'}} Medium High Low
775 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Quite to the contrary, this is a natural and unavoidable occurrence in writing, especially in the case of the well-organised and cohesive collectionof articles that this Special Issue represents 29 16 {'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, VERB] {'advmod': {'well', 'especially', 'Quite'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'contrary', 'case', 'writing'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'this', 'Issue'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'natural', 'organised'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'cohesive', 'unavoidable', 'collectionof'}, 'attr': {'occurrence'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'compound': {'Special'}, 'ccomp': {'represents'}} Long High Medium
776 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines You see, whenever authors highlight speci fic ideas and practices about a construct, like literacy engagement, they inevitably cast shadows over other ideas and practices 25 10 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'PROPN': 1, 'INTJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, INTJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'You', 'authors', 'they'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'whenever', 'inevitably'}, 'advcl': {'highlight'}, 'compound': {'literacy', 'fic', 'speci'}, 'dobj': {'ideas', 'shadows'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practices'}, 'prep': {'like', 'about', 'over'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'ideas', 'construct', 'engagement'}, 'ROOT': {'cast'}, 'amod': {'other'}} Long High Medium
777 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines As the commentator to this issue, I have the luxuryof exploring those unlit spaces, and the lingering questions they engender 20 11 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'prep': {'As', 'to'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'commentator', 'issue'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'spaces', 'luxuryof'}, 'acl': {'exploring'}, 'amod': {'lingering', 'unlit'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'questions'}, 'relcl': {'engender'}} Long High Low
778 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines It is my hope that these lingering questions, combined with the insights offered by the thoughtful and in- formative articles that comprise this issue, will provoke thought or spark inquiry 30 14 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'X': 1} [PRON, AUX, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, X, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'questions', 'It', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'attr': {'hope'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'amod': {'lingering', 'thoughtful'}, 'punct': {','}, 'acl': {'provoke', 'combined', 'offered'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'insights'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'formative', 'in-'}, 'relcl': {'comprise'}, 'dobj': {'thought', 'issue'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'compound': {'spark'}, 'dep': {'inquiry'}} Long High Medium
779 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Guiding principles As the coeditors of this Special Issue describe in their opening editorial, the contributing authors were expressly chosen with a vision of what this compilation would accomplish.This overarching vision perhaps explains the alignment of these individual articles around certain fundamental principles about engagement and about engaged readers and writers 51 24 {'VERB': 7, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 8, 'PROPN': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'certain', 'individual', 'fundamental', 'engaged', 'Guiding', 'contributing'}, 'nsubj': {'vision', 'compilation', 'principles'}, 'prep': {'As', 'around', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'about'}, 'det': {'this', 'This', 'a', 'these', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'vision', 'editorial', 'Issue', 'engagement', 'articles', 'principles', 'coeditors'}, 'compound': {'opening', 'Special', 'overarching'}, 'advcl': {'describe'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'nsubjpass': {'authors'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'expressly', 'perhaps'}, 'ROOT': {'explains', 'chosen'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'alignment'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'pcomp': {'accomplish'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'about', 'writers'}} Long High Low
780 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Here, I summarise those principles and brie fly describe how they manifest in individual articles 15 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'INTJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, INTJ, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'fly', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'summarise'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'dobj': {'principles'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'brie'}, 'ccomp': {'describe', 'manifest'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'amod': {'individual'}, 'pobj': {'articles'}} Medium High Medium
781 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Engagement is a multidimensional construct that can manifest behaviourally, cognitively, emotionally or socially 13 5 {'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, CCONJ, ADV] {'intj': {'Engagement'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'multidimensional'}, 'attr': {'construct'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'manifest'}, 'advmod': {'emotionally', 'cognitively', 'behaviourally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'socially'}} Medium High Low
782 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Within this Special Issue, there is concurrence around the idea that engagement is not a single, uni fied construct, but rather a complex of behaviours, thoughts, feelings and social interactions that signify an individual ’s willingness to be an actor in his or her own learn- ing 47 26 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 7, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PART, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'around', 'Within', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'this', 'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'fied', 'uni'}, 'pobj': {'ing', 'idea', 'behaviours', 'Issue'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'actor', 'single', 'concurrence'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'engagement'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'construct'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'conj': {'thoughts', 'interactions', 'complex', 'feelings'}, 'amod': {'social', 'learn-', 'own'}, 'relcl': {'signify'}, 'poss': {'individual', 'his', 'her'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'dobj': {'willingness'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'be'}} Long High Low
783 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines This encompassing view means that there are various paths that students may pursue when seeking to be engaged in literacy learning and development, just as there are differentapproaches that educators and educational researchers can enact to foster students ’engage- ment or to gauge its manifestation in students 47 24 {'DET': 1, 'VERB': 10, 'NOUN': 13, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'This'}, 'amod': {'various', 'encompassing', 'educational'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'view', 'educators'}, 'ROOT': {'means'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'differentapproaches', 'paths'}, 'dobj': {'manifestation', 'that', 'ment'}, 'aux': {'can', 'may', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'pursue', 'enact'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'when'}, 'advcl': {'seeking', 'are'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'engaged', 'foster'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'students'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'researchers', 'gauge', 'development'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'poss': {'students', 'its'}, 'case': {'engage-'}} Long High High
784 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Although engagement is conceptualised as multidimensional, its operationalisation is typically more constrained 12 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'nsubjpass': {'engagement'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'conceptualised'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'amod': {'multidimensional'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'nsubj': {'operationalisation'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'more', 'typically'}, 'acomp': {'constrained'}} Medium High Medium
785 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines For instance, it canbe presumed that the behavioural markers of engagement, which are by nature more overt and directly observable, are what frequently gets acknowledged in instructional practiceENGAGEMENT AND LITERACY: READING BETWEEN THE LINES 733 © 2018 UKLA 38 16 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, NUM, PROPN] {'prep': {'in', 'by', 'of', 'BETWEEN', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'practiceENGAGEMENT', 'instance', 'LINES', 'engagement', 'nature'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'markers', 'it', 'READING'}, 'appos': {'canbe'}, 'ROOT': {'presumed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'THE'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'behavioural'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'directly', 'frequently', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'overt'}, 'cc': {'and', 'AND'}, 'conj': {'observable', 'LITERACY'}, 'ccomp': {'acknowledged', 'are'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'gets'}, 'nummod': {'2018', '733'}, 'compound': {'©'}, 'dep': {'UKLA'}} Long High Medium
786 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines The other dimensions of engagement must often be in- ferred from what is seen or heard or self-reported 18 11 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB] {'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'nsubjpass': {'dimensions', 'what'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'engagement'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'dep': {'in-'}, 'ROOT': {'ferred'}, 'pcomp': {'seen'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'heard', 'reported'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Medium High Low
787 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Indeed, self-reports of students ’or teachers ’cognitive processes, beliefs, motivations and emotions are common data sources for researchers, including those contributing to this Special Issue 25 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Indeed'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'self', 'data'}, 'nsubj': {'reports'}, 'prep': {'for', 'including', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'researchers', 'those', 'Issue'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'amod': {'common', 'cognitive'}, 'conj': {'motivations', 'emotions', 'processes', 'beliefs'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'sources'}, 'acl': {'contributing'}, 'det': {'this'}} Long High Low
788 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines For example, in their secondary analysis of PISA2009 data, Ho and Lau (2018) used three indices to capture reading engagement: reading enjoyment, reading diversity and on- line reading 28 9 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'analysis', 'data', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', ')'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'secondary', 'on-'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'line', 'PISA2009'}, 'conj': {'reading', 'Ho', 'Lau'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'dobj': {'enjoyment', 'diversity', 'indices', 'engagement'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'capture'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}} Long High Low
789 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines All three of these indices were based on self-report items from the PISA da-tabase 14 8 {'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [DET, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'All', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'three'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'tabase', 'indices'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'based'}, 'compound': {'self', 'da', 'PISA', 'report'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Medium High Low
790 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Rosenzweig, Wig field, Gaspard, and Guthrie (2018) focused on behavioural engagement in her examination of motivation-enhancing practices within classrooms 19 6 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Rosenzweig'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'Wig'}, 'conj': {'Guthrie', 'field', 'Gaspard'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'enhancing', 'behavioural'}, 'pobj': {'examination', 'practices', 'classrooms', 'engagement'}, 'poss': {'her'}, 'npadvmod': {'motivation'}} Medium High Low
791 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines The measure of behavioural engagement in this study again took the form of self-report.One unique orientation to representing engagement in this Special Issue was found in the work of Ng, (2018, this issue), who approached engagement as a social act embedded in a speci fic literacy context 47 21 {'DET': 8, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 9, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'measure', 'who'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'social', 'unique', 'behavioural'}, 'pobj': {'report', 'Ng', 'context', 'Issue', 'engagement', 'work', 'act', 'study'}, 'advmod': {'again'}, 'ROOT': {'found', 'took'}, 'dobj': {'form', 'engagement'}, 'compound': {'self', 'literacy', 'fic', 'Special'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubjpass': {'orientation'}, 'pcomp': {'representing'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'relcl': {'approached'}, 'acl': {'embedded'}, 'nmod': {'speci'}} Long High Low
792 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Ng sought evidence of change in “the manner in which the teacher responded to the concerns voiced by the students regarding their silent reading ”, which represents the use of behavioural data to illuminate social engagement 36 16 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'which', 'Ng', 'teacher'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'dobj': {'use', 'evidence', 'engagement'}, 'prep': {'regarding', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'reading', 'change', 'students', 'manner', 'concerns', 'data'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'relcl': {'responded', 'represents'}, 'acl': {'illuminate', 'voiced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'social', 'behavioural', 'silent'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Low
793 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Thus, even within this Special Issue with the diversity of data sources, it was interesting to note that there remained a reliance on the words spoken or written by students and teachers as part of school experiences, or the views they expressed on the array of self-re- port measures they completed 51 28 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 9, 'DET': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'NOUN': 15, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'even'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'data', 'port', 'school'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'measures', 'students', 'part', 'Issue', 'diversity', 'array', 'experiences', 'words'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'interesting'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'note'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'remained'}, 'attr': {'reliance'}, 'acl': {'spoken'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'written', 'teachers', 'views'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'relcl': {'expressed', 'completed'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'amod': {'re-'}} Long High Medium
794 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Thus, it would seem that the broad, multidimensional char-acter of literacy engagement to which the contributing authors ascribe was constrained by the methods of data collection that would not allow for the students ’or teachers ’beliefs, thinking, motivations and emotions to be directly accessed 44 23 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PART, PRON, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'directly'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'it', 'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'contributing', 'broad', 'multidimensional'}, 'compound': {'literacy', 'data', 'char'}, 'nsubjpass': {'acter'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'students', 'methods', 'engagement', 'collection'}, 'dep': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'allow', 'ascribe'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'was'}, 'ccomp': {'constrained', 'accessed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'dative': {'for'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'emotions', 'teachers', 'thinking', 'motivations', 'beliefs'}} Long High Medium
795 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Engagement in the context of literacy is understood as students ’intentional in- volvement in processes and experiences that are facilitative to their develop- ment as readers and writers 28 13 {'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 2} [CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, X, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'and', 'Engagement'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'context'}, 'pobj': {'processes', 'ment', 'volvement', 'literacy', 'readers'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'understood'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'amod': {'develop-', 'intentional'}, 'dep': {'in-'}, 'conj': {'experiences', 'writers'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'facilitative'}} Long High Low
796 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines In the opening sentence of their editorial introducing this Special Issue, Ng and Graham (this issue) unequivocally state that literacy engagement represents “students ’involvement in activities and processes that develop their knowledge, skills and attitudes for comprehending and composing a variety of texts in oral, print, visual and digital formats ” (p.615, this issue) 54 20 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 19, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 12, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'opening', 'oral'}, 'pobj': {'sentence', 'texts', 'editorial', 'formats', 'activities'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'acl': {'introducing'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'literacy'}, 'dobj': {'involvement', 'variety', 'knowledge', 'Issue'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'p.615', 'Ng', 'issue'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'processes', 'skills', 'digital', 'Graham', 'composing', 'visual', 'print', 'attitudes'}, 'advmod': {'unequivocally'}, 'ROOT': {'state'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'engagement'}, 'ccomp': {'represents'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'relcl': {'develop'}, 'pcomp': {'comprehending'}} Long High Medium
797 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Onthe explicit side, Bräten, Brante, and Strømsø (2018) refer to engagement as “processes that indicate productive participation in learning activities ”(p.682, this issue) –ad efinition that largely mirrors that offered by Ng and Graham (this issue) 36 12 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 13, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, ADV, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'Onthe', 'this'}, 'amod': {'productive', 'explicit'}, 'nsubj': {'side', 'that'}, 'punct': {'–', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'issue', 'efinition', 'p.682', 'Bräten'}, 'conj': {'Brante', 'Graham', 'Strømsø'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'refer'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'processes', 'Ng', 'engagement'}, 'relcl': {'mirrors', 'offered', 'indicate'}, 'dobj': {'activities', 'participation'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'compound': {'ad'}, 'advmod': {'largely'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'parataxis': {'issue'}} Long High Low
798 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines On the implicit side, au-thors of the two articles involving secondary data analyses relied on the conceptualisations reflected in their data sources, which were largely complementary to the editors ’definition 30 14 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'On', 'to', 'in', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'implicit', 'secondary'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'editors', 'side', 'conceptualisations', 'articles'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'compound': {'au', 'data'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'thors'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'acl': {'involving', 'reflected'}, 'dobj': {'analyses'}, 'ROOT': {'relied'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'largely'}, 'acomp': {'complementary'}, 'attr': {'definition'}} Long High Low
799 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines (2018) referenced the de finition in the CORI framework of an engaged reader as a student “motivated, strategic, knowledgeable, and actively involved in reading ”(p.627, this issue) 27 10 {'PUNCT': 10, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'2018'}, 'ROOT': {'referenced'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'de', 'CORI'}, 'dobj': {'p.627', 'finition'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'framework', 'reader'}, 'amod': {'engaged'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'npadvmod': {'student'}, 'advcl': {'motivated'}, 'conj': {'strategic', 'involved', 'knowledgeable'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'actively'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'appos': {'issue'}} Long High Medium
800 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Similarly, Ho and Lau (2018) reiterated the de finition of read- ing engagement from PISA2009 that equated to “the motivation to read ”(p.657, this issue) 25 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Similarly'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'Ho', 'that'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Lau'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'reiterated'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'de'}, 'dobj': {'p.657', 'finition'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'nmod': {'read-'}, 'amod': {'ing'}, 'pobj': {'motivation', 'PISA2009', 'engagement'}, 'relcl': {'equated', 'read'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Low
801 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines For remaining articles, there was no explicit de finition of literacy engagement to which the authors ’ascribed 17 8 {'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, X, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PART, PRON, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'amod': {'explicit', 'remaining'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'which', 'engagement'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'compound': {'de', 'literacy'}, 'attr': {'finition'}, 'dep': {'to'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'relcl': {'ascribed'}} Medium High Low
802 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines However, given that two of those articles were authored by the edi- tors for this Special Issue, we can assume that the conceptualisations they shared in theopening editorial would remain consistent in their individual contributions 35 19 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'for', 'given', 'of', 'in'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'two'}, 'det': {'this', 'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'editorial', 'Issue', 'contributions', 'articles', 'tors'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'pcomp': {'authored'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'edi-'}, 'nsubj': {'conceptualisations', 'we', 'they'}, 'aux': {'can', 'would'}, 'ROOT': {'assume'}, 'relcl': {'shared'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'theopening'}, 'ccomp': {'remain'}, 'acomp': {'consistent'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
803 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Thus, it is fair to conclude that literacy engagement, as represented in this issue, is a wholly positive force in reading and writing development that is marked by students ’willing participation in pro- cesses, activities or experiences that promote literacy learning.734 ALEXANDER © 2018 UKLA 45 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, NUM, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'wholly'}, 'punct': {',', 'learning.734', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'UKLA', 'is'}, 'acomp': {'fair'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'conclude'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'this'}, 'compound': {'literacy', '©', 'pro-'}, 'dobj': {'literacy', 'development', 'engagement'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'represented'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'cesses', 'participation'}, 'conj': {'is', 'experiences', 'writing', 'activities'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'ALEXANDER', 'willing'}, 'attr': {'force'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'marked', 'promote'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'nummod': {'2018'}} Long High Medium
804 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Those who are engaged readers and writers are held to have signi ficant aca- demic, motivational, emotional and social advantages over those who are not willing participants in their own literacy development 32 15 {'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2} [PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, X, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Those'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'amod': {'ficant', 'own', 'willing', 'engaged', 'motivational', 'demic'}, 'attr': {'readers', 'participants'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'social', 'emotional', 'writers'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'held'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'have'}, 'compound': {'signi', 'literacy'}, 'nmod': {'aca-'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dobj': {'advantages'}, 'prep': {'in', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'those', 'development'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
805 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines What was most striking to me in my review of these thought-provoking articles was the wholly positive view of literacy engagement and of engaged readers and writers being con- veyed 30 16 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, VERB] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'aux': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'wholly', 'most'}, 'csubj': {'striking'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'engagement', 'articles', 'me', 'review'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'npadvmod': {'thought'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'engaged', 'positive', 'provoking'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'view'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'writers'}, 'acl': {'being'}, 'nsubj': {'con-'}, 'acomp': {'veyed'}} Long High Low
806 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Whether the authors were describing engagement at the level of student (Graham,Daley, Aitken, Harris, & Robinson, 2018), classroom (Rosenzweig, 2018), schools (Kennedy, 2018) or the nation (Ho & Lau, 2018), such a consistently positive portrayal is nothing short of ideal 40 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 19, 'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PRON, ADJ, ADP, ADJ] {'mark': {'Whether'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'aux': {'were'}, 'csubj': {'describing'}, 'dobj': {'engagement'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'level', 'ideal', 'student'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Ho', 'Graham', 'portrayal', 'Kennedy', 'Rosenzweig'}, 'conj': {'nation', 'Lau', 'Robinson', 'schools', 'Aitken', 'Harris', 'Daley'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'dep': {'classroom'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'advmod': {'consistently'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'short'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'nothing'}} Long High Medium
807 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Speci fically, engaged readers and writers were described as stra- tegic, motivated, socially active and knowledgeable (Graham et al., 2018; Ng & Graham, this issue) 25 5 {'PROPN': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 1} [PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Speci'}, 'advmod': {'socially', 'fically', 'tegic'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'engaged'}, 'dobj': {'readers'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Ng', 'Graham', 'writers', 'described', 'motivated', 'knowledgeable', 'active'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'pobj': {'stra-'}, 'npadvmod': {'.', 'al', 'Graham', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'issue'}, 'det': {'this'}} Long High Low
808 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines They are also cast as self-ef ficacious, better readers and writers, persistent, effortful and self-regulatory (Rosenzweig et al., 2018) 19 6 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, X, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'They'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'cast'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nmod': {'ef'}, 'amod': {'ficacious', 'better'}, 'pobj': {'readers'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regulatory', 'effortful', 'persistent', 'writers'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Rosenzweig'}, 'dobj': {'al', '.'}} Medium High Low
809 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Moreover, we are told that theseengaged students come from homes with more educated parents, who are themselves engaged in literate practices and who are also financially able to provide their children with resources such as reading materials that facilitate literacy development (Ho & Lau, 2018).So, it would almost appear that those labelled as engaged readers and writers are already academic primed to succeed, even when the immediate learning environment is not partic- ularly facilitative 74 36 {'ADV': 8, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 9, 'AUX': 6, 'VERB': 13, 'SCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, PRON, ADV, ADJ] {'advmod': {'when', 'also', 'financially', 'ularly', 'almost', 'Moreover', 'already', 'even', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '('}, 'nsubjpass': {'we'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'told', 'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'immediate', 'theseengaged', 'engaged', 'literate', 'educated', 'such', 'academic'}, 'nsubj': {'who', 'students', 'those', 'it', 'environment'}, 'ccomp': {'are', 'come'}, 'prep': {'with', 'as', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'practices', 'resources', 'parents', 'readers', 'homes'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'attr': {'themselves'}, 'acomp': {'partic-', 'primed', 'engaged', 'facilitative', 'able'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'are', 'Lau', 'writers'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'succeed', 'provide'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'children', 'materials'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'literacy', 'facilitate'}, 'dep': {'development'}, 'appos': {'2018).So', 'Ho'}, 'ROOT': {'appear'}, 'acl': {'labelled'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High High
810 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Students who are disadvantaged academically or economically or attend schools serving the economically disadvantaged populations often lack the personal or fiscal resources that enable literacy engagement 26 9 {'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students', 'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'who'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'disadvantaged', 'enable'}, 'advmod': {'academically', 'often', 'economically'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'fiscal', 'attend', 'economically'}, 'dobj': {'schools', 'populations', 'engagement', 'resources'}, 'acl': {'serving'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'disadvantaged'}, 'ROOT': {'lack'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}} Long High Low
811 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines If the picture these articles paint of engaged readers and writers is truly uplifting, then a far less encouraging portrayal emerges for those who do not merit that label 29 15 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'picture', 'paint', 'who'}, 'compound': {'articles'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'engaged'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'those'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'writers'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'a', 'less', 'far', 'truly', 'then'}, 'acomp': {'uplifting'}, 'punct': {','}, 'csubj': {'encouraging'}, 'dobj': {'portrayal', 'label'}, 'ROOT': {'emerges'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'merit'}} Long High Medium
812 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Those who are considered ‘disadvantaged ’, either due to identi fied literacy or learning problems (Graham et al., 2018) or as a consequence of the socioeconomic conditions in which they reside (Kennedy, 2018), or simply due to their cultural-ethnic backgrounds, which are ill-matched to the instructional contexts in which they are situated (Ng, 2018), are to some degree theantithesis of the engaged reader or writer 65 33 {'PRON': 8, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 17, 'ADJ': 8, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADP': 9, 'PROPN': 8, 'NOUN': 9, 'NUM': 3, 'DET': 5, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'which', 'Those', 'they'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they', 'who'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'considered', 'situated', 'are', 'reside'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'oprd': {'disadvantaged'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'amod': {'socioeconomic', 'instructional', 'cultural', 'engaged', 'ethnic', 'due'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'compound': {'fied', 'identi', 'degree'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'theantithesis', 'literacy', 'conditions', 'consequence', 'backgrounds', 'reader', 'contexts'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'simply', 'al', '.', 'writer', 'learning', 'as'}, 'dobj': {'problems'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Graham'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018', 'Kennedy', 'Ng', 'et'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'some'}, 'prep': {'due', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'ill'}, 'acomp': {'matched'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}} Long High Low
813 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines That is, these academically or economically in- need students have been characterised as relatively non-strategic and unmotivated, as well as less self-ef ficacious self-regulatory, and effortful in their performance 29 15 {'ADV': 7, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'X': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 8, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, X, VERB, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'That', 'relatively', 'academically', 'well', 'less', 'is', 'as'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'cc': {'or', 'as', 'and'}, 'conj': {'regulatory', 'unmotivated', 'effortful', 'economically'}, 'dep': {'in-'}, 'ROOT': {'need'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ccomp': {'characterised'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'amod': {'strategic', '-', 'non', 'ficacious'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'nsubj': {'ef'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'performance'}} Long High Low
814 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines While there is no claim that these attributes can be erased by enhancing students ’engagement, it is the underlying assumption of this Special Issue that these disadvantaging conditions can be offset, at least in part, with greater focus on the enabling factors the authors have identi fied 47 27 {'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADJ': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, PROPN] {'mark': {'that', 'While'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'attr': {'claim', 'assumption'}, 'nsubjpass': {'conditions', 'attributes'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'acl': {'offset', 'erased'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pcomp': {'enhancing'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'identi', 'engagement'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'underlying', 'enabling', 'greater', 'disadvantaging'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'Special'}, 'pobj': {'factors', 'focus', 'part', 'Issue'}, 'advmod': {'at', 'least'}, 'conj': {'have'}, 'appos': {'fied'}} Long High High
815 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines For example, increased attention to these students ’motivations for reading and writing, more attention to their interests within the literacy curriculum (Graham et al., 2018), a personally meaningful reason for them to read and write (Bräten et al., 2018), an instruc-tional program that recognises their sociocultural backgrounds and opportunities for frequent interactions with peers that involve reading and writing (Ng, 2018), can help to counter the unwanted consequences associated with academic or economic disadvantages 74 28 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 19, 'PUNCT': 15, 'VERB': 9, 'DET': 5, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADJ': 10, 'PRON': 5, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'to', 'with', 'for', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'students', 'peers', 'interests', 'example', 'interactions', 'disadvantages', 'curriculum'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'advcl': {'increased'}, 'dobj': {'motivations', 'attention', 'backgrounds', 'consequences'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'these'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'.', 'writing', 'opportunities', 'economic', 'write', 'attention'}, 'amod': {'-', 'instruc', 'sociocultural', 'meaningful', 'tional', 'unwanted', 'frequent', 'academic', 'more'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Ng', 'Graham'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018', 'al', 'Bräten', 'et'}, 'advmod': {'personally'}, 'dep': {'reason'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'nsubj': {'program', 'that', 'them'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'involve', 'recognises', 'read'}, 'xcomp': {'counter', 'reading'}, 'ROOT': {'help'}, 'acl': {'associated'}} Long High Medium
816 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Lingering questions Despite the wealth of information and the underlying principles that this Special Issue af- fords, or perhaps because of them, there were questions about literacy engagement and about engaged readers and writers lingering within those in-between spaces 39 21 {'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, DET, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, SCONJ, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADP, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN] {'amod': {'af-', 'Lingering', 'underlying', 'engaged'}, 'ROOT': {'questions'}, 'prep': {'within', 'because', 'of', 'Despite', 'about'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'spaces', 'them', 'wealth', 'engagement', 'information', 'readers', 'between'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'about', 'principles', 'writers'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'literacy'}, 'nmod': {'in', 'Issue'}, 'nsubj': {'fords'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'perhaps'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'attr': {'questions'}, 'acl': {'lingering'}} Long High High
817 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines These are questionsENGAGEMENT AND LITERACY: READING BETWEEN THE LINES 735 © 2018 UKLA 13 5 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, NUM, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'These'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'questionsENGAGEMENT'}, 'cc': {'AND'}, 'conj': {'LITERACY'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'dep': {'READING'}, 'prep': {'BETWEEN'}, 'det': {'THE'}, 'pobj': {'LINES'}, 'nummod': {'735'}, 'compound': {'2018', '©'}, 'appos': {'UKLA'}} Medium High Low
818 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines My goal is to use this commentary to put those ques- tions into the public discourse in hopes that others will provide the answers I seek or will un- dertake the empirical research or classroom studies that lead to their resolution 41 22 {'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'poss': {'My', 'their'}, 'nsubj': {'goal', 'I', 'that', 'others'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'xcomp': {'use', 'dertake', 'put'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'answers', 'tions', 'commentary', 'studies'}, 'compound': {'ques-'}, 'prep': {'into', 'to', 'in'}, 'amod': {'public', 'empirical'}, 'pobj': {'resolution', 'discourse', 'hopes'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'provide'}, 'relcl': {'lead', 'seek'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'un-', 'classroom'}, 'nmod': {'research'}} Long High Medium
819 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Is the general term ‘engagement ’or‘literacy engagement ’actually being used to describe a rather speci fic form of willing participation 20 7 {'PROPN': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'INTJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, PROPN, INTJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'willing', 'general'}, 'appos': {'term', 'engagement'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’'}, 'compound': {'or‘literacy'}, 'advmod': {'actually', 'rather'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'describe'}, 'pobj': {'speci', 'participation'}, 'dobj': {'form', 'fic'}, 'prep': {'of'}} Long High Low
820 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines The message conveyed within these articles is that engagement, and more precisely literacy engagement, is an expression of students ’volition or willingness to be mentally or physically active participants in experiences that support their literacy learning and development 38 18 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'The', 'these', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'message'}, 'csubj': {'conveyed'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'experiences', 'students'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'participants', 'expression', 'engagement'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'advmod': {'mentally', 'precisely', 'physically', 'more'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}, 'conj': {'volition', 'development', 'engagement', 'willingness', 'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'be'}, 'amod': {'active'}, 'relcl': {'support'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'learning'}} Long High Low
821 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines What is not as transparent, however, is that those literacy acts are quiteinfrequently of students ’own choosing 17 11 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'acts', 'What'}, 'csubj': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'quiteinfrequently', 'however'}, 'acomp': {'transparent'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'students'}, 'amod': {'own'}, 'attr': {'choosing'}} Medium High Medium
822 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Rather, these are tasks that students are directed to do within the context of school instruction 16 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'these'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'tasks'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'directed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'do'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'context', 'instruction'}, 'compound': {'school'}} Medium High Medium
823 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines If there is choice, it may come in the form of certain freedoms students have within the task parameters such as the choiceof speci fic book or article from a given reading list (Bräten et al., 2018; Rosenzweig et al., 2018), or selection of a particular writing topic (e.g 49 20 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 9, 'INTJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, PROPN, INTJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'choice'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'it'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'come'}, 'prep': {'within', 'from', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'book', 'topic', 'form', 'list', 'parameters'}, 'amod': {'given', 'certain', 'such', 'particular', 'choiceof'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'writing', 'fic', 'speci', 'freedoms', 'task'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'selection', '.', 'al', 'article'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'e.g', 'Bräten', 'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'Rosenzweig', 'et'}} Long High Medium
824 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines In effect, it falls to students to find some glimmer of personal value in whatever they are being asked to read or write 23 13 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'effect', 'value'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'falls'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'find'}, 'det': {'some'}, 'dobj': {'glimmer', 'whatever'}, 'amod': {'personal'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'asked'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'write'}} Long High Low
825 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines At best, teachers may speak about the general utility of literacy tasks or experiences they assign in their classes 19 9 {'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADP, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'At', 'best'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'teachers', 'they'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'speak'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'general'}, 'pobj': {'tasks', 'utility', 'classes'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'experiences'}, 'relcl': {'assign'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Medium High Low
826 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Consequently, if there is personal relevance or meaningfulness to these assigned literacytasks for the individual student, it will often be left to him or her to suss that out (Can- ning & Harackiewicz, 2015) 34 19 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, PRON, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'often', 'Consequently'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is', 'suss'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'personal', 'assigned'}, 'attr': {'relevance'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'meaningfulness', 'Harackiewicz', 'her'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'literacytasks', 'him', 'student'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'left'}, 'dobj': {'ning', 'that'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'compound': {'Can-'}, 'npadvmod': {'2015'}} Long High Medium
827 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines More likely, they will operate under the presumption that the literacy assignment is just another duty they must perform as part of their jobs asstudents 25 16 {'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'just', 'More', 'likely'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'assignment', 'they'}, 'aux': {'will', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'operate'}, 'prep': {'under', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'another', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'asstudents', 'presumption', 'part'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'literacy', 'jobs'}, 'acl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'duty'}, 'relcl': {'perform'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
828 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines If this is, in fact, the conception of literacy engagement framing this Special Issue or the literature on engagement, then what do we call the form of engagement that re flects very dif- ferent motivations, like what I am experiencing in writing this commentary 44 25 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'conception', 'we', 'this'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'like', 're', 'in', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'fact', 'engagement'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'literacy', 'Special'}, 'acl': {'framing'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'form', 'Issue', 'motivations', 'commentary', 'that'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'literature'}, 'advmod': {'very', 'then', 'dif-'}, 'aux': {'am', 'do'}, 'ROOT': {'call'}, 'ccomp': {'flects'}, 'amod': {'ferent'}, 'pcomp': {'writing', 'experiencing'}} Long High Medium
829 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines In effect, what do we call engagement directed toward a task that matches students ’interests and goals, that excites or pleases them, and for which they feel ef ficacious 29 16 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADJ] {'prep': {'for', 'In', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'which', 'effect'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'dobj': {'them', 'what', 'interests', 'engagement'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'nsubj': {'ef', 'that', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'call'}, 'acl': {'directed'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'relcl': {'matches', 'excites'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'goals', 'pleases', 'feel'}, 'ccomp': {'ficacious'}} Long High Low
830 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines For instance, preparing this commentary may represent a challenge, but I perceive it as within my abilities to meet that challenge 21 12 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'within', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'abilities'}, 'punct': {','}, 'csubj': {'preparing'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'challenge', 'it', 'commentary'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'represent'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'conj': {'perceive'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'advcl': {'meet'}} Long High Low
831 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines The bene fits I reap include increased knowledge about the topic literacy engage- ment, and self-satisfaction with meeting the challenge to the best of my abilities 26 11 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, VERB, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'fits', 'bene'}, 'relcl': {'reap'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'amod': {'increased'}, 'dobj': {'challenge', 'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of', 'to', 'with'}, 'compound': {'literacy', 'topic', 'self', 'engage-'}, 'pobj': {'best', 'ment', 'abilities'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'satisfaction'}, 'pcomp': {'meeting'}, 'poss': {'my'}} Long High Low
832 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Thankfully, individuals do not have to be of similar age (thank goodness) or background to experience some version of this mode of literacy engagement 24 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, AUX, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thankfully'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals'}, 'aux': {'to', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'similar'}, 'pobj': {'age', 'mode', 'engagement'}, 'appos': {'thank'}, 'dobj': {'goodness', 'version'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'background'}, 'advcl': {'experience'}, 'det': {'this', 'some'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}} Long High Low
833 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines I have, on occasion, witnessed it among my elementary, high school, college and graduate students, althoughin developmentally different ways 19 7 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, AUX, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'among'}, 'pobj': {'occasion', 'school'}, 'ROOT': {'witnessed'}, 'dobj': {'it'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'amod': {'different', 'high', 'elementary'}, 'conj': {'graduate', 'college'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'students', 'ways'}, 'advmod': {'developmentally', 'althoughin'}} Medium High Low
834 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines What I am questioning here is whether the singular term, literacy engagement, fits all iterations that can emerge over students ’academic maturation, or if there are developmental distinctions and varied instructional responses that need tobe made in the conceptualisation and operationalisation of literacy engagement 44 22 {'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3} [PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, AUX, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What', 'iterations', 'tobe'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that', 'engagement'}, 'aux': {'can', 'am'}, 'csubj': {'questioning'}, 'advmod': {'here'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'if', 'whether'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'varied', 'developmental', 'singular', 'academic'}, 'nmod': {'students', 'term'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}, 'ccomp': {'fits'}, 'relcl': {'emerge', 'need'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'conceptualisation', 'maturation', 'engagement'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'conj': {'responses', 'are', 'operationalisation'}, 'attr': {'distinctions'}, 'acl': {'made'}} Long High High
835 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines (2018) suggested, there may be something akin to a developmental model that exists for literacy engagement, as he and colleagues (Graham, Gillespie, & McKeown, 2013) have de-scribed for writing competence 30 13 {'PUNCT': 9, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, PRON, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2018', 'he', 'that'}, 'ccomp': {'suggested', 'be'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'attr': {'something'}, 'amod': {'developmental', 'akin'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'model', 'engagement'}, 'relcl': {'exists'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'McKeown', 'Gillespie', 'colleagues'}, 'appos': {'2013', 'Graham'}, 'ROOT': {'de'}, 'intj': {'-'}, 'acomp': {'scribed'}, 'pcomp': {'writing'}, 'dobj': {'competence'}} Long High Medium
836 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines If that is so, then one size (or de finition) may not fit all the iterations of literacy engagement that manifest at any time or over time 27 17 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 3} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, X, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'nsubj': {'size', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'so'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'de', 'literacy'}, 'conj': {'over', 'finition'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'fit'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'iterations'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'time', 'engagement'}, 'relcl': {'manifest'}} Long High Medium
837 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines To what degree are the dimensions of engagement truly separable and validly measurable when enacted in everyday practice 18 7 {'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [PROPN, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'To'}, 'det': {'what', 'the'}, 'attr': {'dimensions', 'degree'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'practice', 'engagement'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'truly', 'validly'}, 'amod': {'everyday', 'separable'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'measurable'}, 'advcl': {'enacted'}} Medium High Medium
838 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Overall, I found the arguments for the multidimensional nature of literacy engagement forwarded in this Special Issue to be quite convincing 21 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'advmod': {'quite', 'Overall'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'arguments'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'multidimensional'}, 'pobj': {'nature', 'Issue', 'engagement'}, 'compound': {'literacy', 'Special'}, 'acl': {'forwarded'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'convincing'}} Long High Low
839 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines their research on students ’use of multiple documents as the bases for writing a letter to the editor on climate change, I could see why behavioural engagement was the target of their analysis 33 18 {'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'research', 'engagement'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'bases', 'students', 'change', 'analysis', 'editor', 'documents'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'dep': {'use'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'behavioural'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pcomp': {'writing'}, 'dobj': {'letter'}, 'compound': {'climate'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'advmod': {'why'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'attr': {'target'}} Long High Medium
840 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Yet, when I read between the lines, it seemed that efforts to deconstruct engagement into its constituentforms demand further interrogation on that grounds that any single behaviour identi fied as ‘engagement ’is likely the externalisation of other engagement forms invisible to the naked eye 44 23 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'efforts', 'it', 'identi'}, 'advcl': {'read'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'into', 'of', 'as', 'between'}, 'det': {'any', 'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'eye', 'constituentforms', 'lines', 'grounds', 'engagement'}, 'ROOT': {'seemed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'deconstruct', 'is'}, 'dobj': {'interrogation', 'engagement'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'ccomp': {'demand'}, 'amod': {'naked', 'further', 'invisible', 'single', 'engagement', 'other'}, 'compound': {'behaviour'}, 'appos': {'fied'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'attr': {'externalisation'}} Long High High
841 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines For example, assume a researcher was observing in a classroom and noted a second grader raising her hand to ask a question (behavioural) 23 10 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'classroom', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'assume'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'nsubj': {'researcher'}, 'aux': {'was', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'observing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'noted'}, 'amod': {'second'}, 'dobj': {'hand', 'grader', 'question'}, 'acl': {'raising'}, 'poss': {'her'}, 'advcl': {'ask'}, 'appos': {'behavioural'}} Long High Low
842 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines What that researcher could not see was the con fluence of internal conditions that this simple behaviour encompassed 18 10 {'PRON': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'dobj': {'What', 'that'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'researcher', 'behaviour'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'csubj': {'see'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'compound': {'con'}, 'attr': {'fluence'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'simple', 'internal'}, 'pobj': {'conditions'}, 'relcl': {'encompassed'}} Medium High Low
843 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines The researcher coding for behavioural engagement could not know that this young girl had been wrestling with the teacher ’s declaration that Jack was foolish to sell his family ’s cow for magic beans (cognitive) 35 17 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, SCONJ, PROPN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'researcher'}, 'nsubj': {'Jack', 'coding', 'girl'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with'}, 'amod': {'cognitive', 'young', 'magic', 'behavioural'}, 'pobj': {'beans', 'declaration', 'engagement'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to', 'had', 'been'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'know'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'wrestling'}, 'poss': {'family', 'teacher', 'his'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'acl': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'foolish'}, 'xcomp': {'sell'}, 'dobj': {'cow'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}} Long High High
844 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Nor could that researcher know that the very word ‘fool- ish’for believing in magic sparked an emotional response in that student (emotional), who is from a culture where the power of magic is accepted and valued (social) 37 19 {'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'X': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1} [CCONJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT] {'cc': {'and', 'Nor'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'researcher', 'word', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'know'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'very', 'emotional'}, 'punct': {'‘', '(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'fool-', 'emotional'}, 'prep': {'from', 'ish’for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'believing'}, 'pobj': {'culture', 'magic', 'student'}, 'ccomp': {'sparked'}, 'dobj': {'response'}, 'relcl': {'is', 'accepted'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'nsubjpass': {'power'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'conj': {'valued'}, 'intj': {'social'}} Long High High
845 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines The cognitive dissonance and emotional reaction this young girl felt compelled her to overcome her typ-ically quiet demeanour and reticence to speak (disposition) in order to seek clari fication from her teacher (motivation) 33 12 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'this'}, 'amod': {'emotional', 'clari', 'young', 'quiet', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'dissonance'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reticence', 'reaction'}, 'appos': {'motivation', 'girl'}, 'aux': {'felt', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'compelled'}, 'dobj': {'disposition', 'demeanour', 'fication', 'typ', 'her'}, 'xcomp': {'overcome'}, 'poss': {'her'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'advmod': {'ically'}, 'advcl': {'speak'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'teacher'}, 'acl': {'seek'}} Long High Low
846 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines As this illustrative case suggests, there are inevitably students who may display few in- stances of the behavioural indicators of engagement in the classroom, but whose level of internal engagement remains high 32 15 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ] {'mark': {'As'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'illustrative', 'internal', 'few', 'behavioural'}, 'nsubj': {'case', 'level', 'who'}, 'advcl': {'suggests'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'inevitably'}, 'attr': {'students'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'relcl': {'display'}, 'compound': {'in-'}, 'dobj': {'stances'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'indicators', 'classroom', 'engagement'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'conj': {'remains'}, 'acomp': {'high'}} Long High Medium
847 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Perhaps due to their personalities or their cultural her- itage, these students are more reticent to verbally or socially engage 20 11 {'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, ADP, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'Perhaps', 'verbally', 'more'}, 'prep': {'to', 'due'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'personalities'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'cultural'}, 'compound': {'her-'}, 'conj': {'itage', 'engage', 'socially'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'reticent'}} Long High Low
848 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines The true depth of theirengagement is only recognised when such reserved students elect to speak or put their thoughts on paper 21 11 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'reserved', 'such', 'true'}, 'nsubjpass': {'depth'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'theirengagement', 'paper'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'when'}, 'ROOT': {'recognised'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'advcl': {'elect'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'speak'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'put'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'thoughts'}} Long High Medium
849 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Consequently, researchers and teachers who focus on observable indi- cators of literacy engagement may misread or misinterpret these students ’involvement in their own literacy development 25 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Consequently'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'who'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'misinterpret', 'teachers'}, 'relcl': {'focus'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'observable', 'own'}, 'compound': {'literacy', 'indi-'}, 'pobj': {'cators', 'development', 'engagement'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'misread'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'involvement'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
850 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Likewise, researchers who attempt to deconstruct engage- ment into discrete categories may overlook the degree to which the behavioural, cognitive, motivational, emotional and social dimensions of this construct are naturally intertwined 31 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'naturally', 'Likewise'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'intertwined', 'attempt'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'deconstruct'}, 'compound': {'engage-'}, 'dobj': {'degree', 'ment'}, 'prep': {'into', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'behavioural', 'discrete'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'categories', 'construct'}, 'ROOT': {'overlook'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'emotional', 'social', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubjpass': {'dimensions'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}} Long High Low
851 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Is it possible that those regarded as ‘disengaged ’are simply engaged in reading and writing activities that are not part of the traditional or sanctionedcurriculum 25 14 {'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, PRON, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Is'}, 'appos': {'it'}, 'amod': {'disengaged', 'traditional', 'possible'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'those'}, 'acl': {'regarded'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'simply'}, 'ROOT': {'engaged'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'writing'}, 'dobj': {'activities'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'part'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'sanctionedcurriculum'}} Long High Medium
852 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines I have been known to argue that, contrary to what others may claim, there is no such thing as an unmotivated student 22 15 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'DET': 2} [PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'I'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'known'}, 'xcomp': {'argue'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'contrary'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nsubj': {'others'}, 'pcomp': {'claim'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'det': {'no', 'an'}, 'amod': {'such', 'unmotivated'}, 'attr': {'thing'}, 'pobj': {'student'}} Long High Medium
853 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Rather, there are those students who are simply not motivated by what their teachers (or educational researchers) want them to find motivat- ing 23 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'simply', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', 'ing', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'attr': {'students'}, 'nsubjpass': {'who'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'motivated'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'them'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'find'}, 'conj': {'researchers'}, 'pcomp': {'want'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'motivat-'}} Long High Low
854 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Who gets characterised asunengaged may more accurately be students who are unengaged in the academic content or activities typical of formal instruction 22 10 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, VERB, AUX, ADV, ADV, AUX, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Who'}, 'csubj': {'gets'}, 'acomp': {'characterised'}, 'ROOT': {'asunengaged'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'advmod': {'accurately', 'more'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'students'}, 'nsubjpass': {'who'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'unengaged'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'formal', 'academic', 'typical'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'instruction'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'activities'}} Long High Low
855 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines Yet, these students may be actively engaged in reading and writing activities outside of the classroom that do not conform to what isprized by the educational system 27 15 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'outside', 'Yet', 'actively'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'aux': {'may', 'do'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'engaged'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'reading', 'isprized'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'writing'}, 'dobj': {'activities'}, 'pobj': {'system', 'classroom'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'what'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'conform'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'educational'}} Long High Low
856 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines This has been the consistent message of literacy scholars like Carol Lee (1992), Allan Luke (2003) and Elizabeth Moje (with Ciechanowski, Kramer, Ellis, Carrillo, & Collazo, 2004), who seek to awaken sensitiv-ities toward cultural diversity in reading and writing practices 40 12 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 11, 'PUNCT': 14, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'This', 'who'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'consistent', 'cultural'}, 'attr': {'message'}, 'prep': {'like', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'toward'}, 'compound': {'literacy', 'Carol', 'sensitiv', 'Elizabeth', 'Allan'}, 'pobj': {'diversity', 'scholars', 'Ciechanowski', 'Lee'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1992', '2003', '2004'}, 'dep': {'Luke'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Collazo', 'writing', 'Kramer', 'Moje', 'Carrillo', 'Ellis'}, 'relcl': {'seek'}, 'xcomp': {'awaken'}, 'dobj': {'ities', 'practices'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High Low
857 Engagement and literacy- reading between the lines By understanding the lit- erate lives that culturally or ethnically diverse students may lead outside the classroom and by finding places for those life experiences to be woven into the curriculum, educa- tors may well open the door to these learners ’more willing participation in their own literacy development.ENGAGEMENT AND LITERACY: READING BETWEEN THE LINES 737 © 2018 UKLA 59 26 {'ADP': 8, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 17, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, NUM, PROPN] {'prep': {'BETWEEN', 'By', 'to', 'in', 'into', 'for', 'outside'}, 'pcomp': {'understanding'}, 'det': {'THE', 'the', 'those', 'these'}, 'compound': {'lit-', 'life', 'literacy', '©'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'erate', 'tors'}, 'dobj': {'UKLA', 'door', 'lives', 'participation'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'more', 'ethnically', 'culturally'}, 'cc': {'or', 'AND', 'and'}, 'amod': {'educa-', 'own', 'diverse', 'willing', 'finding'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'lead'}, 'pobj': {'LINES', 'classroom', 'development', 'places', 'learners', 'curriculum', 'experiences'}, 'conj': {'by', 'LITERACY'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'woven'}, 'punct': {',', '.', ':', '’'}, 'ROOT': {'ENGAGEMENT', 'open'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dep': {'READING'}, 'nummod': {'737', '2018'}} Long High Medium
858 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 1 3 21 Page 2 of 22 Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, 1899 In 2006, when Alexander was awarded the American Psychological Association Division 15’s Career Award for her work on the Model of Domain Learning (MDL), she used the occasion of her invited address to call attention to a situation within the educational psychology community she found troubling 65 24 {'PROPN': 20, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 10, 'ADP': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADJ': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, AUX, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PART, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Pure', 'American', '3', 'Psychological', 'psychology', 'Domain', 'Association', 'Career', 'Educational', 'Immanuel'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'used', '36:21'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Page', '2024'}, 'quantmod': {'1'}, 'nummod': {'2', '22', '15', '21', '1899'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to', 'of', 'for', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'Kant', 'address', '2006', 'community', 'situation', 'work', 'Reason', 'Model', 'Learning'}, 'appos': {'Critique', 'MDL'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Alexander'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'relcl': {'awarded'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nmod': {'Division'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'dobj': {'attention', 'Award', 'occasion'}, 'poss': {'her'}, 'nsubj': {'she'}, 'amod': {'invited', 'educational'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'call'}, 'ccomp': {'found', 'troubling'}} Long High Medium
859 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation That situation was the lack of regard for and attention to scientific speculation, which she argued was an essential component in the formation of the MDL, and more generally, in theory building 32 18 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'That', 'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'situation', 'which', 'she'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'component', 'lack'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'formation', 'speculation', 'MDL', 'regard'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'attention'}, 'amod': {'essential', 'scientific'}, 'punct': {','}, 'relcl': {'argued'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'generally', 'more'}, 'compound': {'theory'}} Long High Low
860 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Fundamentally, the MDL is a theoretical model of academic development that describes the journey from acclimation (novicehood) in any field of study to competence and, potentially, to proficiency or expertise 30 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PART, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'potentially', 'Fundamentally'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'any'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'MDL'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'academic'}, 'attr': {'model'}, 'prep': {'in', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'field', 'acclimation', 'development', 'competence', 'study'}, 'relcl': {'describes'}, 'dobj': {'journey'}, 'appos': {'novicehood'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'proficiency'}, 'conj': {'expertise'}} Long High Low
861 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation That journey is captured by the shifting dynamics of individuals’ topic knowledge (depth) and domain knowl- edge (breadth) of the field; their use of surface-level and deep-processing strategies; and their reliance on situational interest (temporary and environmentally triggered) and individual interest (deep-seated and personally evoked) 45 17 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 18, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 13, 'CCONJ': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT] {'det': {'That', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'journey'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'captured'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'seated', 'deep', 'individual', 'shifting', 'situational', 'temporary'}, 'pobj': {'field', 'interest', 'knowledge', 'dynamics', 'strategies'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'poss': {'individuals', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'knowl-'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ';', ')'}, 'appos': {'use', 'breadth', 'depth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'domain', 'surface', 'level'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'interest', 'triggered', 'reliance', 'evoked', 'edge'}, 'advmod': {'deep', 'environmentally', 'personally'}} Long High Low
862 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Each stage of the MDL is represented by a specific configuration of these six forces, which has been empiri- cally tested in a range of domains from special education to mechanical engineering 32 17 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'Each', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'stage'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'forces', 'range', 'configuration', 'domains', 'education', 'MDL', 'engineering'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'been'}, 'ROOT': {'represented'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'specific', 'mechanical', 'special'}, 'nummod': {'six'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'acomp': {'empiri-'}, 'advmod': {'cally'}, 'conj': {'tested'}} Long High Low
863 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation As we will discuss in this treatise, the MDL took shape over many years, marked by a confluence of theory-building approaches undergirded by robust methodological techniques 26 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 4} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'MDL'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'advcl': {'discuss', 'marked'}, 'prep': {'over', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'treatise', 'techniques', 'years', 'confluence', 'approaches'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'took'}, 'dobj': {'shape'}, 'amod': {'many', 'robust', 'undergirded', 'methodological'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'building', 'theory'}} Long High Medium
864 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Across all those years and varied approaches, however, scientific specu- lation remained front and center 15 7 {'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'Across'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'pobj': {'years'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'scientific', 'varied'}, 'conj': {'approaches', 'center'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'however'}, 'compound': {'specu-'}, 'nsubj': {'lation'}, 'ROOT': {'remained'}, 'acomp': {'front'}} Medium High Low
865 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The nature of scientific speculation to which we refer is far from the pedestrian notion of speculation regarded as pure conjecture or unfounded opinions (Achin- stein, 2018, 2022) 28 11 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'nature', 'we'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'amod': {'unfounded', 'scientific', 'pure'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'notion', 'speculation', 'conjecture'}, 'relcl': {'refer'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'far'}, 'compound': {'Achin-', 'pedestrian'}, 'acl': {'regarded'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'opinions'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'stein', '2018', '2022'}} Long High Low
866 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Speculation that is scientific “allows us to fill in the empirical spaces, to conjecture about phenomena that cannot be directly weighed or meas- ured, and to bridge rationalism and empiricism” (Alexander, 2006,p 32 16 {'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Speculation', 'us', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'is', 'weighed'}, 'acomp': {'scientific'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '”', '“'}, 'ROOT': {'allows'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'fill'}, 'prt': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'empirical', 'meas-'}, 'dobj': {'spaces', 'rationalism'}, 'advcl': {'conjecture'}, 'prep': {'about'}, 'pobj': {'phenomena'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'directly'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'ured', 'bridge', 'empiricism'}, 'npadvmod': {'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'2006,p'}} Long High Low
867 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation As Joao Magueijo (2003), the cosmologist, explicated in his volume, Faster than the Speed of Light, the ability to weigh evidence against perceptions and experiences, to embrace reasonable doubt, to seek alternative explanations for accepted “truths”— to “philosophize”—is at the heart of rigorous disciplines such as theoretical physics, cosmology, and theoretical mathematics 52 21 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 14, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 7} [SCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'compound': {'Joao'}, 'pobj': {'heart', 'Magueijo', 'perceptions', 'philosophize”—is', 'truths', 'volume', 'Light', 'Speed', 'physics', 'disciplines'}, 'punct': {')', '—', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'cosmologist', '2003'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'explicated', 'weigh', 'embrace'}, 'prep': {'than', 'at', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'as', 'against'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'advcl': {'Faster', 'seek'}, 'ROOT': {'ability'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'dobj': {'evidence', 'doubt', 'explanations'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'experiences', 'cosmology', 'mathematics'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'rigorous', 'alternative', 'accepted', 'such', 'reasonable'}} Long High Medium
868 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation As this relates to the development of the MDL, the insights afforded by years of classroom teaching and observations of stu- dent learning combined with studies of knowledge, strategic processing, and inter - est still required certain leaps of faith that filled in the empirical spaces 46 19 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 9, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 16, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'this', 'insights'}, 'advcl': {'relates'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'spaces', 'years', 'MDL', 'development', 'learning', 'knowledge', 'faith', 'teaching'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'acl': {'combined', 'afforded'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'stu-', 'inter', 'classroom', 'dent'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'observations', 'est'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'strategic', 'empirical'}, 'advmod': {'still'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'dobj': {'leaps'}, 'relcl': {'filled'}} Long High Medium
869 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation This is the essence of scientific speculation that is core to theory building in general and the formation of the MDL in particular 23 13 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'that', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'core', 'essence'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'scientific', 'general'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'MDL', 'speculation'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'compound': {'theory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'formation'}} Long High Low
870 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Speculation and Psychology: A Tumultuous Relationship In fact, the significance of scientific speculation to all manner of theoretical pursuits is not acknowledged only in such prized fields as theoretical physics or theoretical mathematics (Shan, 2022) 35 15 {'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'Speculation', 'acknowledged'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Psychology', 'mathematics'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', ')'}, 'det': {'A', 'all', 'the'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'Tumultuous', 'prized', 'such', 'scientific'}, 'appos': {'Relationship', 'Shan'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'speculation', 'fields', 'pursuits', 'manner', 'physics', 'fact'}, 'nsubjpass': {'significance'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'npadvmod': {'2022'}} Long High Low
871 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation It was once central to our own field of educational psy - chology 13 7 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'once'}, 'acomp': {'central'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'own'}, 'pobj': {'chology', 'field'}, 'compound': {'psy'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Medium High Low
872 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation As Fodor (1975) detailed in the preface to his classic book, The Language of Thought, there was an established and well-regarded branch of psychology called speculative psychology within the academy. 30 15 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'Fodor'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'1975', 'Language'}, 'advcl': {'detailed'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'book', 'preface', 'Thought', 'psychology', 'academy'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'amod': {'speculative', 'classic', 'established'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'conj': {'regarded'}, 'attr': {'branch'}, 'acl': {'called'}, 'oprd': {'psychology'}} Long High Medium
873 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 Page 3 of 22 21 It wasn’t quite philosophy because it was concerned with empirical theory construction 23 9 {'NUM': 7, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, PRON, AUX, NUM, ADV, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'22', '1', '3'}, 'amod': {'3Educational', 'empirical'}, 'compound': {'Psychology', 'theory'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'was'}, 'punct': {'(', '36:21', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Page', '2024'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'21', 'construction'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'It'}, 'neg': {'n’t'}, 'advmod': {'quite'}, 'attr': {'philosophy'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'concerned'}} Long High Medium
874 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation But it used the methods of both philosophy and psychology because it was dedicated to the notion that scientific theories should be both concep- tually disciplined and empirically constrained 29 17 {'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 2} [CCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, PRON, ADJ, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, VERB] {'cc': {'and', 'But'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'theories'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'methods'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'notion', 'philosophy'}, 'conj': {'psychology', 'constrained'}, 'mark': {'that', 'because'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'dedicated'}, 'amod': {'scientific'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'acl': {'be'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'acomp': {'disciplined', 'concep-'}, 'advmod': {'tually', 'empirically'}} Long High High
875 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation What speculative psycholo- gists did was this: They thought about such data as were available about mental processes, and they thought about such first-order psychological the- ories as had been proposed to account for the data 36 21 {'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'What', 'the'}, 'amod': {'the-', 'first', 'mental', 'psychological', 'such', 'speculative'}, 'compound': {'psycholo-'}, 'nsubj': {'They', 'they', 'gists'}, 'aux': {'did', 'had', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'attr': {'this'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ':'}, 'ROOT': {'thought'}, 'prep': {'for', 'about'}, 'pobj': {'ories', 'processes', 'data'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'proposed', 'were'}, 'acomp': {'available'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'thought'}, 'nmod': {'order'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'xcomp': {'account'}} Long High High
876 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation They then tried to eluci- date the general conception of the mind that was implicit in the data and the theories [our emphasis] 23 13 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, X, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'They', 'that', 'emphasis'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'ROOT': {'tried'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'eluci-'}, 'dobj': {'conception', 'date'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'general'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'data'}, 'relcl': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'implicit'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'theories'}, 'dep': {'['}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'punct': {']'}} Long High Low
877 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Speculative psychology was, by and large, quite a good thing: William James and John Dewey were speculative psychologists, and so, in certain of his moods, was Clark Hull 28 13 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADP, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PROPN, PROPN] {'amod': {'Speculative', 'speculative', 'good'}, 'nsubj': {'psychology', 'Hull', 'James'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'large', 'was', 'Dewey'}, 'predet': {'quite'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'thing', 'psychologists'}, 'compound': {'Clark', 'John', 'William'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'so'}, 'pobj': {'certain', 'moods'}, 'poss': {'his'}} Long High Low
878 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation But it’s commonly said that there aren’t any speculative psychologists any more (p 13 10 {'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN] {'cc': {'But'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'’s'}, 'advmod': {'any', 'more', 'commonly'}, 'ROOT': {'said'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'neg': {'n’t'}, 'det': {'any'}, 'amod': {'speculative'}, 'attr': {'psychologists'}, 'punct': {'(', 'p'}} Medium High Medium
879 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The italicized sentences in the prior quote reinforce the conception of scientific speculation we offered previously 16 6 {'DET': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'italicized', 'prior', 'scientific'}, 'nsubj': {'sentences', 'we'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'speculation', 'quote'}, 'ROOT': {'reinforce'}, 'dobj': {'conception'}, 'relcl': {'offered'}, 'advmod': {'previously'}} Medium High Low
880 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In addition to declaring the death of specula- tive psychology, Fodor also described the confluence of forces that led to specula- tive psychology’s demise as a respected discipline and its subsequent treatment within the academy as little more than a “methodological anomaly and admin- istrative nuisance” (p 47 21 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 13, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, PROPN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'prep': {'than', 'within', 'to', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'forces', 'demise', 'discipline', 'little', 'psychology', 'addition', 'anomaly', 'academy'}, 'pcomp': {'declaring'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'confluence', 'death'}, 'amod': {'admin-', 'subsequent', 'istrative', 'respected', 'methodological', 'specula-'}, 'compound': {'tive'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'Fodor', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'relcl': {'led'}, 'poss': {'its', 'psychology'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'treatment', 'nuisance'}, 'advcl': {'more'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long High Low
881 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Perhaps the most notable of those forces leading the charge against speculative psychology wereE.L 14 7 {'ADV': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Perhaps', 'most'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'ROOT': {'notable'}, 'prep': {'of', 'against'}, 'pobj': {'psychology', 'forces'}, 'acl': {'leading'}, 'dobj': {'charge'}, 'amod': {'speculative'}, 'appos': {'wereE.L'}} Medium High Low
882 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Thorndike (1910, 1924) and his followers who sought to purge anything philosophical from the field of psychol- ogy; to replace pragmatism and progressive notions with a “new” experimental psychology; and, to cast scientific speculation as no more than mentalism 39 18 {'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 8, 'DET': 3} [ADP, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADP, ADJ] {'ROOT': {'Thorndike'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'npadvmod': {'1910'}, 'appos': {'1924'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'conj': {'cast', 'followers', 'notions'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'replace', 'sought'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'purge'}, 'dobj': {'pragmatism', 'anything', 'speculation'}, 'amod': {'experimental', 'new', 'progressive', 'philosophical', 'psychol-', 'scientific'}, 'prep': {'from', 'with', 'of', 'than', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'mentalism', 'field', 'psychology', 'ogy', 'more'}} Long High Low
883 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation There is ample evidence that Thorndike’s influence has loomed large over educational psychology for many decades and, in many ways, served to silence the speculation of educational psychologists, writ large 30 14 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PROPN, PART, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'many', 'educational', 'ample'}, 'attr': {'evidence'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'Thorndike'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'influence'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'acl': {'loomed'}, 'advmod': {'large'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'psychology', 'psychologists', 'decades'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'writ', 'served'}, 'xcomp': {'silence'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'speculation'}} Long High Medium
884 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation For one, behaviorism, which was the theoretical manifestation of Thorndike’s experimental psychology, pushed its way into every nook and cranny of human learning and performance well into the 1970s 29 16 {'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'1970s', 'learning', 'psychology', 'one', 'nook'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'behaviorism'}, 'relcl': {'was'}, 'det': {'every', 'the'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'experimental', 'human'}, 'attr': {'manifestation'}, 'poss': {'its', 'Thorndike'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'ROOT': {'pushed'}, 'dobj': {'way'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'cranny'}, 'advmod': {'well'}} Long High Low
885 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation There was a privileging of “true” experimentation, where elements of everyday situations like those commonly found in classrooms or con- texts were purged in favor of more sterile and controllable laboratory conditions 32 14 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'privileging'}, 'prep': {'like', 'of', 'in'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'amod': {'everyday', 'true', 'sterile'}, 'pobj': {'favor', 'situations', 'experimentation', 'those', 'conditions', 'classrooms'}, 'advmod': {'more', 'where', 'commonly'}, 'nsubjpass': {'elements'}, 'acl': {'found'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'controllable', 'con-', 'texts'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'purged'}, 'compound': {'laboratory'}} Long High Medium
886 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation There was the heralding of measurable data as the source of “truth” over the rich chronicling of human experiences (Murphy et al., 2023) 23 10 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'heralding'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'over'}, 'amod': {'rich', 'measurable', 'human'}, 'pobj': {'chronicling', 'truth', 'data', 'experiences', 'source'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'Murphy'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023', 'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Low
887 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Even with the onset of the cognitive revolution in the 1970s that dampened the community’s enthusi- asm for behaviorism, the desire for measurable, quantifiable outcomes continued to hold sway 29 14 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, VERB] {'advmod': {'Even'}, 'ROOT': {'continued', 'with'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'1970s', 'behaviorism', 'onset', 'revolution'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'quantifiable', 'measurable', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'outcomes', 'desire'}, 'relcl': {'dampened'}, 'dobj': {'sway', 'community'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {'enthusi-', ','}, 'dep': {'asm'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'hold'}} Long High Low
888 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Concurrently, philosophy treatises in journals and course offerings within colleges of education or psychology departments began to dwindle (Mur - phy et al., 2024) 24 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Concurrently'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'course', 'psychology', 'Mur', 'philosophy'}, 'nsubj': {'treatises'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'colleges', 'education', 'journals'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'offerings', 'departments'}, 'ROOT': {'began'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'dwindle'}, 'dep': {'phy'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'dobj': {'al', '.'}, 'appos': {'2024'}} Long High Low
889 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In fact, many of those forces that contributed to speculative psy - chology’s fall in the early twentieth century still stand as impediments to theory divining today 27 12 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'century', 'forces', 'chology', 'theory', 'impediments', 'fall', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'many', 'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'relcl': {'contributed'}, 'amod': {'twentieth', 'speculative', 'early'}, 'compound': {'psy'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'advmod': {'still'}, 'ROOT': {'stand'}, 'advcl': {'divining'}, 'npadvmod': {'today'}} Long High Low
890 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We wanted to call attention to Fodor’s claim that there are no speculative psy - chologists anymore, because, in many ways, that is precisely how we would self- identify as educational psychologists 32 18 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 2} [PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'We', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'wanted'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'call', 'identify'}, 'dobj': {'attention'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'in'}, 'poss': {'Fodor'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'pobj': {'claim', 'ways', 'psychologists'}, 'mark': {'that', 'because'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'det': {'no'}, 'amod': {'many', 'educational', 'speculative'}, 'compound': {'psy'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'attr': {'chologists'}, 'advmod': {'precisely', 'anymore', 'how'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'self-'}} Long High High
891 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In fact, in defiance of such prevailing sym- pathies, Alexander (2006) proclaimed: 12 4 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'defiance', 'pathies', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', ')'}, 'amod': {'prevailing', 'such'}, 'compound': {'sym-'}, 'nsubj': {'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'2006'}, 'ROOT': {'proclaimed'}} Medium High Low
892 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 1 3 21 Page 4 of 22 I am a contemporary version of a speculative psychologist 21 6 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', '3'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'am'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'36:21', 'Page', '2024'}, 'nummod': {'21', '4', '1'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'22', 'psychologist'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'speculative', 'contemporary'}, 'attr': {'version'}} Long High Low
893 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation I relish reasoned conjecture, the positing of ideas that are open to verification or refutation 15 7 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'relish'}, 'amod': {'reasoned'}, 'dobj': {'conjecture'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'positing'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'ideas', 'verification'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'open'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'refutation'}} Medium High Low
894 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation I have a passion for playing with messy problems situated within dynamic edu- cational contexts 15 6 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'passion'}, 'prep': {'for', 'within', 'with'}, 'pcomp': {'playing'}, 'amod': {'cational', 'messy', 'edu-', 'dynamic'}, 'pobj': {'problems'}, 'acl': {'situated'}, 'punct': {'contexts'}} Medium High Low
895 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation I do not want to study animals because they are easier to control or work within the confines of a sterile laboratory so the noises of eve- ryday learning can be muffled or silenced 34 19 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'nsubj': {'I', 'they'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'xcomp': {'control', 'study'}, 'dobj': {'animals'}, 'mark': {'so', 'because'}, 'advcl': {'are', 'muffled'}, 'acomp': {'easier'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'silenced', 'work'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'confines', 'eve-', 'laboratory'}, 'amod': {'sterile'}, 'nsubjpass': {'noises'}, 'compound': {'ryday'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High High
896 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation I want to experience learning in all its messiness and yet to discern whatever forces operate there and what- ever credible, predictable, and replicable patterns can be identified through the carefully choreographed dance of deductive and inductive reasoning 38 19 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2} [PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'forces'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'experience'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'patterns'}, 'prep': {'through', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'all', 'the', 'whatever'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'pobj': {'messiness', 'reasoning', 'dance'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'yet', 'carefully', 'there', 'ever'}, 'conj': {'replicable', 'identified', 'discern', 'predictable', 'inductive', 'what-'}, 'ccomp': {'operate'}, 'amod': {'choreographed', 'credible', 'deductive'}, 'punct': {','}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Low
897 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation 258) Whether it is the MDL or the other theoretical frameworks, models, or principles we have contributed to the literature, all were born from a marriage of philosophy and psychology and a wedding of scientific speculation and empirical validation (e.g., Alexander, 1997, 2003, 2017; Alexander et al., 1996; Murphy, 2003, 2007; Murphy et al., 2011) 55 22 {'NUM': 8, 'PUNCT': 17, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 11, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'258', 'born', 'al'}, 'punct': {'.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'mark': {'Whether'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'MDL'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'amod': {'other', 'theoretical', 'scientific', 'empirical'}, 'conj': {'wedding', 'Murphy', 'models', 'frameworks', 'validation', 'psychology', 'principles'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ccomp': {'contributed'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'speculation', 'marriage', 'literature', 'philosophy'}, 'nsubjpass': {'all'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2017', '1997', 'et', '1996', '2007', '2003', '2011'}, 'compound': {'Alexander', 'et'}, 'nmod': {'Murphy'}} Long High Medium
898 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The Model of Domain Learning in Brief Alexander (2006) used Joao Magueijo’s (2003) struggles to gain support for his controversial Varying Speed of Light theory—a disputation against Einstein’s well- established theory—as a metaphor for her efforts to formulate, refine, and validate the MDL (1997, 2003, 2017) 46 19 {'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 11, 'ADP': 7, 'PUNCT': 12, 'NUM': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'Model'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'against'}, 'compound': {'Brief', 'Domain', 'Joao'}, 'pobj': {'theory', 'efforts', 'Light', 'metaphor', 'Speed', 'Learning', 'Alexander'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '—'}, 'appos': {'2017', 'theory', '1997', '2006', '2003', 'disputation'}, 'parataxis': {'used'}, 'dobj': {'Magueijo', 'MDL', 'support'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'npadvmod': {'2003'}, 'ROOT': {'struggles'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'gain'}, 'poss': {'Einstein', 'his', 'her'}, 'amod': {'Varying', 'controversial', 'established'}, 'advmod': {'well-'}, 'acl': {'formulate'}, 'conj': {'validate', 'refine'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
899 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The apt subtitle for Magueijo’s book documenting his struggles was The Story of Scientific Speculation 15 7 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, AUX, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN] {'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'apt'}, 'nsubj': {'subtitle'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'poss': {'Magueijo', 'his'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'pobj': {'Speculation', 'book'}, 'acl': {'documenting'}, 'dobj': {'struggles'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'Story'}, 'compound': {'Scientific'}} Medium High Low
900 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation However, the role of scientific speculation in theory building is, by no means, a contemporary realization 16 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'role'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'scientific', 'contemporary'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'means', 'speculation'}, 'compound': {'theory'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'realization'}} Medium High Low
901 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Rather, we want to emphasize the deep philosophical roots of scientific speculation with the opening quote attributed to Immanuel Kant, likely a loose translation of a passage from the Critique of Pure Reason (1781) 34 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'likely', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'emphasize'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'opening', 'scientific', 'deep', 'philosophical', 'loose'}, 'dobj': {'roots'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'Kant', 'passage', 'speculation', 'quote', 'Reason', 'Critique'}, 'acl': {'attributed'}, 'compound': {'Pure', 'Immanuel'}, 'appos': {'translation', '1781'}} Long High Low
902 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In this tome, Kant explored the role and limits of reason as it relates to theory, self, and practical matters 20 9 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'theory', 'tome', 'reason'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'Kant', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'explored'}, 'dobj': {'role'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'self', 'matters', 'limits'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'relates'}, 'amod': {'practical'}} Long High Medium
903 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Of note, in Kant’s first and third critiques pertaining to theoretical and practical reason, respectively, he sheds light on the explanatory role of reason in empirical judgments (Williams, 2023) 29 13 {'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, PART, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'respectively', 'Of'}, 'advcl': {'note'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'Kant'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'first', 'explanatory', 'theoretical', 'empirical'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practical', 'third'}, 'pobj': {'critiques', 'role', 'judgments', 'reason'}, 'acl': {'pertaining'}, 'nsubj': {'he'}, 'ROOT': {'sheds'}, 'dobj': {'light'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'Williams'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023'}} Long High Low
904 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In essence, theoretical divining at any level requires empirical judgments by the reasoner to fill in the spaces that invariably exist between sensory experience and conceptual understanding 27 11 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'by', 'at', 'In', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'experience', 'level', 'essence', 'reasoner'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'sensory', 'conceptual', 'empirical'}, 'nsubj': {'divining', 'that'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'dobj': {'spaces', 'judgments'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'fill'}, 'prt': {'in'}, 'advmod': {'invariably'}, 'relcl': {'exist'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'understanding'}} Long High Low
905 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Further, those levels encompass “grand” theories, to borrow Dickmeyer’s (1989) term for the highly influential theories, as well as theo- retical frameworks, models, and principles (Achinstein, 1963) 27 10 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 12, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'highly', 'as', 'well', 'Further'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'levels'}, 'ROOT': {'encompass'}, 'amod': {'grand', 'theo-', 'influential', 'retical'}, 'dobj': {'frameworks', 'term', 'theories'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'borrow'}, 'poss': {'Dickmeyer'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nummod': {'1989'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'theories'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'models', 'principles'}, 'appos': {'Achinstein'}, 'npadvmod': {'1963'}} Long High Low
906 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Moreover, when we refer to theories or theoretical development in this trea- tise, we unapologetically espouse a rather liberal orientation 20 10 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'rather', 'unapologetically', 'Moreover', 'when'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'advcl': {'refer'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'tise', 'theories'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'liberal'}, 'conj': {'development'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'compound': {'trea-'}, 'ROOT': {'espouse'}, 'dobj': {'orientation'}} Long High Medium
907 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation That orientation, as Kant’s quote emphasizes, is dynamic and bidirectional in nature 12 6 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, PART, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'That'}, 'nsubj': {'orientation', 'quote'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'poss': {'Kant'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'advcl': {'emphasizes'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'dynamic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'bidirectional'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'nature'}} Medium High Medium
908 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation It fluxes between experience and theory and between empirical data and reason, as those engaged in theoretical divining seek to describe or explain phenomena that exist 26 12 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'nsubj': {'that', 'It', 'those'}, 'ROOT': {'fluxes'}, 'prep': {'in', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'data', 'experience', 'divining'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'explain', 'between', 'reason', 'theory'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'empirical'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'acl': {'engaged'}, 'advcl': {'seek'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'describe'}, 'dobj': {'phenomena'}, 'relcl': {'exist'}} Long High Medium
909 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation To be sure, we endorse the idea that a myopic focus on facts hobbles the process of specula- tion and that as a field such a focus has likely stunted our theoretical growth 33 17 {'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PART, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'aux': {'To', 'has'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'sure'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'focus'}, 'ROOT': {'endorse'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'growth', 'idea', 'process'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'myopic', 'specula-'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'facts', 'field', 'tion'}, 'acl': {'hobbles'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'advmod': {'likely'}, 'conj': {'stunted'}, 'poss': {'our'}} Long High High
910 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation 3014) noted, theories can “productively organize empirical litera- ture, differentiating promising from not-so-promising” paths 14 4 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PART': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, ADP, PART, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'organize', '3014'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '”', ',', '“'}, 'parataxis': {'noted'}, 'nsubj': {'theories'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'advmod': {'so', 'productively'}, 'amod': {'promising', 'empirical'}, 'compound': {'litera-'}, 'dobj': {'ture'}, 'advcl': {'differentiating'}, 'xcomp': {'promising'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'pobj': {'paths'}} Medium High Low
911 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We acknowledge that approach to theorizing, while advocating a robustness in speculation that has no 15 9 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON] {'nsubj': {'that', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledge'}, 'det': {'a', 'that'}, 'dobj': {'robustness', 'approach', 'no'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'theorizing', 'speculation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'advocating'}, 'relcl': {'has'}} Medium High High
912 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 Page 5 of 22 21 strong need for premeditated or immediate validation 18 3 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'5', '21', '1'}, 'amod': {'3Educational', 'premeditated', 'strong'}, 'compound': {'22', 'Psychology'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'Page'}, 'punct': {'(', '36:21', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'validation', 'need'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'immediate'}} Medium High Low
913 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation As it pertains to human learn- ing and development, speculation is a wellspring for theorizing about, around, and with phenomena as they exist in situ 25 14 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'as', 'As'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'it', 'speculation'}, 'advcl': {'exist', 'pertains'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'about'}, 'amod': {'human'}, 'compound': {'learn-'}, 'pobj': {'ing', 'situ', 'phenomena'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'development'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'wellspring'}, 'pcomp': {'theorizing'}, 'advmod': {'around'}} Long High High
914 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Long before the MDL was captured in crafted text and empirical data, it began to grow in the dynamic interplay of teacher and student in formal school settings 28 12 {'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Long'}, 'mark': {'before'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'MDL'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'captured'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'dynamic', 'formal', 'crafted', 'empirical'}, 'pobj': {'interplay', 'teacher', 'settings', 'text'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'data', 'student'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'began'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'grow'}, 'compound': {'school'}} Long High Medium
915 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation When Alexander entered the doctoral program at the University of Maryland to study reading under the mentorship of Ruth Garner, she had spent nearly a decade teaching middle school students 30 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'nearly'}, 'nsubj': {'she', 'Alexander'}, 'advcl': {'study', 'entered'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'middle', 'doctoral'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'program', 'decade', 'reading'}, 'prep': {'under', 'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'University', 'Maryland', 'Garner', 'mentorship'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'compound': {'Ruth', 'school'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'spent'}, 'nummod': {'a'}, 'xcomp': {'teaching'}} Long High Medium
916 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation There is no way to be an effective teacher of this or any age unless educators pay careful attention to the patterns and the rhythm of stu- dents’ actions and responses, and unless teachers reflect on what particular lessons or tasks worked for some students on certain days but not all students or all days 55 30 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 8, 'NOUN': 17, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'an', 'what', 'some', 'no', 'any', 'all', 'the'}, 'attr': {'teacher', 'way'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'be'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'particular', 'careful', 'effective'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'actions', 'this', 'students', 'days', 'patterns'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'conj': {'days', 'age', 'reflect', 'rhythm', 'tasks', 'responses'}, 'mark': {'unless'}, 'nsubj': {'lessons', 'teachers', 'educators'}, 'advcl': {'pay'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'attention'}, 'nmod': {'stu-', 'dents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'punct': {','}, 'pcomp': {'worked'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High High
917 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation It was the need to understand the patterns that Alexander witnessed in her students, combined with an ardent desire for them all to grow and thrive academically, that ultimately drove her to pursue a doctorate in reading 37 20 {'PRON': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'nsubj': {'Alexander', 'them', 'It', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'attr': {'need'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'understand', 'combined'}, 'dobj': {'doctorate', 'patterns', 'that', 'her'}, 'relcl': {'witnessed'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'poss': {'her'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'desire'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'ardent'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'appos': {'all'}, 'advcl': {'grow'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'thrive'}, 'advmod': {'academically', 'ultimately'}, 'ccomp': {'drove'}, 'xcomp': {'pursue'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
918 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Further, it was those years of systematic observation of learning as it unfolded in real classrooms with real stu - dents that were the taproot of Alexander’s investment in academic development and the catalyst for the body of empirical studies that inspired the MDL 44 23 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'attr': {'years', 'taproot'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'academic', 'real', 'empirical'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'dents', 'observation', 'body', 'investment', 'development', 'learning', 'classrooms'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'unfolded'}, 'compound': {'stu'}, 'relcl': {'inspired', 'were'}, 'poss': {'Alexander'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'catalyst'}, 'dobj': {'MDL'}} Long High Medium
919 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Of course, the understanding of learning acquired as a practicing teacher was a necessary but certainly not sufficient condition for building the MDL 23 11 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, PROPN] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of', 'certainly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'understanding'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'teacher'}, 'ROOT': {'acquired'}, 'amod': {'necessary', 'sufficient', 'practicing'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'condition'}, 'pcomp': {'building'}, 'dobj': {'MDL'}} Long High Low
920 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The seeds planted via observation and reflection needed to be nurtured by other means 14 7 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'seeds'}, 'acl': {'planted'}, 'prep': {'via'}, 'pobj': {'means', 'observation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reflection'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'nurtured'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'other'}} Medium High Low
921 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation All emergent descriptions or explanations resulting from initial or repeated speculations had to be set against the knowledge that existed within the scholarly literature and had to withstand empirical validation if they were to be judged as viable 38 21 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ] {'det': {'All', 'the'}, 'amod': {'viable', 'initial', 'empirical', 'emergent', 'scholarly'}, 'nsubj': {'descriptions', 'that', 'they'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'repeated', 'had', 'explanations'}, 'acl': {'resulting'}, 'prep': {'as', 'against', 'within', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'literature', 'speculations'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'judged', 'set', 'withstand'}, 'relcl': {'existed'}, 'dobj': {'validation'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'advcl': {'were'}} Long High Medium
922 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Scientific speculation remains a core feature of the ongoing process of theorizing 12 4 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'amod': {'Scientific', 'ongoing'}, 'nsubj': {'speculation'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'core'}, 'attr': {'feature'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'theorizing', 'process'}} Medium High Low
923 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Through scientific speculation, the underlying threads within the literature, the contrasts and similarities within existing theories, and the intricate patterns among elements in nature were analyzed, assembled, and represented 29 13 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'in', 'within', 'among', 'Through'}, 'amod': {'underlying', 'intricate', 'existing', 'scientific'}, 'pobj': {'speculation', 'literature', 'elements', 'theories', 'nature'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'threads'}, 'conj': {'contrasts', 'similarities', 'represented', 'patterns', 'assembled'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'analyzed'}} Long High Low
924 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Although some of the theories highlighted in this topical collection may have developed in a holistic manner, such was not the case for the MDL 25 16 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, AUX, PART, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'nsubj': {'such', 'some'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'manner', 'collection', 'MDL', 'theories'}, 'acl': {'highlighted'}, 'amod': {'topical', 'holistic'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'advcl': {'developed'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'case'}} Long High Medium
925 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Rather, the MDL is a prime example of a theoretical assemblage resulting in the initial theory and its initial form 20 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', 'form'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'MDL'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'prime', 'initial'}, 'attr': {'example'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'assemblage', 'theory'}, 'acl': {'resulting'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High Low
926 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The initial stage of the model took the shape of a hypothesized relation between individuals’ strategic processing and their domain knowledge base 22 9 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'initial', 'hypothesized'}, 'nsubj': {'stage'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'model', 'relation'}, 'ROOT': {'took'}, 'dobj': {'shape'}, 'poss': {'individuals', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'domain', 'knowledge'}, 'conj': {'base'}} Long High Low
927 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The first step was a systematic review of the literature examining “The Interaction of Domain-Specific and Strategic Knowledge in Academic Performance” (Alexander & Judy, 1988) 25 10 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'first', 'Specific', 'Academic', 'systematic'}, 'nsubj': {'literature', 'step'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'review'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'examining'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'dobj': {'Interaction'}, 'npadvmod': {'Domain', '1988'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Judy', 'Alexander', 'Strategic'}, 'pobj': {'Knowledge', 'Performance'}} Long High Low
928 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation This was then followed by a series of studies carried out with mid- dle-school, high-school, and college students in the domains of human biology and immunology (Alexander et al., 1989) and social studies (Pate et al., 1989), funded by a Spencer Postdoctoral Fellowship 43 16 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 11, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 11, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'nsubjpass': {'This'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'ROOT': {'followed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'series', 'biology', 'school', 'Fellowship', 'domains'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'acl': {'funded', 'carried'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'amod': {'human', 'social', 'high', 'mid-', 'dle'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'students', 'immunology', 'school', 'studies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'college', 'et', 'Postdoctoral', 'Alexander', 'Spencer'}, 'appos': {'Pate', '1989', 'al', '.'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Low
929 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation That review of the literature and the empirical studies served to counter the pre- vailing wisdom that higher-performing students should engage in more strategic processing than students who were not as high performing, regardless of what they knew about the subject 41 21 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 3} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'That', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'review'}, 'prep': {'about', 'than', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'subject', 'literature', 'students'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'performing', 'empirical', 'strategic', 'high', 'vailing'}, 'conj': {'studies'}, 'acl': {'served'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'counter'}, 'advmod': {'more', 'higher', 'regardless', 'pre-', 'as'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'wisdom'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'engage', 'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'performing'}, 'pcomp': {'knew'}} Long High Medium
930 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In fact, the key finding of this stage was that the breadth and depth of individuals’ subject matter knowledge are factors in whether strategies are implemented more or less often and what forms of strategic processes are more frequently evidenced 40 22 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'processes', 'stage', 'fact'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'key'}, 'nsubj': {'finding', 'breadth'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that', 'whether'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'less', 'depth'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'subject', 'matter'}, 'ccomp': {'are', 'evidenced'}, 'attr': {'factors'}, 'nsubjpass': {'forms', 'strategies'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'pcomp': {'implemented'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'frequently', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'what'}} Long High High
931 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 1 3 21 Page 6 of 22 little individual interest in the content will frequently call upon surface-level strate- gies to make sense of the problem at hand 33 11 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'Psychology', '3', 'surface', 'strate-', 'Educational', 'level'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'call'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'meta': {'36:21'}, 'quantmod': {'1'}, 'nummod': {'21', '6', '22'}, 'nsubj': {'Page'}, 'prep': {'upon', 'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'little'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'interest', 'hand', 'problem'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'advmod': {'frequently'}, 'dobj': {'gies', 'sense'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}} Long High Medium
932 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Conversely, individuals with a relevant body of subject-matter knowledge who are personally invested in the domain or task will employ more deep-processing strategies that let them reframe, transform, or think creatively about the problem 34 15 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'creatively', 'Conversely', 'personally'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'that', 'them'}, 'prep': {'about', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'relevant', 'more'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'knowledge', 'body', 'problem'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'subject', 'matter'}, 'nsubjpass': {'who'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'invested', 'let'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'task', 'transform', 'think'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'employ'}, 'dobj': {'strategies'}, 'ccomp': {'reframe'}} Long High Low
933 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation What came next in the building of the MDL was the realization that subject-mat- ter knowledge and strategic processing were insufficient to explain the patterns in student learning and performance that we observed 33 17 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB] {'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'What', 'that', 'we'}, 'csubj': {'came'}, 'advmod': {'next'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'MDL', 'learning'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'realization'}, 'nmod': {'subject'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'prt': {'mat-'}, 'amod': {'ter', 'strategic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'performance'}, 'acl': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'insufficient'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'explain'}, 'dobj': {'patterns', 'that'}, 'compound': {'student'}, 'ccomp': {'observed'}} Long High Medium
934 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Students’ interest in the task or the domain began to emerge as a significant force in their learning; not just in that moment (situational interest) but over time and over an array of domain-specific pursuits (individual interest) 37 19 {'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'poss': {'Students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubj': {'interest'}, 'prep': {'over', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'force', 'pursuits', 'array', 'task', 'learning', 'time', 'moment'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'over'}, 'ROOT': {'began'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'emerge'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'significant', 'situational', 'specific'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ';', ')'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'just'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain', 'interest'}, 'appos': {'interest'}} Long High Low
935 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Further, in a series of empirical studies, we identified significant associations between students’ knowledge, their strategic processing, and their level of situational and individual interest (Alexander et al., 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998) 32 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'prep': {'between', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'series', 'interest', 'knowledge'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'significant', 'situational', 'empirical'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'dobj': {'associations'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'conj': {'processing', '.', 'level', 'individual'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'Alexander', 'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '1998', '1997', '1994', '1996'}} Long High Low
936 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation With this interrelation among domain knowledge, strategic processing, and interest articulated, the general structure of the MDL was in place, although further scientific speculation was required in subsequent years as various refinements were made in the model 37 19 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'of', 'With', 'among', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'years', 'MDL', 'knowledge', 'place', 'model', 'interrelation'}, 'compound': {'domain'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'further', 'articulated', 'subsequent', 'strategic', 'various', 'scientific', 'general'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'interest'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'structure'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'as', 'although'}, 'nsubjpass': {'refinements', 'speculation'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'advcl': {'made', 'required'}} Long High High
937 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation One of the earliest refinements came when the hypothesized curvilinear rela- tion between knowledge and the unidimensional construct of strategic processing in Alexander (1997) was replaced by the two forms of strategies (surface and deep) that behave very differently across the stages (Alexander, 2003) 44 20 {'NUM': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2} [NUM, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'One', 'curvilinear', 'that'}, 'prep': {'in', 'across', 'of', 'between'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'hypothesized', 'rela-', 'earliest', 'strategic', 'unidimensional'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'forms', 'refinements', 'stages', 'knowledge', 'Alexander', 'strategies'}, 'ROOT': {'came'}, 'advmod': {'very', 'differently', 'when'}, 'nsubjpass': {'tion'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'deep', 'construct'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1997', 'surface', 'Alexander'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ccomp': {'replaced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'relcl': {'behave'}, 'npadvmod': {'2003'}} Long High Medium
938 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The other came in converting the stage of competence into three substages—early, middle, and late competence—each with varying patterns in the interplay of knowledge, strategies, and interest 27 14 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [DET, ADJ, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'other'}, 'ROOT': {'came'}, 'prep': {'into', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'converting'}, 'dobj': {'stage'}, 'pobj': {'substages', 'knowledge', 'competence', 'interplay', 'patterns'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'amod': {'varying', 'early'}, 'conj': {'late', 'interest', 'strategies', 'middle'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'competence', 'each'}} Long High Low
939 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Both these modifications resulted in a significantly better fit to the data gathered in the ensuing years of empirical study 20 9 {'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'Both', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'modifications'}, 'ROOT': {'resulted'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'better', 'significantly'}, 'pobj': {'years', 'fit', 'data', 'study'}, 'acl': {'gathered'}, 'amod': {'ensuing', 'empirical'}} Long High Low
940 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation However, over the years, the work of refining and elaborating the components of the MDL has been taken up by oth- ers as well (see Fives & Dinsmore, 2017 for a compilation of relevant research) 35 19 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, X, NOUN, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'over'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'refining', 'years', 'ers', 'MDL', 'compilation', 'research'}, 'nsubjpass': {'work'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Dinsmore', 'elaborating'}, 'dobj': {'components', 'Fives'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'taken'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'oth-'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'appos': {'2017'}, 'amod': {'relevant'}} Long High Low
941 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation For example, the work of Dinsmore and colleagues (Dinsmore & Alexander, 2012; Din- smore et al., 2020) has been especially significant in the refinement and elaboration of the distinctions between surface-level and deep-processing strategies 34 13 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'work', 'of', 'For', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'Dinsmore', 'example', 'distinctions', 'refinement', 'strategies'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'Dinsmore', 'colleagues', 'Alexander', 'elaboration'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012', 'et'}, 'dep': {'Din-'}, 'nsubj': {'smore', '.', 'al'}, 'appos': {'2020'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'advmod': {'especially'}, 'acomp': {'significant'}, 'nmod': {'surface', 'level'}, 'amod': {'deep'}} Long High Low
942 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Our purpose in dredging up these past events related to the demise of specula- tive psychology as well as the emergence, development, and refinement of the MDL is to lay the groundwork for three critical questions related to the present and future of theory development in educational psychology 48 24 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 10, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'Our'}, 'nsubj': {'purpose'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'dredging'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'past', 'critical', 'specula-'}, 'dobj': {'groundwork', 'events'}, 'acl': {'related'}, 'pobj': {'demise', 'questions', 'MDL', 'development', 'psychology', 'present'}, 'compound': {'theory', 'tive'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'emergence', 'future', 'refinement', 'development'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'lay'}, 'nummod': {'three'}} Long High Low
943 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Neither we nor the field has remained dormant in the 30 years since the first theoretical work was published on the MDL (Alexander, 1997), iterative investigations took hold (e.g., Alexander et al., 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998) 36 13 {'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADV': 1} [CCONJ, PRON, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'preconj': {'Neither'}, 'nsubj': {'investigations', 'we'}, 'cc': {'nor'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'took', 'field'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'remained'}, 'acomp': {'dormant'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'30'}, 'pobj': {'years', 'MDL'}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'amod': {'first', 'theoretical', 'iterative'}, 'nsubjpass': {'work'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'published'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1998', '1997', '1994', '1996', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'1997', 'al', '.'}, 'dobj': {'hold'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'compound': {'Alexander', 'et'}} Long High Medium
944 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation As educational psychologists, we have continued to devise, revise, and empirically test theoretical frameworks, models, and princi- ples (e.g., Alexander, 2017; Murphy, 2018) 23 6 {'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'As'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'educational'}, 'pobj': {'psychologists'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'continued'}, 'xcomp': {'devise'}, 'conj': {'Murphy', 'revise', 'models', 'ples', 'test'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'empirically'}, 'dobj': {'frameworks'}, 'compound': {'princi-'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017'}} Long High Low
945 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Over the past decades, we have also witnessed subtle and dramatic shifts in the theoretical landscape in which this dis- cipline is situated (Murphy et al., 2023; 2024) 28 12 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'Over', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'past', 'subtle'}, 'pobj': {'landscape', 'which', 'decades'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'witnessed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'dramatic', '.'}, 'dobj': {'shifts'}, 'compound': {'dis-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'cipline'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'situated'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'Murphy', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2023', '2024'}} Long High Low
946 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Yet, where have those personal and disciplinary changes brought the educational psychology community in terms of sci- entific speculation and theory development 22 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'X': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, X, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'where', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'educational', 'entific'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'disciplinary', 'development'}, 'nsubj': {'changes'}, 'ROOT': {'brought'}, 'compound': {'psychology', 'theory'}, 'dobj': {'community'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'speculation', 'terms'}, 'nmod': {'sci-'}} Long High Medium
947 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation That is the critical question we ponder for the remainder of this treatise 13 8 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2} [PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'That', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'critical'}, 'attr': {'question'}, 'relcl': {'ponder'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'treatise', 'remainder'}} Medium High Low
948 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation As we consider the present state of affairs, we first focus on lingering con- cerns and deeply entrenched beliefs that, in our estimation, undermine scientific 25 11 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PRON, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'consider'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'lingering', 'present', 'entrenched', 'undermine'}, 'dobj': {'state'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'cerns', 'affairs', 'estimation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'first', 'deeply'}, 'ROOT': {'focus'}, 'compound': {'con-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'beliefs'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'ccomp': {'scientific'}} Long High Medium
949 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 Page 7 of 22 21 speculation and, thus, remain obstacles to theoretical pursuits 19 4 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'21', '1', '7'}, 'amod': {'3Educational', 'theoretical'}, 'compound': {'22', 'Psychology'}, 'ROOT': {'remain', 'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', '36:21', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'nsubj': {'Page'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'speculation', 'pursuits'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'thus'}, 'attr': {'obstacles'}} Medium High Low
950 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Then, on a more optimistic note, we highlight several emerging trends that offer a glimmer of hope that scientific speculation and theory development may be experiencing a reawaken- ing 29 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'Then'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'emerging', 'several', 'scientific', 'optimistic', 'reawaken-'}, 'pobj': {'hope', 'note'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we', 'speculation'}, 'ROOT': {'highlight'}, 'dobj': {'glimmer', 'ing', 'trends'}, 'relcl': {'offer'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'theory'}, 'conj': {'development'}, 'aux': {'be', 'may'}, 'acl': {'experiencing'}} Long High Medium
951 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation As for the future of theory development, we have chosen to engage in scientific speculation 15 8 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'As', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'future', 'speculation', 'development'}, 'compound': {'theory'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'chosen'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'amod': {'scientific'}} Medium High Low
952 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation To be more precise, we will draw on the past and present in educational research to identify forces and conditions that seem essential to instigate a revaluing of scientific speculation and a renaissance in theory development 36 19 {'PART': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 3} [PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'aux': {'To', 'to', 'will'}, 'advcl': {'be', 'identify'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'acomp': {'precise'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'draw'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'past', 'research', 'speculation', 'development'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'present', 'conditions', 'renaissance'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'scientific'}, 'dobj': {'revaluing', 'forces'}, 'relcl': {'seem'}, 'oprd': {'essential'}, 'xcomp': {'instigate'}, 'compound': {'theory'}} Long High Low
953 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Contemporary Forces and Theory Development So, where is the field of educational psychology now with its relationship with sci- entific speculation and theory building 24 11 {'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'Contemporary', 'Theory', 'theory'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'Forces'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'building', 'Development'}, 'advmod': {'now', 'where', 'So'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'field'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'sci-', 'educational', 'entific'}, 'pobj': {'relationship', 'psychology', 'speculation'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High Medium
954 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Are there barriers to theoretical pursuits that have continued unabated since Fodor wrote The Language of Thought in 1975 19 9 {'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1} [AUX, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, VERB, SCONJ, PROPN, VERB, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, ADP, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Are'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'attr': {'barriers'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'theoretical'}, 'pobj': {'1975', 'Thought', 'pursuits'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'Fodor'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'continued'}, 'acomp': {'unabated'}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'advcl': {'wrote'}, 'det': {'The'}, 'dobj': {'Language'}} Medium High Medium
955 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Or, have there been transformative events that have prepared current community mem- bers to embrace the uncertainty that comes with generating theoretical frameworks, models, or principles 26 11 {'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1} [CCONJ, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'or', 'Or'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'amod': {'transformative', 'theoretical', 'current'}, 'attr': {'events'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'comes', 'prepared'}, 'compound': {'mem-', 'community'}, 'dobj': {'frameworks', 'bers', 'uncertainty'}, 'advcl': {'embrace'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pcomp': {'generating'}, 'conj': {'models', 'principles'}} Long High Low
956 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We first examine the less facilitative forces that stand in the way of the MDL’s construction and theory development in general before exploring conditions that bolster the ability to engage effectively in scientific speculation 34 17 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'We'}, 'advmod': {'first', 'effectively', 'less'}, 'ROOT': {'examine'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'facilitative', 'scientific', 'general'}, 'dobj': {'conditions', 'forces', 'ability'}, 'relcl': {'bolster', 'stand'}, 'prep': {'before', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'speculation', 'way', 'development'}, 'poss': {'MDL'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nmod': {'construction'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'theory'}, 'pcomp': {'exploring'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'engage'}} Long High Low
957 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Barriers to Theoretical Insights Perhaps there are readers of this article under the impression that the concerns her - alded by Fodor (1975) or Alexander (2006) are but relics of a distant past 33 17 {'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, ADV, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'dep': {'Barriers', 'her'}, 'prep': {'under', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'distant', 'Theoretical'}, 'pobj': {'impression', 'past', 'Fodor', 'article', 'Insights'}, 'advmod': {'Perhaps'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'readers', 'relics'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'concerns', 'Alexander'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'acl': {'alded', 'are'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'appos': {'1975', '2006'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}} Long High Medium
958 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation On the contrary, there is ample evidence that such beliefs warrant reappraisal (Eronen & Bringmann, 2021; Greene, 2022) 18 6 {'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'On'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'contrary'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'such', 'ample'}, 'attr': {'evidence'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'beliefs', 'warrant'}, 'acl': {'reappraisal'}, 'appos': {'Eronen', '2022'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Greene', 'Bringmann'}, 'npadvmod': {'2021'}} Medium High Medium
959 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In fact, there are those who claim that theory development in psychology is in crisis (Eronen & Bringmann, 2021) due in large part to a limited “shelf life,” that is, the tendency of theories to come and go 38 21 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'In', 'due'}, 'pobj': {'crisis', 'part', 'psychology', 'life', 'theories', 'fact'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'those'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'who', 'development'}, 'relcl': {'claim'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'shelf', 'theory'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'appos': {'Eronen', '2021'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'go', 'Bringmann'}, 'amod': {'limited', 'large'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'is'}, 'dep': {'tendency'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'come'}} Long High Medium
960 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Whether that be the case, the question we ponder here is “Why?” What forces, factors, or conditions hamper educational psychologists from engaging in theory building or complicate their abilities to forward viable theories 33 16 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, AUX, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Whether'}, 'nsubj': {'forces', 'that', 'we', 'question'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'det': {'What', 'the'}, 'attr': {'case'}, 'punct': {',', '?', '”', '“'}, 'relcl': {'ponder'}, 'advmod': {'here'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'hamper'}, 'acomp': {'Why'}, 'conj': {'conditions', 'complicate', 'factors'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'forward', 'viable', 'educational'}, 'dobj': {'psychologists', 'abilities'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'engaging'}, 'compound': {'theory'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'theories'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
961 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Here, we propose multiple forces, factors, or conditions that were barriers to our construction of the MDL and that can undermine any theoretical pursuits related to human learning and development 30 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'propose'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'multiple', 'human'}, 'dobj': {'forces', 'pursuits'}, 'conj': {'undermine', 'conditions', 'development', 'factors'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'attr': {'barriers'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'construction', 'MDL'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'acl': {'related'}} Long High Low
962 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Prevailing Values in Psychology Within psychology, there are invariably shifts in the theoretical and empirical land- scape that have a direct bearing on the theories that hold sway over the terrain (Alexander et al., 2009) 35 15 {'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Prevailing'}, 'dobj': {'Values', 'sway', 'bearing'}, 'prep': {'over', 'on', 'Within', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Psychology', 'psychology', 'terrain', 'theories', 'scape'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'invariably'}, 'attr': {'shifts'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'direct'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'empirical'}, 'compound': {'et', 'Alexander', 'land-'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'hold', 'have'}, 'appos': {'al', '2009'}, 'npadvmod': {'.'}} Long High Low
963 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Pragmatism lost ground to behaviorism, which then fell out of favor when cognitive orientations appeared on the horizon, and onward to more sociocultural and cultural-contextual perspectives of learning and develop- ment (López, 2022; Vargas & Saetermoe, 2023) 37 14 {'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'which', 'Pragmatism', 'orientations'}, 'ROOT': {'lost'}, 'dobj': {'ground'}, 'prep': {'on', 'out', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'favor', 'perspectives', 'ment', 'horizon', 'behaviorism'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'when'}, 'relcl': {'fell'}, 'amod': {'sociocultural', 'learning', 'more', 'cognitive'}, 'advcl': {'appeared'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'onward', 'cultural', 'contextual', 'Vargas', 'develop-', 'Saetermoe'}, 'appos': {'López', '2023'}, 'npadvmod': {'2022'}} Long High Medium
964 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 1 3 21 Page 8 of 22 and development off center stage mean that those frameworks, models, or principles simply vanish, along with any insights or perspectives they afforded 34 11 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', 'center', '3'}, 'ROOT': {'mean', 'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'nummod': {'21', '8', '36:21'}, 'quantmod': {'1'}, 'nsubj': {'frameworks', 'Page', 'they'}, 'prep': {'with', 'along', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'22', 'insights'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'models', 'perspectives', 'principles', 'development'}, 'prt': {'off'}, 'appos': {'stage'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'any', 'those'}, 'advmod': {'simply'}, 'ccomp': {'vanish'}, 'relcl': {'afforded'}} Long High Medium
965 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation If the realm of human learning and development existed as a true dichotomy where only one prevailing theory could be deemed correct, then perhaps that would be the case 29 17 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADV, NUM, VERB, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, PRON, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'realm'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'prevailing', 'true', 'human'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'dichotomy'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'development'}, 'advcl': {'existed'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'then', 'perhaps', 'where'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'nsubjpass': {'theory'}, 'aux': {'would', 'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'deemed'}, 'oprd': {'correct'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'case'}} Long High High
966 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In reality, however, many theories over the ages afford meaningful glimpses at one sector of human learning and development or another 21 11 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON] {'prep': {'at', 'In', 'of', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'sector', 'reality', 'ages', 'learning'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'however'}, 'amod': {'many', 'meaningful'}, 'nsubj': {'theories'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'afford'}, 'dobj': {'glimpses'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'compound': {'human'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'another', 'development'}} Long High Low
967 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Moreover, none have captured the full and complex panoramic vista of the learning phenom- enon—perhaps no theory can 18 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'X': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, X, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, DET, NOUN, AUX] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'perhaps'}, 'punct': {',', '—', 'can'}, 'nsubj': {'none'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'captured'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'amod': {'learning', 'full', 'panoramic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'complex'}, 'dobj': {'vista'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'case': {'phenom-'}, 'pobj': {'enon'}, 'appos': {'theory'}} Medium High Low
968 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation This theoretical conundrum was the premise behind the theoretical treatise, What Is Learning Anyway 14 8 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'theoretical'}, 'nsubj': {'conundrum', 'What'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'premise'}, 'prep': {'behind'}, 'pobj': {'treatise'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'Is'}, 'dep': {'Learning'}, 'advmod': {'Anyway'}} Medium High Low
969 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The authors, who represented different theoretical positions on learning, sought to posi- tion contrasting theories within a topographical framework 19 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'who'}, 'punct': {','}, 'relcl': {'represented'}, 'amod': {'topographical', 'theoretical', 'different', 'contrasting', 'posi-'}, 'dobj': {'positions'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'framework', 'theories'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'npadvmod': {'tion'}} Medium High Low
970 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation That resulting frame- work illustrated how each contrasting theory described certain dimensions of learn- ing well, but from very different vantage points 22 8 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'That'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'different', 'resulting'}, 'compound': {'vantage', 'frame-', 'contrasting'}, 'nsubj': {'work', 'theory'}, 'ROOT': {'illustrated'}, 'advmod': {'very', 'ing', 'well', 'how'}, 'det': {'each'}, 'ccomp': {'described'}, 'dobj': {'dimensions'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'learn-', 'points'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'but'}} Long High Medium
971 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Consequently, those diverse theories are able to co-exist within the broader landscape, dispelling the myth of one all- encompassing theory able to explain all facets of learning in all its true complexity 32 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Consequently'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'all', 'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'encompassing', 'true', 'diverse', 'broader', 'able'}, 'nsubj': {'theories'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'co', '-', 'exist', 'explain'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'landscape', 'complexity', 'theory'}, 'advcl': {'dispelling'}, 'dobj': {'facets', 'myth'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'nmod': {'all-'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High Low
972 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Further, we would contend that these shifting values are important for the field, particularly when dominant paradigms are queried and laid bare for exami- nation (DeCuir-Gunby & Schutz, 2014) 29 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'when', 'particularly', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'values', 'we'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'contend'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'exami-', 'shifting', 'dominant'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'nation', 'field'}, 'nsubjpass': {'paradigms'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'queried'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Schutz', 'Gunby', 'laid'}, 'dobj': {'bare'}, 'compound': {'DeCuir'}, 'npadvmod': {'2014'}} Long High High
973 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation What remains problematic is that schol- ars, us included, are sometimes so siloed in their thinking that they fail to explore the diverse landscape of theoretical possibilities and invoke habitual thinking and practices (Murphy et al., 2023) 37 16 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'What', 'us', 'they', 'ars'}, 'csubj': {'remains'}, 'acomp': {'problematic', 'siloed'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'compound': {'schol-', 'Murphy'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'parataxis': {'included'}, 'conj': {'are', 'practices', 'thinking'}, 'advmod': {'sometimes', 'so'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'possibilities', 'thinking'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'fail'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'explore'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'diverse', 'habitual'}, 'dobj': {'landscape', '.'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'invoke'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '2023'}} Long High Medium
974 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation This issue came into play when the conception of expertise development in MDL was set in contrast to the dominant theory of the time (Ericsson, 2014; Ericsson & Smith, 1991) and had to initially fight for its own theoretical space 40 18 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'came'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'into', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'theory', 'contrast', 'MDL', 'development', 'play', 'time', 'space'}, 'advmod': {'initially', 'when'}, 'nsubjpass': {'conception'}, 'compound': {'expertise'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'set'}, 'amod': {'own', 'theoretical', 'dominant'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2014', '1991', 'Ericsson'}, 'conj': {'Smith', 'had', 'Ericsson'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'fight'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High Medium
975 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation For one, the MDL consisted of three stages rather than the nov - ice versus expert distinction 17 8 {'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'versus', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'stages', 'expert'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'MDL'}, 'ROOT': {'consisted'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'compound': {'nov'}, 'conj': {'ice'}, 'dobj': {'distinction'}} Medium High Low
976 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation For another, the MDL’s orientation was at the level of academic domains rather than diverse problem solving areas such as chess, medi- cine, and physics 25 13 {'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, PRON, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PART, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'at', 'as', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'another', 'chess', 'level', 'domains'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'MDL'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'orientation'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'amod': {'diverse', 'such', 'academic'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than'}, 'attr': {'problem'}, 'acl': {'solving'}, 'dobj': {'areas'}, 'compound': {'medi-'}, 'conj': {'physics', 'cine'}} Long High Low
977 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Finally, one of the most noticeable differences was that the MDL stepped beyond cognitive variables such as knowledge, memory, and problem-solv - ing strategies central to the dominant theory to embrace the motivational construct of interest 36 16 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Finally', 'most'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'MDL'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'beyond'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'noticeable', 'central', 'motivational', 'ing', 'such', 'dominant', 'solv', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'theory', 'differences', 'interest', 'knowledge', 'variables'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'stepped'}, 'conj': {'strategies', 'memory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'problem'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'embrace'}, 'dobj': {'construct'}} Long High Medium
978 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Insufficient Training and Mentoring Opportunities A repeated lament within the educational psychology literature, past and present, is that the new generation of academics is ill-prepared to tackle the demands that come with theory building (Dickmeyer, 1989; Eronen & Bringmann, 2021) 40 14 {'PROPN': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'psychology', 'Insufficient', 'Mentoring', 'theory'}, 'nsubj': {'Training', 'that', 'generation'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Eronen', 'present', 'Opportunities', 'Bringmann'}, 'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'amod': {'repeated', 'educational', 'past', 'new'}, 'appos': {'1989', 'lament', '2021', 'Dickmeyer'}, 'prep': {'with', 'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'academics', 'building', 'literature'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'ill'}, 'acomp': {'prepared'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'tackle'}, 'dobj': {'demands'}, 'relcl': {'come'}} Long High Medium
979 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation This is certainly a concern that we have voiced over the years (Alexander, 2006; Mur - phy et al., 2024) 20 8 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'we', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'certainly'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'concern'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'voiced'}, 'prep': {'over'}, 'pobj': {'years'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'npadvmod': {'et', 'al', 'Alexander', '2006'}, 'compound': {'Mur'}, 'dep': {'phy'}, 'conj': {'.'}, 'appos': {'2024'}} Long High Low
980 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation One of the root causes identified for this woeful state of affairs is the lack of adequate training that young scholars receive in theory development (Gray, 2017) 27 11 {'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'One', 'scholars'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'root', 'theory'}, 'pobj': {'affairs', 'state', 'development', 'training', 'causes'}, 'acl': {'identified'}, 'amod': {'woeful', 'young', 'adequate'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'lack'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'receive'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Gray'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017'}} Long High Low
981 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We do not disagree with that observation, although our interpretation of the manner of training that is required varies from what is often described 24 16 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'nsubj': {'interpretation', 'We'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'disagree'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'manner', 'training', 'observation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that', 'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'required'}, 'advcl': {'varies'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'pcomp': {'described'}} Long High Medium
982 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation To be more precise, much of the rhetoric surrounding theory development emphasized the need for rigorous preparation in measurement and statistics 21 10 {'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'acomp': {'precise'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'much'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'preparation', 'rhetoric', 'measurement'}, 'amod': {'rigorous', 'surrounding'}, 'compound': {'theory'}, 'conj': {'statistics', 'development'}, 'ROOT': {'emphasized'}, 'dobj': {'need'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
983 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Nowhere is the weight on quantification more apparent than in Suppes’s (1974) Presidential Address to the 16 10 {'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADP, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PRON] {'advmod': {'more', 'Nowhere'}, 'ROOT': {'Address', 'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'weight'}, 'prep': {'on', 'than', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'quantification', 'the', 'Suppes'}, 'amod': {'apparent'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'1974'}, 'compound': {'Presidential'}} Medium High Low
984 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 Page 9 of 22 21 American Educational Research Association, where Dewey’s approach to theorizing was treated with veiled disdain: Although in many respects John Dewey can be identified with the develop- ment of the empirical tradition, it is important to note that his work and that of his close collaborators is not notable for the sophistication of its scientific aspects; Dewey himself, it can properly be said, continually stood on shift- ing ground in advocating empirical and innovative attitudes toward teaching 87 38 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 11, 'PROPN': 10, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 12, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PART': 3, 'AUX': 7, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nummod': {'9', '21', '1'}, 'amod': {'shift-', 'close', 'empirical', 'develop-', 'many', '3Educational', 'ing', 'veiled', 'scientific'}, 'compound': {'Psychology', 'American', '22', 'John', 'Educational', 'Research'}, 'ROOT': {'said', 'Review'}, 'punct': {':', '36:21', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'npadvmod': {'Page', '2024'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'toward', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'sophistication', 'aspects', 'ground', 'ment', 'tradition', 'disdain', 'teaching', 'collaborators', 'Association', 'theorizing', 'respects'}, 'advmod': {'continually', 'where', 'properly'}, 'poss': {'its', 'his', 'Dewey'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it', 'approach', 'Dewey'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'was'}, 'relcl': {'treated'}, 'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'identified'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'work', 'it'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'important', 'notable'}, 'xcomp': {'note'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'that', 'innovative'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'appos': {'himself'}, 'dep': {'stood'}, 'pcomp': {'advocating'}, 'dobj': {'attitudes'}} Long High High
985 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In fact, one does not find in Dewey the emphasis on tough-minded empirical research that one would like, but rather a kind of hortatory expression of con- viction in the value of methods of inquiry brought directly to the classroom, and indeed more directly to the classroom than to the scientific study of what was going on in the classroom 60 35 {'ADP': 15, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'X': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, X, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'than', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'expression', 'value', 'methods', 'viction', 'classroom', 'study', 'inquiry', 'fact', 'research', 'Dewey'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'what'}, 'aux': {'would', 'does', 'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'find'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'emphasis'}, 'amod': {'hortatory', 'minded', 'empirical', 'tough', 'scientific'}, 'relcl': {'like'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'advmod': {'directly', 'indeed', 'more', 'rather'}, 'conj': {'kind'}, 'compound': {'con-'}, 'acl': {'brought'}, 'pcomp': {'going'}, 'prt': {'on'}} Long High Medium
986 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation 4) We certainly have urged our graduate students to have a rich repertoire of empiri- cal methodologies at their disposal: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods 25 10 {'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [X, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'meta': {'4'}, 'punct': {',', ':', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'We'}, 'advmod': {'certainly'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'urged'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'amod': {'rich', 'mixed', 'empiri-', 'quantitative', 'graduate'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'repertoire'}, 'xcomp': {'have'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'compound': {'cal'}, 'pobj': {'methodologies', 'disposal'}, 'conj': {'qualitative'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'methods'}} Long High Low
987 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Yet, we are also well aware that no manner of sophisticated analyses will prove ade- quate for theoretical divining 19 10 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'well', 'also', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'manner', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'no'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'sophisticated'}, 'pobj': {'analyses', 'divining'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ccomp': {'prove'}, 'compound': {'ade-'}, 'dobj': {'quate'}} Medium High Medium
988 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Data, whether scores on a measure or words in a tran- script, bear no “truth.” Further, knowledge of methods can also serve as a limiting factor both in terms of those methods that researchers understand and those that have yet to be developed 43 25 {'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADV, PART, AUX, VERB] {'ROOT': {'Data', 'serve'}, 'punct': {',', '.', '”', '“'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'scores', 'researchers', 'that', 'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'terms', 'script', 'methods', 'measure', 'factor'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'words'}, 'compound': {'tran-', 'limiting'}, 'relcl': {'understand', 'bear', 'have'}, 'dobj': {'those', 'that', 'truth'}, 'advmod': {'yet', 'both', 'also', 'Further'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'developed'}} Long High High
989 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation As a case in point related to the MDL, Alexander has long prognosticated about phases of change that are more subtle and potentially, recursive, within and across the stages of the MDL 32 18 {'ADP': 8, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'prep': {'within', 'As', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'about'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'stages', 'MDL', 'point', 'phases', 'case'}, 'acl': {'related'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'Alexander'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'advmod': {'more', 'long'}, 'ROOT': {'prognosticated'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'recursive', 'subtle'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'potentially', 'across'}} Long High Low
990 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Until very recently, no methods existed to validate the existence or impact of these phases of change 17 9 {'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'Until', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'very'}, 'pcomp': {'recently'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'methods'}, 'ROOT': {'existed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'validate'}, 'dobj': {'existence'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'impact'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'phases'}} Medium High Low
991 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation As such, we contend that whatever insights those data may convey about human learning and performance must be revealed by theory and by experiences of the very phenomenon they represent 30 18 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'such'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'data', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'contend'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'those', 'whatever'}, 'csubj': {'insights'}, 'aux': {'may', 'must'}, 'csubjpass': {'convey'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'amod': {'very', 'human'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'phenomenon', 'experiences', 'theory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'by', 'performance'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'represent', 'revealed'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
992 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In this way, our position on training coincides with Gray’s (2017) admonition that “the more we focus on methodological details, the less we notice the broader connections” (p 28 15 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'prep': {'on', 'with', 'In'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'coincides', 'details', 'way', 'admonition'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'poss': {'our', 'Gray'}, 'nsubj': {'position', 'we'}, 'compound': {'training'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nummod': {'2017'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'the', 'more'}, 'acl': {'focus'}, 'amod': {'broader', 'methodological'}, 'ROOT': {'notice'}, 'dobj': {'connections'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long High Medium
993 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation For more than 20 years, we have stood alongside others, like Krista Muis, Frank Pajares, and Paul Schutz, to proclaim the value of philosophy in enhancing students’ ability to theorize (Alexander et al., 2012; Murphy et al., 2024) 38 12 {'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 14, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADP, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'like', 'in', 'alongside', 'of', 'For'}, 'amod': {'more'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'nummod': {'20'}, 'pobj': {'years', 'Muis', 'philosophy', 'others'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'stood'}, 'compound': {'Frank', 'Krista', 'Alexander', 'Paul'}, 'conj': {'Schutz', 'Pajares'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advcl': {'proclaim'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'students', '.', 'value', 'ability'}, 'pcomp': {'enhancing'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'acl': {'theorize'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'Murphy', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2012', 'al', '.', '2024'}} Long High Low
994 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Through philosoph- ical studies, young scholars are urged to reflect, question, doubt, criticize, reason, and more—all essential tools in theory building 21 7 {'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'Through'}, 'amod': {'ical', 'young', 'philosoph-', 'essential'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'building'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'nsubjpass': {'scholars'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'urged'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'reflect'}, 'dobj': {'question'}, 'conj': {'criticize', 'doubt', 'more', 'reason'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'all'}, 'appos': {'tools'}, 'compound': {'theory'}} Long High Low
995 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation As philosophy course offerings dwindle within educational psychology programs, this call for more opportunities for young scholars becomes even more dire 21 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ] {'mark': {'As'}, 'compound': {'course', 'psychology', 'philosophy'}, 'nsubj': {'offerings', 'this', 'call'}, 'advcl': {'dwindle'}, 'prep': {'for', 'within'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'more', 'young'}, 'pobj': {'programs', 'scholars', 'opportunities'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'becomes'}, 'advmod': {'even', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'dire'}} Long High Medium
996 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Those who mentor this young genera- tion must, themselves, be comfortable with philosophizing about foundational issues relevant to learning, development, and performance 22 10 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Those', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'mentor'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'foundational', 'young', 'genera-'}, 'dobj': {'tion'}, 'dep': {'must'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'themselves'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'comfortable'}, 'prep': {'about', 'with', 'to'}, 'pcomp': {'philosophizing'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'issues'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'development'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
997 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation After all, they are the role mod- els that significantly shape the path their academic progeny will likely follow 19 9 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'all', 'likely', 'After', 'significantly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'progeny', 'that', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'role'}, 'prep': {'mod-'}, 'appos': {'els'}, 'relcl': {'shape'}, 'dobj': {'path'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'academic'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'follow'}} Medium High Low
998 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Constrained Knowledge and Bounded Perspectives As just described, the formation of the MDL required that we not only extended the boundaries of the existing theories of expertise but also interjected concepts and constructs aligned with other disciplinary orientations, including motivation, learn- ing, and development 44 20 {'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'other', 'disciplinary', 'Constrained', 'existing'}, 'nsubj': {'Knowledge', 'formation', 'we'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'compound': {'Bounded'}, 'conj': {'learn-', 'interjected', 'Perspectives', 'development', 'ing', 'constructs'}, 'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'only', 'also'}, 'advcl': {'described'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'with', 'including', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'orientations', 'expertise', 'MDL', 'motivation', 'theories'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'extended'}, 'dobj': {'concepts', 'boundaries'}, 'acl': {'aligned'}} Long High High
999 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 1 3 21 Page 10 of 22 at any level is challenging for individuals because they must be willing and able to push beyond the known and accepted 33 14 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', '3'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'challenging'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'36:21', '2024'}, 'nummod': {'21', '1', '10'}, 'nsubj': {'Page', 'they'}, 'prep': {'for', 'at', 'of', 'beyond'}, 'pobj': {'22', 'individuals', 'level'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to', 'must'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'willing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'able', 'accepted'}, 'xcomp': {'push'}, 'dobj': {'known'}} Long High Medium
1000 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Theorists must also be open to and even seek out concepts, principles, and methods rooted in other disciplines 18 10 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADJ, ADP, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Theorists'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'even'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'open'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'principles', 'seek', 'methods'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'dobj': {'concepts'}, 'punct': {','}, 'acl': {'rooted'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'pobj': {'disciplines'}} Medium High Low
1001 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation However, as pointed out, the training that many receive in graduate programs most often rein- forces the known and accepted and affords little opportunity for interdisciplinary exploration (Murphy et al., 2023) 31 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'often', 'However', 'most'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'pointed'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'many', 'training'}, 'dobj': {'opportunity', 'that', 'known'}, 'relcl': {'receive'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'compound': {'graduate'}, 'pobj': {'programs', 'exploration'}, 'dep': {'rein-'}, 'ROOT': {'forces'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'affords', '.', 'accepted'}, 'amod': {'interdisciplinary', 'little'}, 'appos': {'Murphy'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '2023', 'et'}} Long High Medium
1002 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In effect, graduate students spend much of their time learning about existing theories but little, if any time learning how to theo- rize 23 10 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, VERB] {'prep': {'if', 'about', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'time', 'effect', 'theories'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'graduate', 'existing'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'theo-'}, 'ROOT': {'spend'}, 'dobj': {'much'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'xcomp': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'time', 'little'}, 'det': {'any'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'rize'}} Long High High
1003 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation This is understandable to a certain degree, of course, in that these emerging scholars must be familiar with the known and accepted before they are equipped to push boundaries and pose theoretical alternatives 33 18 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'scholars', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'understandable', 'familiar'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'emerging', 'theoretical'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'degree', 'known'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'before', 'that', 'in'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'advcl': {'be', 'equipped'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'pose', 'accepted'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'xcomp': {'push'}, 'dobj': {'boundaries', 'alternatives'}} Long High High
1004 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation However, training that does not invite scientific speculation into the unknown or welcome interdisciplinary ways of thinking may not foster theorizing or theory building 24 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'training', 'that'}, 'aux': {'may', 'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'invite'}, 'amod': {'interdisciplinary', 'scientific'}, 'dobj': {'ways', 'speculation'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'unknown', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'theory', 'welcome'}, 'ROOT': {'foster'}, 'xcomp': {'theorizing'}, 'appos': {'building'}} Long High Low
1005 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Anecdotally, the results of this orientation can be seen in those graduate students struggling to formulate a coherent theoretical framework or laboring to find meaningful patterns within a body of lit- erature or a rich dataset 36 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Anecdotally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'results'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'orientation', 'body', 'erature'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'seen'}, 'amod': {'coherent', 'theoretical', 'rich', 'meaningful', 'graduate'}, 'acl': {'struggling'}, 'xcomp': {'formulate'}, 'dobj': {'dataset', 'framework', 'patterns'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'laboring'}, 'advcl': {'find'}, 'compound': {'lit-'}} Long High Low
1006 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Our insights into the aforementioned barrier, come, in part, from our editorial experiences 13 7 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 1} [PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'our', 'Our'}, 'nsubj': {'insights'}, 'prep': {'into', 'from', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'aforementioned', 'editorial'}, 'pobj': {'experiences', 'barrier', 'part'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'come'}} Medium High Low
1007 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Together, we have served as senior editors or associate editors for seven major journals in our field and editorial board members for at least 15 other venues 27 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADV, NUM, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'at', 'least', 'Together'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'served'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'in'}, 'amod': {'other', 'major', 'senior', 'associate'}, 'pobj': {'venues', 'editors', 'members', 'journals'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'editors'}, 'nummod': {'seven', '15'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nmod': {'field'}, 'compound': {'board', 'editorial'}} Long High Low
1008 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation What these roles have shown us, time and again, is that those engaged in empirical research often demonstrate a rather superficial knowledge of their subject—one that rarely examines the topic historically or in an interdisciplinary way 36 21 {'PRON': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3} [PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'dative': {'What'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'those', 'that', 'roles'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'csubj': {'shown'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'topic', 'us'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'npadvmod': {'time'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'again', 'in'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'engaged'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'interdisciplinary', 'superficial', 'empirical'}, 'pobj': {'subject', 'research', 'way'}, 'advmod': {'rarely', 'often', 'rather', 'historically'}, 'ccomp': {'demonstrate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'one'}, 'relcl': {'examines'}} Long High Medium
1009 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The vastness of the educational literature notwithstanding, it becomes a serious impediment to theory building—even at the level of frameworks or models—if individuals do not have a wealth of knowledge that they can bring to bear 36 23 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'vastness', 'they', 'it'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'serious', 'educational'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'frameworks', 'literature', 'knowledge', 'level'}, 'advcl': {'notwithstanding'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'ccomp': {'becomes'}, 'attr': {'impediment'}, 'compound': {'theory'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'models'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'wealth', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'bring'}, 'xcomp': {'bear'}} Long High Medium
1010 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The historical context also becomes a significant factor in analyzing and criti- quing empirical writings because the prevailing conditions of the time can matter greatly to what ideas are valued and who is free to give voice to established notions about human learning, development, and performance 46 22 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'prevailing', 'significant', 'empirical', 'established', 'historical'}, 'nsubj': {'conditions', 'context', 'who'}, 'advmod': {'greatly', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'becomes'}, 'attr': {'factor'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'valued', 'analyzing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'quing', 'development', 'criti-', 'performance', 'is'}, 'dobj': {'writings', 'voice', 'what'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'time', 'notions'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'matter'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ideas'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'free'}, 'xcomp': {'give'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'compound': {'human'}, 'punct': {','}} Long High Medium
1011 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Although as White women of a certain age and living in the United States, we are privileged in a way that per - mits us to speak against established theoretical ideas, that was not always the case 37 21 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'prep': {'as', 'against', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'theoretical', 'White', 'established'}, 'pobj': {'women', 'States', 'way', 'age', 'ideas'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'living'}, 'compound': {'United'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'per', 'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'privileged'}, 'relcl': {'mits', 'was'}, 'dobj': {'us'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'speak'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'always'}, 'attr': {'case'}} Long High High
1012 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Even in the 1970s and into the 2000s we had to confront the biases and small-mind- edness of others who felt that we had little right to engage in theoretical pursuits 31 19 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Even'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'1970s', '2000s', 'pursuits', 'others'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'confront'}, 'dobj': {'right', 'edness', 'biases'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'little', 'small'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'conj': {'mind-'}, 'relcl': {'felt'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'had'}, 'acl': {'engage'}} Long High Medium
1013 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We greatly appreciate how much more other members of our educational psychol- ogy community have struggled and continue to struggle to have their ideas heard or to have their methodological approaches valued and respected (DeCuir-Gunby & Schutz, 2014; Fong et al., 2019; Matthews & López, 2020; Schutz, 2020) 48 18 {'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PART': 3, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 4} [PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'ideas', 'members', 'We'}, 'advmod': {'greatly', 'much', 'how'}, 'ROOT': {'appreciate'}, 'amod': {'other', 'educational', 'methodological', 'more'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'compound': {'ogy', 'DeCuir', 'psychol-'}, 'pobj': {'community'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'struggled', 'heard'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'continue', 'López', 'Schutz', 'Gunby', 'respected', 'Matthews', 'have'}, 'xcomp': {'struggle', 'have'}, 'dobj': {'approaches'}, 'acl': {'valued'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', 'et', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'2014', '2019', 'al', '.', '2020'}, 'npadvmod': {'Fong'}} Long High Medium
1014 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Yet, as is evident in the contributions to this special issue, those very voices are the catalysts for theoretical transformation that our discipline has sorely needed 26 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'sorely', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'contributions', 'transformation'}, 'amod': {'very', 'theoretical', 'special'}, 'nsubj': {'discipline', 'voices'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'catalysts'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ccomp': {'needed'}} Long High High
1015 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Established Culture Within the Academy The last barrier to theoretical pursuits we want to forward is one that we have not heard voiced in the extant literature 27 15 {'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, AUX, NUM, PRON, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'is', 'Established'}, 'dobj': {'Culture', 'that'}, 'prep': {'Within', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'Academy', 'literature', 'pursuits'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'last', 'extant'}, 'nsubj': {'barrier', 'we'}, 'relcl': {'heard', 'want'}, 'xcomp': {'voiced', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'forward'}, 'attr': {'one'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Low
1016 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Nonetheless, it remains a major impediment to the nurturing of theoretical pursuits in aspiring, young, and even mid-career 18 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless', 'even'}, 'punct': {',', 'career'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'major', 'theoretical'}, 'attr': {'impediment'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'nurturing', 'aspiring', 'pursuits'}, 'conj': {'mid', '-', 'young'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
1017 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 Page 11 of 22 21 scholars—the very culture of the academy 17 5 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nummod': {'22', '11', '1', '21'}, 'amod': {'very', '3Educational'}, 'compound': {'Psychology'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'Page'}, 'punct': {'(', '36:21', ')', '—'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'academy', 'scholars'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'culture'}} Medium High Low
1018 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The value system of the academy puts a premium on the productivity of young faculty: the number of journal publications, the h-index, and the grant dollars 26 12 {'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'journal', 'grant', 'value'}, 'nsubj': {'system'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'academy', 'productivity', 'faculty', 'publications'}, 'ROOT': {'puts'}, 'dobj': {'premium'}, 'amod': {'young'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ':'}, 'appos': {'number', 'h', 'index'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'dollars'}} Long High Low
1019 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation These pressures can severely limit the ability of academically young scholars to immerse themselves in schools and communities to gain requisite experiences or to develop studies that address problems identified by or in collaboration with stakeholders 36 16 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 3} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'pressures'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'academically', 'severely'}, 'ROOT': {'limit'}, 'dobj': {'studies', 'ability', 'experiences', 'problems', 'themselves'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'requisite', 'young'}, 'pobj': {'collaboration', 'schools', 'stakeholders', 'scholars'}, 'advcl': {'immerse', 'gain'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'develop', 'communities', 'in'}, 'relcl': {'address'}, 'acl': {'identified'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
1020 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Those evident or implied constraints may sti- fle individuals’ willingness to delve into literatures beyond those frequently cited or directly related to their primary construct 25 10 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 2} [DET, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'Those'}, 'amod': {'primary', 'fle', 'evident'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'implied', 'related'}, 'nsubj': {'constraints'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'sti-'}, 'poss': {'individuals', 'their'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'willingness'}, 'acl': {'delve', 'cited'}, 'prep': {'into', 'to', 'beyond'}, 'pobj': {'those', 'construct', 'literatures'}, 'advmod': {'directly', 'frequently'}} Long High Low
1021 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Further, those voiced or unvoiced pres- sures can also dampen young scholars’ inclination to criticize what are commonly accepted viewpoints or constructs 22 9 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'also', 'commonly', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'those'}, 'amod': {'young', 'voiced'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'unvoiced', 'constructs'}, 'compound': {'pres-'}, 'nsubj': {'sures'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'dampen'}, 'poss': {'scholars'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'viewpoints', 'inclination'}, 'xcomp': {'criticize'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'accepted'}} Long High Low
1022 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Rather, scholars are driven to churn publications, often through involvement with large teams of co-investigators; chase grant dollars; and compete with their colleagues for citations 25 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'often', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}, 'nsubjpass': {'scholars'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'driven'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'churn'}, 'dobj': {'publications'}, 'prep': {'through', 'for', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'-', 'investigators', 'teams', 'colleagues', 'involvement', 'co', 'citations'}, 'amod': {'large'}, 'compound': {'grant', 'chase'}, 'appos': {'dollars'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'compete'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
1023 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation This “production-driven” focus leaves, it seems, little time for the kinds of deeply cathartic syntheses necessary for theories, models, or frame- works to be birthed and refined 27 11 {'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'npadvmod': {'production'}, 'amod': {'driven', 'cathartic', 'little', 'necessary'}, 'compound': {'frame-', 'focus'}, 'ROOT': {'leaves'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'parataxis': {'seems'}, 'appos': {'time'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'kinds', 'syntheses'}, 'advmod': {'deeply'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'nsubjpass': {'theories'}, 'conj': {'models', 'refined', 'works'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'birthed'}} Long High Medium
1024 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The time and investment required to build theoreti- cal frameworks, models, or principles, combined with limited training and mentor - ing, constitute a formidable barrier to enticing many academics in psychology from diving head-first into theory development 37 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 16, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'time'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'models', 'ing', 'investment', 'principles'}, 'acl': {'required', 'combined'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'build'}, 'amod': {'formidable', 'diving', 'limited', 'many', 'theoreti-'}, 'compound': {'mentor', 'cal', 'theory'}, 'dobj': {'academics', 'frameworks', 'barrier'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'into', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'psychology', 'training', 'head', 'development'}, 'ROOT': {'constitute'}, 'pcomp': {'enticing'}, 'advmod': {'first'}} Long High Low
1025 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Unless the value system that accompanies the hiring, retention, and promotion of faculty in colleges of education or psychol- ogy programs undergoes a significant transformation, then it is unlikely that we will see a surge of theoretical pursuits within the educational psychology community anytime soon 45 21 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 16, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 2} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADV] {'mark': {'that', 'Unless'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'psychology', 'ogy', 'value'}, 'nsubj': {'system', 'that', 'we', 'it'}, 'relcl': {'accompanies'}, 'dobj': {'hiring', 'programs', 'surge', 'transformation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'retention', 'psychol-', 'promotion'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'colleges', 'pursuits', 'education', 'faculty', 'community'}, 'advcl': {'undergoes'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'theoretical', 'educational'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'anytime', 'soon'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'unlikely'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ccomp': {'see'}} Long High High
1026 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Inevitably, there were periods of time when we fought for the credibility of our theoretical ventures (Alexander & the Disciplined Reading and Learning Research Laboratory, 2020; Alexander et al., 2016; Murphy, 2007; Murphy et al., 2009), including the MDL 39 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 16, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, DET, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Inevitably', 'when'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'periods'}, 'prep': {'for', 'including', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'credibility', 'MDL', 'time', 'ventures'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'relcl': {'fought'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'theoretical'}, 'dobj': {'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'compound': {'Disciplined', 'et', 'Learning', 'Alexander', 'Research'}, 'nmod': {'Reading'}, 'conj': {'al', 'Murphy', 'Laboratory'}, 'nummod': {'2020'}, 'appos': {'al', '2009', '.', '2007', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'.', 'et'}, 'dep': {'Murphy'}} Long High Medium
1027 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Until these alternative ways of thinking about academic development, quality discussions, or relational reasoning gained traction in the edu- cational psychology community and in the research literature, we had to accept neg- ative, sometimes scathing, reviews and frequent rejections 39 15 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PROPN, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'scathing', 'Until', 'in', 'of', 'about'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'ative', 'cational', 'academic', 'frequent', 'alternative', 'edu-'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'literature', 'community', 'development', 'thinking'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'quality', 'psychology', 'research', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'discussions', 'reasoning', 'we'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'advcl': {'gained'}, 'dobj': {'reviews', 'traction'}, 'conj': {'rejections', 'in'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'accept'}, 'nmod': {'neg-'}, 'advmod': {'sometimes'}} Long High Low
1028 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Nonetheless, with persis- tence, refinement, continued experimentation, and the support and encouragement of others, traction was eventually realized, and with it, greater acceptance of our theoretical frameworks, models, or principles 30 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'eventually', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'continued', 'persis-', 'theoretical', 'greater'}, 'nmod': {'tence'}, 'conj': {'encouragement', 'models', 'support', 'refinement', 'principles'}, 'pobj': {'experimentation', 'frameworks', 'it', 'others'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'traction'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'realized'}, 'dep': {'acceptance'}, 'poss': {'our'}} Long High Low
1029 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Bolsters to Scientific Speculation We now want to consider more encouraging signs that have appeared on the horizon over the last 30 years that give us reason to hope that scientific specu- lation and theorizing will become more valued pursuits within the educational psychology community 45 23 {'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'dep': {'Bolsters'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to', 'over'}, 'amod': {'valued', 'Scientific', 'educational', 'last', 'scientific', 'encouraging'}, 'pobj': {'Speculation', 'years', 'horizon', 'community'}, 'nsubj': {'lation', 'that', 'We'}, 'advmod': {'now', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to', 'will'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'dobj': {'signs', 'reason'}, 'relcl': {'appeared', 'hope', 'give'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'30'}, 'dative': {'us'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'specu-', 'psychology'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'theorizing'}, 'ccomp': {'become'}, 'attr': {'pursuits'}} Long High Medium
1030 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation By mentioning the support and encouragement of others in the prior section, we want to make clear that the “success” of any theoretical endeavor, including the MDL, is never attributable to the efforts of one individual or group of individuals 40 23 {'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'including', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'By'}, 'pcomp': {'mentioning'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'support'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'group', 'encouragement'}, 'pobj': {'section', 'individuals', 'MDL', 'others', 'individual', 'efforts', 'endeavor'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'prior'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'success'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'clear'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'neg': {'never'}, 'acomp': {'attributable'}, 'nummod': {'one'}} Long High Medium
1031 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation There are forces within any community of practice, such as educational psychology, and within the broader social, cultural, and even phys- ical context that can help to move theoretical pursuits forward, as they have with 35 20 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADP] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'forces'}, 'prep': {'as', 'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'practice', 'psychology', 'community', 'context'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'broader', 'social', 'such', 'educational', 'ical'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'with', 'phys-', 'cultural'}, 'advmod': {'forward', 'even'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'they'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'help'}, 'xcomp': {'move'}, 'dobj': {'pursuits'}, 'mark': {'as'}} Long High Medium
1032 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 1 3 21 Page 12 of 22 the MDL 14 2 {'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, DET, PROPN] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', '3'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', '36:21'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Page', '2024'}, 'nummod': {'21', '12', '1'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'22'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'MDL'}} Medium Low Low
1033 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Further, in order to remain viable, the MDL, as with other theoreti- cal frameworks, models, or principles, must be able to respond to whatever new conditions or opportunities arise 29 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'frameworks'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'acl': {'remain'}, 'acomp': {'viable', 'able'}, 'det': {'the', 'whatever'}, 'nsubj': {'conditions', 'MDL'}, 'amod': {'other', 'new'}, 'compound': {'theoreti-', 'cal'}, 'conj': {'models', 'principles', 'opportunities'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'respond'}, 'pcomp': {'arise'}} Long High Low
1034 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Here we consider emerging conditions that can support scientific speculations and steps that are or should be pursued to promote the viability and utility of the MDL 27 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, CCONJ, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Here'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'amod': {'emerging', 'scientific'}, 'dobj': {'conditions', 'viability', 'speculations'}, 'aux': {'can', 'should', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'are', 'support'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'steps', 'utility'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'pursued'}, 'advcl': {'promote'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'MDL'}} Long High Low
1035 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Reappraisal of What Counts as Viable Evidence While the admonition of scholars like Suppes (1974,p 15 6 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Reappraisal'}, 'prep': {'like', 'as', 'of', 'While'}, 'nsubj': {'What'}, 'pcomp': {'Counts'}, 'amod': {'Viable'}, 'pobj': {'admonition', 'scholars', 'Evidence', 'Suppes'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {'(', '1974,p'}} Medium High Medium
1036 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation 4) to stay on the path of “tough-minded empirical research” still echoes loudly in the halls of academia, there are now other voices that can be heard 27 15 {'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2} [X, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'meta': {'4'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '”', ',', '“'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'stay'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'halls', 'research', 'path', 'academia'}, 'amod': {'other', 'minded', 'tough', 'empirical'}, 'advmod': {'now', 'loudly', 'still'}, 'dep': {'echoes'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'voices'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'heard'}} Long High Low
1037 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Those voices call for a reappraisal of what the community counts as evidence in support of theoretical premises and postulations (McCrudden et al., 2019) 24 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'Those', 'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'voices', 'community'}, 'ROOT': {'call'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'premises', 'evidence', 'reappraisal', 'support'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'counts'}, 'amod': {'theoretical'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'postulations'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'McCrudden', 'al', '.', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2019'}} Long High Low
1038 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The place of honor that “true” experimen- tation holds comes from the underlying belief that the data produced in tightly controlled environments, free from contaminants found in nature, are the purvey - ors of “truth.” Yet, there is a growing realization among educational researchers that the dictum, “In numeris veritas” (truth is in the numbers), has constrained the ability to recognize evidence found in other forms (Matthews & López, 2019; Murphy et al., 2023; Schutz, 2020) 76 29 {'DET': 8, 'NOUN': 20, 'ADP': 10, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 22, 'ADJ': 8, 'VERB': 10, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 3} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'tation', 'truth', 'data', 'place', 'dictum'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'among', 'of', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'contaminants', 'forms', 'honor', 'truth', 'veritas', 'numbers', 'belief', 'environments', 'researchers', 'nature'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'amod': {'underlying', 'true', 'controlled', 'growing', 'other', 'educational'}, 'compound': {'purvey', 'experimen-', 'numeris'}, 'relcl': {'holds'}, 'ROOT': {'comes', 'is', 'Murphy'}, 'acl': {'free', 'are', 'produced', 'found', 'recognize', 'is'}, 'advmod': {'tightly', 'Yet'}, 'attr': {'ors', 'realization'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'conj': {'López', 'al', 'Schutz', 'constrained', 'Matthews'}, 'dobj': {'evidence', 'ability'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}, 'appos': {'2023', '.', '2020', 'et'}} Long High High
1039 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation This reappraisal seems critical, especially for those seeking to understand human learning, development, and performance that exist in innumerable hab- itats and in seemingly infinite varieties, which is the ultimate aim of a theory like the MDL 37 16 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'reappraisal', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'seems'}, 'oprd': {'critical'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'especially', 'seemingly'}, 'prep': {'like', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'theory', 'MDL', 'those', 'varieties', 'itats'}, 'acl': {'seeking'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'understand'}, 'amod': {'innumerable', 'human', 'ultimate', 'infinite', 'hab-'}, 'dobj': {'learning'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'in', 'development'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'relcl': {'is', 'exist'}, 'attr': {'aim'}} Long High Low
1040 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Although there is merit in searching for evidence with control- lable and more easily “testable” conditions, there is power in the ability to dis- cern and describe patterns that emerge from systematic and repeatable observa- tions of phenomena “in the wild” (Greene, 2022) 43 20 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'merit', 'power'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'pcomp': {'searching'}, 'pobj': {'ability', 'cern', 'conditions', 'evidence', 'tions', 'wild', 'phenomena'}, 'npadvmod': {'control-', '2022'}, 'amod': {'lable', 'testable', 'systematic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'conj': {'describe', 'easily', 'repeatable', 'observa-'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'dis-'}, 'dobj': {'patterns'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'emerge'}, 'dep': {'Greene'}} Long High Medium
1041 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Consider the lasting impact of the descriptive theories of Vygotsky, Piaget, Bronfenbrenner, Bandura, and oth- ers that took form through observations of phenomena as they exist in situ 28 11 {'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Consider'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'descriptive', 'lasting'}, 'dobj': {'form', 'impact'}, 'prep': {'through', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'situ', 'theories', 'Vygotsky', 'observations', 'phenomena'}, 'punct': {',', 'ers'}, 'conj': {'Piaget', 'Bandura', 'oth-', 'Bronfenbrenner'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'took'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'exist'}} Long High Medium
1042 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We appreciate that observations without subsequent empirical testing are incomplete (Greene, 2022) 12 4 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'observations', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'appreciate'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'without'}, 'amod': {'incomplete', 'empirical', 'subsequent'}, 'pobj': {'testing'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'attr': {'Greene'}, 'npadvmod': {'2022'}} Medium High Medium
1043 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Yet so are experimental results that cannot thrive in naturalistic conditions or that do not conform to observable patterns 19 12 {'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2} [CCONJ, ADV, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'or', 'Yet'}, 'advmod': {'so'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'naturalistic', 'observable', 'experimental'}, 'attr': {'results'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'thrive'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'conditions', 'patterns'}, 'conj': {'conform'}} Medium High Low
1044 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We praise the push for studies carried out in more dynamic and more eco- logically valid settings in homes, schools, workplaces, and other social spaces where learning happens (Murphy & Cromley, 2015; Murphy et al., 2022) 36 12 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'learning', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'praise'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'Murphy', 'push'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'homes', 'settings'}, 'acl': {'carried'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'advmod': {'logically', 'where', 'more'}, 'amod': {'valid', 'social', 'other', 'dynamic'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'spaces', 'al', 'schools', 'eco-', 'workplaces', 'Cromley'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'relcl': {'happens'}, 'appos': {'.', '2015', '2022', 'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'Murphy'}} Long High Medium
1045 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In the past decade, research into academic development has benefited from the re-val- uation of evidence (Fives & Dinsmore, 2017; Firetto & van Meter, 2018) 25 8 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'into', 'In', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'-', 'past', 're', 'val-', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'evidence', 'decade', 'uation', 'development'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'research'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'benefited'}, 'conj': {'Dinsmore', 'Fives', 'Meter', 'Firetto'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'appos': {'2018', '2017'}, 'compound': {'van'}} Long High Low
1046 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Fur - ther, the MDL has been investigated qualitatively, quantitatively, and in mixed- method studies; by means of variable-centered and person-centered analysis; and in domains as diverse as teacher education, engineering, educational technology, and special education (Alexander et al., 2004; Kulturel-Konak et al., 2015; Law - less, 2017) 48 14 {'PROPN': 12, 'PUNCT': 20, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'NUM': 3} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Kulturel', 'Fur', 'method', 'teacher', 'et', 'Alexander'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017', 'variable', 'Law', 'ther', 'person'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'MDL'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'investigated'}, 'advmod': {'qualitatively', 'as', 'quantitatively'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'prep': {'by', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'diverse', 'centered', 'educational', 'special', 'mixed-'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'al', 'means', '.', 'analysis', 'education', 'domains'}, 'conj': {'.', 'centered', 'education', 'in', 'technology', 'engineering'}, 'appos': {'2004', 'al', '2015', 'et', 'less'}, 'nmod': {'Konak'}} Long High Low
1047 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In sum, we applaud this reappraisal of what counts as evidence, and the increased acceptance of more dynamic, if less “controlled,” environments as naturalistic laboratories for investigation 27 14 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'as', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'dynamic', 'investigation', 'laboratories', 'evidence', 'sum'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'applaud'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'reappraisal'}, 'pcomp': {'counts'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'naturalistic', 'increased', 'more'}, 'conj': {'acceptance'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'advmod': {'less'}, 'advcl': {'controlled'}, 'appos': {'environments'}} Long High Medium
1048 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation It is our contention such studies have value not in spite of these environmental imperfections but because of them. 19 13 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, AUX, PRON, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADP, PRON, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'studies', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'attr': {'contention'}, 'amod': {'such', 'environmental'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'value'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'imperfections', 'them', 'spite'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'because'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'punct': {'.'}} Medium High Medium
1049 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 Page 13 of 22 21 Changing Perspectives and Shifting Understandings Among the prominent forces supporting scientific speculation and theoretical pursuits are the changing perspectives that have emerged within the educational psychology community 38 11 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'22', '13', '1'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'prominent', '3Educational', 'changing', 'educational', 'scientific', 'Changing'}, 'compound': {'Psychology', 'psychology'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'are'}, 'punct': {'(', '36:21', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'nsubj': {'Page', 'that'}, 'prep': {'Among', 'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'21', 'forces', 'Perspectives', 'community'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Shifting', 'pursuits'}, 'dobj': {'Understandings', 'speculation'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'supporting'}, 'attr': {'perspectives'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'emerged'}} Long High Low
1050 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation With those changing perspectives, new insights have entered into the com- munity’s consciousness and, with it, shifting standards and understandings 20 10 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'with', 'With'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'changing', 'new'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'consciousness', 'it'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'insights'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'entered'}, 'compound': {'com-'}, 'poss': {'munity'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advcl': {'shifting'}, 'dobj': {'standards'}, 'conj': {'understandings'}} Long High Low
1051 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Especially in the last decade, there has been a long overdue sea change in our conscious aware- ness of the treatment of sociocultural identity markers like race, ethnicity, sociocul- tural background, and sexual orientation in empirical research and in theorizing (e.g., Boveda & Annamma, 2023; Boveda & Weinberg, 2022; DeCuir-Gunby & Schutz, 2014) 53 16 {'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 13, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Especially'}, 'prep': {'like', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'empirical', 'sociocultural', 'overdue', 'long', 'tural', 'conscious', 'last', 'sexual'}, 'pobj': {'markers', 'aware-', 'ness', 'race', 'Boveda', 'treatment', 'decade', 'theorizing', 'research'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'compound': {'DeCuir', 'identity', 'sea'}, 'attr': {'change'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'conj': {'orientation', 'ethnicity', 'Boveda', 'Schutz', 'in', 'Gunby', 'background', 'Annamma', 'Weinberg', 'sociocul-'}, 'cc': {'and', 'e.g.', '&'}, 'appos': {'2014', '2023', '2022'}} Long High Low
1052 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation For educational psychologists trained in a post-positivist research tradition, such a reframing requires an intentionality to which many of us are unaccustomed 22 12 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, ADJ, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADJ] {'prep': {'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'post', '-', 'educational', 'positivist'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'us', 'tradition', 'psychologists'}, 'acl': {'trained'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'punct': {','}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'nsubj': {'many', 'reframing'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'dobj': {'intentionality'}, 'dep': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'unaccustomed'}} Long High Low
1053 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation It is no longer viable to assume that the values and standards of what the indigenous philoso- pher and poet Viola Cordova (1992) called “Euroman”—White, Western colonizers— represent the values and standards for all people 35 15 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'values', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'no'}, 'advmod': {'longer'}, 'acomp': {'viable'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'assume'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'all', 'what', 'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'poet', 'standards', 'represent'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'Western', 'indigenous'}, 'compound': {'philoso-', 'Viola'}, 'pcomp': {'pher'}, 'dobj': {'Cordova', 'values'}, 'punct': {'—', ')', '(', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'1992', 'colonizers'}, 'ccomp': {'called'}, 'oprd': {'Euroman”—White'}, 'pobj': {'people'}} Long High Medium
1054 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Indeed, such an ideology allowed those who enslaved others and stole their lands to see the non-whites as “less than” (Brayboy, 2005, Murphy & Alexander, 2023; Paris, 2019) 28 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Indeed'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'who', 'ideology'}, 'ROOT': {'allowed'}, 'dobj': {'-', 'lands', 'those', 'others', 'whites', 'non'}, 'relcl': {'enslaved'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Murphy', 'stole', 'Alexander', 'Paris'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'see'}, 'prep': {'than', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'Brayboy', 'less'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023', '2005'}, 'appos': {'2019'}} Long High Low
1055 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Similarly, although many of us have engaged in international research, much of this work can best be characterized as colonial 20 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Similarly', 'best'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'nsubj': {'many'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'colonial', 'work', 'us', 'research'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have'}, 'advcl': {'engaged'}, 'amod': {'international'}, 'nsubjpass': {'much'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'characterized'}} Long High Medium
1056 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation That is, the implementation of interven- tions in novel contexts with little attention, thought, or input from our research part- ners, much less from those with indigenous knowledge of import 30 15 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'That', 'is', 'less', 'much'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'implementation'}, 'prep': {'with', 'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'indigenous', 'interven-', 'little'}, 'pobj': {'ners', 'import', 'those', 'knowledge', 'tions', 'novel', 'attention'}, 'ROOT': {'contexts'}, 'conj': {'input', 'thought'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'part-', 'research'}} Long High Low
1057 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We have seen a shift, albeit emerging, toward decolonizing our scholarship and our journals (e.g., Kumar & DeCuir-Gunby, 2023; Nolen, 2020) 21 7 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'seen'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'scholarship', 'shift'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'mark': {'albeit'}, 'advcl': {'emerging'}, 'prep': {'Kumar', 'toward'}, 'pcomp': {'decolonizing'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Gunby', 'journals'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'compound': {'DeCuir'}, 'appos': {'2023', '2020'}, 'npadvmod': {'Nolen'}} Long High Medium
1058 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We recognize that many educational psychologists will need time to develop their own personal and professional understandings around a truly collaborative, critical pragmatist approach to scholarship 26 11 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We', 'psychologists'}, 'ROOT': {'recognize'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'own', 'critical', 'many', 'educational', 'pragmatist', 'collaborative'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'ccomp': {'need'}, 'dobj': {'understandings', 'time'}, 'relcl': {'develop'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'professional'}, 'prep': {'around', 'to'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'advmod': {'truly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'pobj': {'approach', 'scholarship'}} Long High Medium
1059 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Nonetheless, the crea- tion and promotion of theories, frameworks, or principles about learning, development, and performance that continue to center dominant, Western cultures and peoples are more likely to be negatively scrutinized 32 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless', 'negatively', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'crea-', 'Western'}, 'nsubj': {'cultures', 'that', 'tion'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'frameworks', 'development', 'peoples', 'promotion', 'performance', 'principles'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'theories'}, 'relcl': {'continue'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'scrutinized', 'center'}, 'oprd': {'dominant'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Low
1060 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation What these new perspectives and values within the educational psychology com- munity have effectively done is to shake the very foundation of empiricism; bring into question long-held theories and models; and pull the proverbial rug from under those who continue to advocate dominant-only paradigms and practices 46 23 {'PRON': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 4} [PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'dobj': {'rug', 'foundation', 'theories', 'paradigms', 'What'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'only', 'very', 'held', 'new', 'educational', 'dominant', 'proverbial'}, 'nsubj': {'perspectives', 'who'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'models', 'values', 'practices', 'pull'}, 'prep': {'under', 'within', 'from', 'into', 'of'}, 'compound': {'psychology', 'com-'}, 'pobj': {'munity', 'empiricism', 'those', 'question'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'effectively', 'long'}, 'csubj': {'done'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'xcomp': {'shake', 'advocate'}, 'punct': {'-', ';'}, 'ROOT': {'bring'}, 'relcl': {'continue'}} Long High Low
1061 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Consequently, the door is now open for a new order of scientific speculation and theoretical divining— one that lifts the voices of those historically and contemporarily marginalized, values diverse forms of knowledge and ways of knowing, and embraces the local knowers with whom we work and seek to collaborate 49 23 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB] {'advmod': {'now', 'historically', 'Consequently'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'door', 'we', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'open'}, 'prep': {'with', 'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'diverse', 'new', 'local', 'scientific'}, 'pobj': {'whom', 'order', 'speculation', 'those', 'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ways', 'embraces', 'seek', 'contemporarily', 'divining', 'values'}, 'appos': {'one'}, 'relcl': {'lifts', 'work'}, 'dobj': {'knowers', 'forms', 'voices'}, 'acl': {'marginalized'}, 'pcomp': {'knowing'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'collaborate'}} Long High Low
1062 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation This is unquestionably one of the signifi- cant shifts to which the MDL must respond if it is to remain useful 21 14 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'PART': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, NOUN, PART, PRON, DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'MDL', 'it', 'This'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'unquestionably'}, 'attr': {'one'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'signifi-'}, 'aux': {'ca', 'to', 'must'}, 'neg': {'nt'}, 'ROOT': {'shifts'}, 'relcl': {'respond'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'xcomp': {'remain'}, 'acomp': {'useful'}} Long High Medium
1063 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Among the relevant questions that merit exploration include whether the interplay of knowledge, strategies, and interest framing the MDL follows a similar trajectory for non-Western populations educated in non-Western educational institutions 31 11 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 10, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, PROPN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'Among', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'similar', '-', 'Western', 'relevant', 'educational', 'non'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'populations', 'questions', 'institutions'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'trajectory', 'MDL'}, 'compound': {'merit'}, 'nsubj': {'interplay', 'exploration'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'interest', 'strategies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'acl': {'educated', 'framing'}, 'ccomp': {'follows'}} Long High Medium
1064 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Global Problems and Interdisciplinary, Intercultural Problem‑Solving Related to the new perspectives and shifting values just described, there has been a concomitant investment in problems of global importance 27 11 {'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Global', 'Intercultural'}, 'nsubj': {'Problems'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Interdisciplinary'}, 'punct': {','}, 'npadvmod': {'Problem‑Solving'}, 'amod': {'concomitant', 'Related', 'global', 'new'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'importance', 'perspectives', 'problems'}, 'acl': {'described', 'shifting'}, 'dobj': {'values'}, 'advmod': {'just'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'attr': {'investment'}} Long High Low
1065 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 1 3 21 Page 14 of 22 community continue to focus on very particular factors and variables like discussion (Chen & Luo, 2021), others embrace broad issues and constructs that iterate across many countries and cultures such as academic flocking and global distress (Ebersöhn et al., 2021) 52 14 {'PROPN': 10, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NUM': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', 'et', '3'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'continue'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'nsubj': {'36:21', 'Page', 'that', 'others'}, 'nummod': {'21', '14', '1', '22'}, 'prep': {'on', 'like', 'of', 'as', 'across'}, 'pobj': {'flocking', 'community', 'factors', 'discussion', 'countries'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'focus'}, 'advmod': {'very'}, 'amod': {'broad', 'global', 'many', 'such', 'particular', 'academic'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'.', 'embrace', 'Luo', 'Chen', 'cultures', 'distress', 'variables', 'constructs'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'al', 'Ebersöhn'}, 'dobj': {'issues'}, 'ccomp': {'iterate'}} Long High Low
1066 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation With this push toward learning, development, and performance concerns that cross national borders, efforts to forge theoretical frameworks, models, and princi- ples demand collaboration and cooperation 26 8 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'With', 'toward'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'push'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'models', 'cooperation', 'concerns', 'development', 'demand'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'princi-'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'ples'}, 'relcl': {'cross'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'national'}, 'dobj': {'collaboration', 'frameworks', 'borders'}, 'ROOT': {'efforts'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'forge'}} Long High Low
1067 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation They also benefit from those with differ - ing areas of expertise and who come to the ongoing collaboration with diverse cultural backgrounds and sensitivities 25 12 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They', 'who'}, 'advmod': {'ing', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'benefit'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'collaboration', 'areas', 'expertise', 'those', 'backgrounds'}, 'amod': {'diverse', 'differ', 'ongoing', 'cultural'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sensitivities', 'come'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Low
1068 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The pressing concern over the learning and well-being of immigrant and refugee children, youth, and adults that now populate countries across the globe stands as a clear example of worldwide problems that demand interna- tional and intercultural theorizing (Cerna, 2019; Gagné et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2023) 48 18 {'DET': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 3} [DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, X, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'worldwide', 'tional', 'clear', 'pressing'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'concern'}, 'prep': {'as', 'across', 'of', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'children', 'example', 'learning', 'globe', 'problems'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'now', 'well'}, 'punct': {'-', 'al', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'conj': {'refugee', 'intercultural', 'adults', 'being', 'youth'}, 'nmod': {'interna-', 'immigrant'}, 'relcl': {'populate', 'demand'}, 'dobj': {'countries', 'theorizing'}, 'ROOT': {'stands', 'Gagné'}, 'appos': {'2021', '2023', 'Cerna'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019', 'al', '.', 'et'}, 'compound': {'Kim', 'et'}} Long High Low
1069 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We have been concerned as to how the developmental trajectories captured in the MDL are impacted by such global events as the pandemic, ongoing conflicts such as those in the Middle East and Europe, and the growing numbers of climate refugees 41 23 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'We'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'been'}, 'ROOT': {'concerned'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'developmental', 'global', 'growing', 'such', 'pandemic', 'ongoing'}, 'nsubj': {'trajectories'}, 'pcomp': {'captured'}, 'pobj': {'East', 'conflicts', 'those', 'MDL', 'refugees', 'events'}, 'advcl': {'impacted'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'Middle', 'climate'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Europe', 'numbers'}} Long High Medium
1070 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Of course, these questions not only require international collaboration and cooperation but also the investment in longitudinal investigations 18 9 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'course', 'only', 'Of', 'also'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'questions'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'require'}, 'amod': {'international', 'longitudinal'}, 'dobj': {'collaboration'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'investment', 'cooperation'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'investigations'}} Medium High Low
1071 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We have also been part of several global initiatives in recent years 12 8 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'attr': {'part'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'recent', 'several', 'global'}, 'pobj': {'initiatives', 'years'}} Medium High Low
1072 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation One of those initiatives, which involves dozens of scholars from nine countries from the northern and southern hemispheres, is tackling the issue of students’ reasoning and critical thinking when learning from online sources that often can communicate outdated, less credible, poorly substantiated, and even intentionally biased and distorted infor - mation (Alexander et al., 2016; Sefhedi et al., 2021; Wei et al., 2021) 63 23 {'NUM': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 14, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 5, 'PROPN': 13} [NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'which', 'One', 'that'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'scholars', 'hemispheres', 'initiatives', 'reasoning', 'countries'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'relcl': {'communicate', 'involves'}, 'dobj': {'mation', '.', 'issue', 'dozens'}, 'nummod': {'nine'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'northern', 'online', 'credible', 'outdated'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'distorted', '.', 'biased', 'thinking', 'southern'}, 'aux': {'can', 'is'}, 'ROOT': {'tackling'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'intentionally', 'poorly', 'often', 'less', 'even'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}, 'ccomp': {'substantiated'}, 'compound': {'Wei', 'et', 'infor', 'Sefhedi', 'Alexander'}, 'nmod': {'et'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'al', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'al'}, 'dep': {'al'}} Long High Medium
1073 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We are also part of multiple international collaboratives that have the shared mission of creating more student-oriented learning environments (Ebersöhn et al., 2021; Wei & Mur - phy, 2019) 29 10 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'that', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'attr': {'part'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'more', 'international', 'multiple', 'oriented'}, 'pobj': {'collaboratives'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'environments', 'mission'}, 'pcomp': {'creating'}, 'npadvmod': {'et', 'Wei', 'student'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'Mur'}, 'appos': {'2021', '2019', 'Ebersöhn'}, 'conj': {'phy', 'al', '.'}, 'cc': {'&'}} Long High Low
1074 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In those learning environments, students are afforded greater interpreta- tive responsibility for what they read, see, or hear (e.g., Chen & Luo, 2021) 23 8 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'In'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'amod': {'learning', 'interpreta-', 'greater'}, 'pobj': {'environments'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'afforded'}, 'compound': {'tive'}, 'oprd': {'responsibility'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'pcomp': {'read'}, 'conj': {'see', 'Luo', 'hear'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'Chen'}, 'appos': {'2021'}} Long High Low
1075 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The ultimate goal is that students, with teacher support, will be the ones who pose and ponder relevant questions about the topics they are studying, who discuss their dif- fering perspectives on those questions through quality discussions, and who seek to come to shared understandings (Murphy et al., 2022) 49 22 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'ultimate', 'relevant', 'shared', 'fering'}, 'nsubj': {'goal', 'they', 'students', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'to', 'with', 'about'}, 'compound': {'quality', 'teacher'}, 'pobj': {'questions', 'support', 'discussions', 'understandings', 'topics'}, 'aux': {'to', 'are', 'will'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'ones'}, 'relcl': {'studying', 'discuss', 'pose'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ponder', 'al', '.', 'seek'}, 'dobj': {'perspectives', 'questions'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dep': {'dif-'}, 'xcomp': {'come'}, 'appos': {'Murphy', '2022'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Medium
1076 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We are also interested in pursuing studies with colleagues in South Africa that integrate the theoretical predictions and structure of MDL with ongoing research in resilience among struggling populations (Ebersöhn, 2008, 2020) 32 13 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PROPN': 4, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'that', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'acomp': {'interested'}, 'prep': {'with', 'among', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'pursuing'}, 'dobj': {'studies', 'predictions'}, 'pobj': {'resilience', 'MDL', 'populations', 'Africa', 'colleagues', 'research'}, 'compound': {'South'}, 'relcl': {'integrate'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'struggling', 'theoretical', 'ongoing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'structure'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2008', 'Ebersöhn', '2020'}} Long High Low
1077 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Such global initiatives have fueled scientific speculation and theoretical pursuits because they require participants to balance the shared goals with the sociocultural diversity that will invariably exist 27 11 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'amod': {'shared', 'theoretical', 'Such', 'global', 'sociocultural', 'scientific'}, 'nsubj': {'initiatives', 'that', 'they'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to', 'will'}, 'ROOT': {'fueled'}, 'dobj': {'goals', 'speculation', 'participants'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'pursuits'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'require'}, 'xcomp': {'balance'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'diversity'}, 'advmod': {'invariably'}, 'relcl': {'exist'}} Long High Medium
1078 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation There can be no singular “gold standard” in what topics these researchers, teachers, and students find appropriate; no one-size-fits-all assessment, which carries the same meaning from one country to another or from one cultural enclave to the next 38 24 {'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 3} [PRON, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ] {'expl': {'There'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'what', 'these'}, 'amod': {'fits', 'same', 'singular', 'cultural'}, 'punct': {'-', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'compound': {'gold', 'size'}, 'attr': {'standard'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'topics'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'researchers'}, 'conj': {'students', 'assessment', 'teachers', 'from'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'relcl': {'find', 'carries'}, 'oprd': {'appropriate'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'dobj': {'all', 'meaning'}, 'pobj': {'enclave', 'another', 'country', 'next'}} Long High Low
1079 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation How to Foster Scientific Speculation and Theory Building In light of the insights garnered from the evolution of the MDL and other models we have proposed over the years, we want to conclude this treatise with guidelines that we believe can address the paucity of scientific speculation and theory building 50 26 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [SCONJ, PART, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'How'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'In', 'over'}, 'compound': {'Theory', 'Scientific', 'Foster', 'theory'}, 'pobj': {'guidelines', 'light', 'insights', 'speculation', 'years', 'MDL', 'Speculation', 'evolution'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'models', 'building', 'Building'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'advcl': {'garnered'}, 'amod': {'other', 'scientific'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'believe', 'proposed'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'xcomp': {'conclude'}, 'dobj': {'treatise', 'paucity'}, 'ccomp': {'address'}} Long High Medium
1080 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 Page 15 of 22 21 that presently exists in the educational psychology community 19 4 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'22', '1', '15'}, 'amod': {'3Educational', 'educational'}, 'compound': {'Psychology', 'psychology'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'Page'}, 'punct': {'(', '36:21', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'21', 'community'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'presently'}, 'relcl': {'exists'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
1081 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We do so with the understanding that struggles to embrace scientific speculation and engage in theory building can be rectified through dedicated effort 23 12 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'do'}, 'advmod': {'so'}, 'prep': {'through', 'with', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'effort', 'understanding'}, 'relcl': {'struggles'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'embrace'}, 'amod': {'dedicated', 'scientific'}, 'dobj': {'speculation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'rectified', 'engage'}, 'compound': {'theory'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Low
1082 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Moreover, we focus these guide- lines on the nurturance of the next generation of scholars—those whose theoretical frameworks, models, or principles will eventually come to populate the literature in our field 31 17 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'eventually', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'frameworks', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'focus'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'guide-', 'next'}, 'dobj': {'lines', 'literature'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'generation', 'scholars', 'nurturance', 'field'}, 'appos': {'those'}, 'poss': {'our', 'whose'}, 'conj': {'models', 'principles'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'relcl': {'come'}, 'advcl': {'populate'}} Long High Low
1083 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Create a Learning Environment Where Students Have More Interpretative Authority One characteristic of schooling that has been well-documented in the literature for centuries is that the students’ role in classrooms is to listen and learn (Cazden, 1988; Mehan, 1979; Nystrand, 1997) 41 20 {'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'csubj': {'Create'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Interpretative', 'Learning', 'Authority'}, 'dobj': {'characteristic', 'Environment'}, 'advmod': {'Where', 'well'}, 'nsubj': {'role', 'Students', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'Have', 'been'}, 'amod': {'More'}, 'nummod': {'One'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'schooling', 'literature', 'classrooms', 'centuries'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'acomp': {'documented'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'xcomp': {'listen'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Nystrand', 'Mehan', 'learn'}, 'npadvmod': {'Cazden'}, 'appos': {'1979', '1997', '1988'}} Long High High
1084 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation That dictum can be loosely translated into “speak when permission is granted and respond with answers that teachers expect.” Such a learning environment has deep and lasting effects on what students, espe- cially highly successful students, come to believe is the path to excellence (Murphy et al., 2022) 48 19 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'That', 'a', 'what', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'dictum', 'permission'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'advmod': {'highly', 'cially', 'loosely', 'when'}, 'ROOT': {'has', 'translated'}, 'prep': {'into', 'with', 'on', 'to'}, 'punct': {'.', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'pobj': {'answers', 'speak', 'students', 'excellence'}, 'advcl': {'granted', 'believe'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'respond', 'lasting'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers', 'environment'}, 'relcl': {'expect'}, 'predet': {'Such'}, 'amod': {'learning', 'successful', 'deep'}, 'pcomp': {'students', 'espe-'}, 'dep': {'come'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'path'}, 'appos': {'Murphy', '2022'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Medium
1085 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Although such compliant behaviors may result in better grades, they can stifle the willingness and ability to engage in scientific speculation and theo- rizing 24 11 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'amod': {'compliant', 'scientific', 'such', 'better'}, 'nsubj': {'behaviors', 'they'}, 'aux': {'can', 'may', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'result'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'speculation', 'grades'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'stifle'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'willingness'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'rizing', 'ability'}, 'acl': {'engage'}, 'compound': {'theo-'}} Long High Medium
1086 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation This is particularly the case in which graduate students understand there to be a deeply embedded, hierarchical power structure between faculty and students 23 11 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, AUX, DET, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'students', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'deeply', 'particularly', 'there'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'structure', 'case'}, 'prep': {'between', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'faculty'}, 'compound': {'graduate', 'power'}, 'relcl': {'understand'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'amod': {'embedded', 'hierarchical'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'students'}} Long High Low
1087 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Learning environments where students feel empowered to ask rather than answer questions, to disagree or dispute rather than accept or regurgitate what they hear as unassailable facts are environments we hold as more conducive to scientific specula- tion and theory building 41 18 {'VERB': 12, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'students', 'Learning', 'we', 'they'}, 'dobj': {'environments', 'questions', 'what'}, 'advmod': {'more', 'where', 'rather'}, 'relcl': {'hold', 'feel'}, 'acomp': {'empowered'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'disagree', 'ask', 'answer'}, 'prep': {'than', 'to', 'as'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'or', 'than', 'and'}, 'conj': {'dispute', 'are', 'regurgitate', 'theory'}, 'ROOT': {'accept'}, 'ccomp': {'hear'}, 'amod': {'conducive', 'scientific', 'unassailable', 'specula-'}, 'pobj': {'facts', 'tion'}, 'attr': {'environments'}, 'dep': {'building'}} Long High Medium
1088 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Students should also feel that they are free to take risks in their thinking and their ideas; that is, to speculate, explore connections, and build plausible explanations through generalization and analysis (Murphy, 2018) 33 17 {'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, PART, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Students', 'they'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'is', 'also', 'that'}, 'ccomp': {'are', 'feel'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acomp': {'free'}, 'xcomp': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'connections', 'risks', 'explanations'}, 'prep': {'through', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'generalization', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'analysis', 'ideas', 'build', 'explore'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'speculate'}, 'amod': {'plausible'}, 'appos': {'Murphy'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018'}} Long High Medium
1089 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation When “right” answers are given in classrooms and acknowledged, the dialogic door is sub- stantively shut 16 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 2} [SCONJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'When', 'sub-', 'stantively'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'amod': {'right', 'dialogic'}, 'nsubjpass': {'answers', 'door'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'are'}, 'advcl': {'given'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'classrooms'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'acknowledged'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'shut'}} Medium High Medium
1090 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation An ongoing discussion must offer space for counterpoints or alterna- tive ideas, and individuals must recognize the value in probing and reframing what others have to say (Murphy & Firetto, 2018) 31 14 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'An', 'the'}, 'amod': {'alterna-', 'ongoing'}, 'nsubj': {'discussion', 'individuals', 'others'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'dobj': {'space', 'value', 'what'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'counterpoints'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'compound': {'tive'}, 'conj': {'reframing', 'recognize', 'ideas', 'Firetto'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'pcomp': {'probing'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'xcomp': {'say'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018', 'Murphy'}} Long High Low
1091 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation While learning environments with these attributes are rare indeed in the K-12 system, we also doubt that they are commonplace in college classrooms or even in graduate courses 28 16 {'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'that', 'While'}, 'csubj': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'environments'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'classrooms', 'system', 'attributes', 'courses'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'commonplace', 'rare'}, 'advmod': {'indeed', 'also', 'even'}, 'compound': {'K-12', 'college'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'doubt'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'in'}, 'amod': {'graduate'}} Long High High
1092 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation The doctoral students in our programs, for example, take many classes in research methods but few, if any, classes that center on philosophizing or theorizing about concepts and constructs in ways that entice them to deeply explore and assume interpretative authority of ideas and content 45 23 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 7, 'PRON': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'CCONJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'many', 'few', 'interpretative', 'doctoral'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'in', 'of', 'about'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'concepts', 'philosophizing', 'example', 'methods', 'programs', 'ideas'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'classes', 'them', 'authority'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'conj': {'content', 'any', 'assume', 'theorizing', 'constructs'}, 'relcl': {'entice', 'center'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advmod': {'deeply'}, 'xcomp': {'explore'}} Long High Medium
1093 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Yet, without environments that welcome students as partners in learning and as individuals whose ideas and questions are to be valued, the potential for fostering the next generation of specula- tive psychologists and theorists is greatly diminished 37 19 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'greatly', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'without', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'partners', 'individuals', 'learning', 'environments', 'psychologists'}, 'nsubj': {'ideas', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'are', 'welcome'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'generation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'theorists', 'as', 'questions'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'xcomp': {'valued'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'potential'}, 'pcomp': {'fostering'}, 'amod': {'specula-', 'next'}, 'compound': {'tive'}, 'ROOT': {'diminished'}} Long High Low
1094 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Make Critical Analytic Thinking a Centerpiece of Learning and Development Orchestrating a learning environment that promotes student agency and interpre- tative authority is a necessary but not sufficient step toward fostering scientific speculation and theorizing 35 13 {'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [VERB, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ] {'csubj': {'Make'}, 'amod': {'Critical', 'interpre-', 'learning', 'tative', 'necessary', 'scientific'}, 'compound': {'student', 'Analytic'}, 'ccomp': {'Thinking'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'agency', 'Centerpiece', 'environment', 'speculation'}, 'prep': {'of', 'toward'}, 'nmod': {'Learning'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'authority', 'theorizing', 'sufficient', 'Development'}, 'pcomp': {'Orchestrating', 'fostering'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'promotes'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'step'}} Long High Low
1095 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 1 3 21 Page 16 of 22 thinkers (Alexander, 2014; Byrnes & Dunbar, 2014; Miele & Wigfield, 2014; Mur - phy et al., 2014) 29 1 {'PROPN': 14, 'PUNCT': 12, 'NUM': 11, 'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Mur', 'Educational', '3'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', '36:21'}, 'punct': {'phy', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'npadvmod': {'et', 'Page', '2024'}, 'nummod': {'21', '16', '1', '22'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'thinkers'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'al', 'Alexander'}, 'conj': {'Miele', '.', 'Wigfield', 'Dunbar', 'Byrnes'}, 'cc': {'&'}} Long Low Low
1096 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation There is ample evidence that higher-order thinking and critical thinking are among those highly prized, often touted, but poorly understood pro- cesses of well-educated minds (Alexander, 2023) 27 11 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, PRON, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'prized', 'critical', 'ample', 'educated', 'higher'}, 'attr': {'evidence'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'order', 'pro-'}, 'nsubj': {'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'understood', 'thinking'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'prep': {'of', 'among'}, 'pobj': {'minds', 'those'}, 'advmod': {'highly', 'well', 'often', 'poorly'}, 'advcl': {'touted'}, 'dobj': {'cesses'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023'}} Long High Medium
1097 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation What these constructs funda- mentally signify is individuals’ engagement in some manner of reflective thought rather than a more reactive response 21 10 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [PRON, PRON, VERB, X, ADV, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'nsubj': {'these'}, 'csubj': {'signify', 'constructs'}, 'dep': {'funda-'}, 'advmod': {'mentally', 'more', 'rather'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'attr': {'response', 'engagement'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'thought', 'manner'}, 'amod': {'reflective', 'reactive'}, 'cc': {'than'}} Long High Low
1098 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Further, the markers of such reflective thought are commonly represented by a litany of cognitive processes presumed to require thoughtful consideration: synthesis, analysis, inferencing, explanation, critique, and evaluation (Alexander, 2023) 30 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'commonly', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'markers'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'thoughtful', 'such', 'reflective', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'thought', 'processes', 'litany'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'represented'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'acl': {'presumed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'require'}, 'dobj': {'consideration'}, 'appos': {'Alexander', 'synthesis'}, 'conj': {'explanation', 'analysis', 'evaluation', 'critique', 'inferencing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023'}} Long High Low
1099 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation What we find problematic about this listing of worth- while mental exercises is when, where, and how students are taught to enact these processes appropriately or to judge the results of that enactment 33 19 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What', 'processes', 'results'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'exercises'}, 'ROOT': {'find'}, 'oprd': {'problematic'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'that', 'these', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'worth-', 'listing', 'enactment'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'amod': {'mental'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'appropriately', 'when', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ccomp': {'where'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'conj': {'judge', 'taught'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'enact'}} Long High High
1100 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Further, although the cognitive effort needed to execute any of these processes would certainly exceed that associated with spontaneous, reactive utterances or behaviors, we hold that even more is required to promote the form of critical-ana- lytic thinking that underlies scientific speculation and theorizing 44 21 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 8, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, ADV, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ] {'advmod': {'certainly', 'more', 'even', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'although', 'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'reactive', 'critical', 'spontaneous', 'lytic', 'ana-', 'scientific', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'effort', 'that', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'exceed', 'needed'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'execute', 'promote'}, 'dobj': {'any', 'form', 'that', 'speculation'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'thinking', 'processes', 'utterances'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'behaviors', 'theorizing'}, 'ROOT': {'hold'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'required'}, 'relcl': {'underlies'}} Long High High
1101 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Specifically, we advocate for critical-analytic thinking—a wedding of critical thinking and ana- lytic reasoning—as an essential component of scientific speculation and theorizing (Alexander, 2023; Murphy et al., 2023) 28 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {'-', '—', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'Murphy', 'advocate'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'essential', 'critical', 'lytic', 'ana-', 'scientific', 'analytic'}, 'pobj': {'component', 'speculation', 'thinking'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'dobj': {'wedding'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reasoning', 'al', 'theorizing'}, 'appos': {'2023', '.', 'Alexander', 'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023'}} Long High Low
1102 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation This merger of critical thinking and ana- lytic reasoning should result in “an examined understanding of something known or believed” through “a systematic evaluation of the object of thought and claims, reasons, and evidence forwarded about that object” (Murphy et al., 2014,p 42 18 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'X': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, X, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'This', 'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'merger'}, 'prep': {'through', 'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'examined', 'critical', 'systematic', 'lytic', 'ana-'}, 'pobj': {'understanding', 'thinking', 'thought', 'evaluation', 'object', 'something'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'.', 'believed', 'reasons', 'reasoning', 'evidence', 'claims'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'result'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '”', '“'}, 'acl': {'forwarded', 'known'}, 'appos': {'Murphy'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '2014,p', 'et'}} Long High Low
1103 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Such systematic evaluation relies on two critical elements, epistemic competence and epistemic justification 13 4 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'systematic', 'epistemic', 'Such', 'critical'}, 'nsubj': {'evaluation'}, 'ROOT': {'relies'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pobj': {'elements'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'competence', 'justification'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
1104 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Epistemic competence is the determination of the forms and depth of evidence the question, problem, or issue at hand requires (Alexander, 2016; Murphy & Alexander, 2016) 26 9 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Epistemic'}, 'nsubj': {'competence', 'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'determination'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'hand', 'forms', 'evidence'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Murphy', 'problem', 'requires', 'depth', 'Alexander'}, 'dep': {'question'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'dobj': {'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'2016'}} Long High Low
1105 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Epistemic justification is the stance or position that can be rightly held about the question, problem, or issue based on the evidence gathered (Alexander & the Disciplined Reading and Learning Research Laboratory, 2012; Murphy, 2018; Murphy et al., 2011) 39 13 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 11, 'NUM': 3} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Epistemic'}, 'nsubj': {'justification'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'al'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'stance'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'issue', 'problem', 'Murphy', 'Reading', 'Laboratory', 'position'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'rightly'}, 'relcl': {'held'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about'}, 'pobj': {'evidence', 'question'}, 'punct': {'.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'acl': {'based', 'gathered'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Alexander', '2011'}, 'compound': {'Learning', 'Disciplined', 'Research'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012', 'et'}, 'nmod': {'Murphy'}} Long High Low
1106 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Neither achieving epistemic competence nor effectively justifying one’s stances or positions occurs easily or instinctively for the vast majority of individuals 21 9 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NUM, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'preconj': {'Neither'}, 'csubj': {'achieving'}, 'amod': {'epistemic', 'vast'}, 'dobj': {'stances', 'competence'}, 'cc': {'or', 'nor'}, 'advmod': {'easily', 'effectively'}, 'conj': {'instinctively', 'justifying', 'positions'}, 'poss': {'one'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'ROOT': {'occurs'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'majority', 'individuals'}} Long High Low
1107 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Nonetheless, if the goals of scientific speculation and theorizing are to become more commonplace within the research community, then guidance, nurturing, and valuing must become hallmarks of the educational experi- ence for all learners 34 18 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'then', 'Nonetheless', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'goals'}, 'prep': {'for', 'within', 'of'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'scientific'}, 'pobj': {'ence', 'learners', 'community', 'speculation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'valuing', 'nurturing', 'theorizing'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'xcomp': {'become'}, 'acomp': {'commonplace'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'appos': {'guidance'}, 'ROOT': {'become'}, 'attr': {'hallmarks'}, 'case': {'experi-'}} Long High Medium
1108 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Healthy Skepticism and Doubt To this point, the keys to fostering scientific speculation and theorizing that we have described have been focused on learning environments and experiences 27 13 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3} [PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Healthy'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Skepticism', 'keys'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Doubt', 'experiences', 'theorizing'}, 'prep': {'To', 'on', 'to'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'point'}, 'punct': {','}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'fostering'}, 'amod': {'scientific'}, 'dobj': {'environments', 'speculation'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ccomp': {'described'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}} Long High Medium
1109 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation There are also characteristics of individuals that interface with those environments and experi- ences to augment or abate their benefits 20 11 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'attr': {'characteristics'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'environments'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'interface'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'experi-'}, 'conj': {'ences', 'abate'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'augment'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'benefits'}} Long High Low
1110 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation One of those characteristics that we have found vital to our empirical endeavors and integral to our theorizing is the mainte- nance of a healthy level of skepticism (Burnyeat, 1983; Putnam, 1981) or Peircean “doubt” (1877) 36 17 {'NUM': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 2} [NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'One', 'we'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'endeavors', 'characteristics', 'skepticism', 'theorizing', 'level'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'found'}, 'oprd': {'vital'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'healthy', 'Peircean', 'empirical', 'mainte-'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'doubt', 'integral'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'nance'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'appos': {'1981', 'Putnam', 'Burnyeat'}, 'npadvmod': {'1877', '1983'}} Long High Low
1111 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:21 Page 17 of 22 21 hear, or see should be taken at face value, they are unlikely to critically analyze information they encounter or to share their thinking publicly 35 13 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADV] {'nummod': {'21', '17', '1'}, 'amod': {'3Educational'}, 'compound': {'22', 'Psychology', 'face'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'are'}, 'punct': {'(', '36:21', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Page'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'hear', 'value'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'see', 'share'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'taken'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'acomp': {'unlikely'}, 'advmod': {'publicly', 'critically'}, 'xcomp': {'analyze'}, 'dobj': {'thinking', 'information'}, 'relcl': {'encounter'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
1112 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In some of our curricular intervention work in schools with teachers and students, we have students query what they read or see with questions about the nature of reasons (“Why do you think that?”) and sources of evidence (“How do you know that?”; Murphy & Firetto, 2018) 47 27 {'ADP': 8, 'PRON': 9, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 13, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, PRON, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'about', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 'some', 'questions', 'reasons', 'work', 'schools', 'evidence', 'nature'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'curricular'}, 'compound': {'intervention'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'students', 'see', 'sources', 'Firetto'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', ';', '?', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we', 'they', 'you'}, 'ccomp': {'have', 'query', 'read'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'How', 'Why'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'ROOT': {'think'}, 'parataxis': {'know'}, 'dep': {'Murphy'}, 'appos': {'2018'}} Long High High
1113 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We also developed an approach to assist students in carefully weighing the viability of evidence called the ARC test 19 8 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'advmod': {'carefully', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'viability', 'approach'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'assist'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'weighing'}, 'pobj': {'evidence'}, 'acl': {'called'}, 'compound': {'ARC'}, 'oprd': {'test'}} Medium High Low
1114 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In submit- ting evidence to this test, students learn to query the A-accuracy, R-reliability, and C-credibility from a wide range of oral and written sources 25 11 {'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of', 'from'}, 'amod': {'oral', 'wide', 'submit-'}, 'compound': {'C', 'R', 'ting'}, 'pobj': {'range', 'sources', 'evidence', 'test'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'learn'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'query'}, 'nmod': {'A'}, 'dobj': {'accuracy'}, 'conj': {'reliability', 'written', 'credibility'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
1115 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We found that students readily invoked this test and increased their argumentative reasoning abilities (Mur - phy et al., 2018) 20 5 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'students', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'readily'}, 'ccomp': {'invoked'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'dobj': {'al', '.', 'test', 'abilities'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'increased'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'argumentative'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'Mur'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'phy', '2018'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Medium
1116 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation In essence, healthy skepticism opens the mind to scientific specu- lation when doubt gives rise to alternatives that are congruent with experiences and supported by sound evidence 27 10 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PART, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'alternatives', 'lation', 'essence', 'evidence', 'experiences'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'healthy', 'sound', 'scientific'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'doubt', 'skepticism'}, 'ROOT': {'opens'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'mind', 'rise'}, 'compound': {'specu-'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'gives'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'attr': {'congruent'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'supported'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
1117 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Researchers who include measures such as Need for Cognition (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) in their studies seemingly understand that there are individuals who draw pleasure from challenging their minds 29 12 {'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Researchers', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'draw', 'include'}, 'dobj': {'measures', 'minds', 'pleasure'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'from', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Need', 'Cognition', 'studies'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Cacioppo', '1982'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Petty'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'seemingly'}, 'ROOT': {'understand'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'individuals'}, 'pcomp': {'challenging'}} Long High Medium
1118 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation They are the ones who are prone to interrogating, reframing, or evaluating rather than just accepting—individual characteristics that seem invaluable to scientific speculation and theorizing (Steup & Neta, 2020) 29 14 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'They', 'that', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'ones'}, 'relcl': {'seem', 'are'}, 'acomp': {'prone'}, 'prep': {'than', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'interrogating', 'speculation'}, 'punct': {',', ')', '(', '—'}, 'conj': {'reframing', 'Steup', 'accepting', 'theorizing', 'Neta', 'evaluating'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'rather'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'scientific'}, 'dobj': {'characteristics'}, 'oprd': {'invaluable'}, 'appos': {'2020'}} Long High Low
1119 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation As with any individual characteristic, healthy skepticism may take the form of a rather stable trait 16 9 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'As', 'of'}, 'det': {'any', 'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'healthy', 'stable'}, 'pobj': {'trait', 'characteristic'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'skepticism'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'form'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}} Medium High Low
1120 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation However, it is rare to find young minds who are not naturally inquisi- tive and prone to asking when, where, or how questions as they try to make sense of the world 32 19 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 4, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'naturally', 'when', 'However', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'it', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'rare'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'make', 'find'}, 'amod': {'young'}, 'dobj': {'minds', 'sense'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'compound': {'inquisi-'}, 'attr': {'tive'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'questions', 'prone'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'asking'}, 'ccomp': {'where'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'try'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'world'}} Long High High
1121 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Perhaps such natural curiosity or healthy skepticism fades over time as students become practiced in the ways of schooling 19 9 {'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Perhaps'}, 'amod': {'natural', 'such', 'healthy'}, 'nsubj': {'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'skepticism'}, 'ROOT': {'fades'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'schooling', 'time'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'become'}, 'advcl': {'practiced'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Medium
1122 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation We hold to the position that healthy skepticism is a malleable characteristic that can be shaped to an extent by the conducive learning environments and experiences previously described 28 14 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB] {'nsubj': {'We', 'skepticism'}, 'ROOT': {'hold'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'extent', 'position', 'environments'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'healthy', 'conducive', 'malleable'}, 'acl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'characteristic'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'shaped'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'experiences'}, 'advmod': {'previously'}, 'ccomp': {'described'}} Long High Medium
1123 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Final Thoughts The birth of the Model of Domain Learning did not occur in a flash of insight 18 9 {'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'amod': {'Final'}, 'nsubj': {'Thoughts', 'birth'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'nmod': {'Model'}, 'pobj': {'flash', 'insight', 'Domain', 'Learning'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'occur'}} Medium High Low
1124 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Rather, as with any theoreti- cal frameworks, models, or principles that deal meaningfully with human learning, behaviors, or development, the MDL was formed from the marriage of life experi- ences and empirical evidence 33 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'meaningfully', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'with', 'from'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'amod': {'theoreti-', 'empirical', 'human'}, 'compound': {'life', 'cal'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'ences', 'marriage', 'frameworks'}, 'conj': {'models', 'development', 'evidence', 'behaviors', 'principles'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'deal'}, 'nsubjpass': {'MDL'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'formed'}, 'nummod': {'experi-'}} Long High Low
1125 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Its birthing was a labor that extended over many years and was a consequence of many steps and missteps 19 12 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'Its'}, 'nsubj': {'birthing', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'labor', 'consequence'}, 'relcl': {'extended'}, 'prep': {'of', 'over'}, 'amod': {'many'}, 'pobj': {'years', 'steps'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'missteps', 'was'}} Medium High Low
1126 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Moreover, due to its focus on the trajectory of human learning, which is a fluid construct, we do not ascribe unwa- vering certainty or finality to the MDL 28 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'due'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'trajectory', 'MDL', 'focus'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'human'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'we'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'amod': {'unwa-', 'fluid', 'vering'}, 'attr': {'construct'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'ascribe'}, 'dobj': {'certainty'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'finality'}} Long High Low
1127 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation This theoretical model must remain unfin- ished and open to whatever new findings emerge about the nature of human learning and its development 23 10 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'human', 'new'}, 'nsubj': {'findings', 'model'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'remain'}, 'advmod': {'unfin-'}, 'acomp': {'ished'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'open'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'dobj': {'whatever'}, 'pcomp': {'emerge'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'nature'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'punct': {'development'}} Long High Low
1128 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Despite these cautions and caveats about MDL and its formation, there are certain understandings we have garnered from this valued undertaking and from the theoret- ical reminiscence that this special issue has afforded 33 17 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'about', 'Despite', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'MDL', 'undertaking', 'reminiscence', 'cautions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'caveats', 'formation', 'from'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'valued', 'ical', 'special'}, 'attr': {'understandings'}, 'nsubj': {'issue', 'we'}, 'aux': {'has', 'have'}, 'relcl': {'garnered'}, 'nummod': {'theoret-'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'afforded'}} Long High High
1129 Evolution of a Learning Theory- In Praise of Scientific Speculation Moreover, revisiting the MDL in this manner has afforded us a platform to praise the role of theorizing and scien- tific speculation not solely in terms of the MDL but as it relates to theory building for the educational psychology community and the health of educational research. 47 24 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 7, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'solely', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'csubj': {'revisiting'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'platform', 'MDL'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'terms', 'speculation', 'manner', 'community', 'MDL', 'research'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'afforded'}, 'dative': {'us'}, 'relcl': {'praise'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'theorizing', 'tific'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'scien-', 'health'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'advcl': {'relates'}, 'compound': {'psychology', 'theory'}} Long High Medium
1130 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:23 1 3 23 Page 2 of 13 tapped into the convergences and divergences their syntheses revealed, the ontologi- cal and epistemological bases of their cross-disciplinary approach, and the construct and predictive validity of their novel offerings 41 14 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 8} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', '3'}, 'ROOT': {'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Page', '2024'}, 'nummod': {'2', '36:23', '23'}, 'quantmod': {'1'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'approach', 'convergences', '13', 'offerings'}, 'acl': {'tapped'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'epistemological', 'validity', 'predictive', 'divergences'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'syntheses'}, 'ccomp': {'revealed'}, 'amod': {'-', 'ontologi-', 'cross', 'construct', 'cal', 'novel', 'disciplinary'}, 'appos': {'bases'}} Long High Low
1131 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means As I said, these were undeniably challenging and provocative questions, even for the seasoned contributors to this special issue 19 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'these'}, 'advcl': {'said'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'even', 'undeniably'}, 'amod': {'seasoned', 'challenging', 'special'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'provocative'}, 'attr': {'questions'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'contributors', 'issue'}} Medium High Medium
1132 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means With the purpose and expectations of this special issue in mind, I have chosen to frame this commentary from the vantage point of a theorist, researcher, and edu- cator whose overarching motivation has been to unearth the constructs, principles, and procedures that foster learning and academic development 47 23 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 17, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'from', 'With', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'theorist', 'mind', 'issue', 'purpose', 'point'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'development', 'researcher', 'cator', 'procedures', 'principles', 'expectations'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'foster', 'edu-', 'special'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that', 'motivation'}, 'aux': {'has', 'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'chosen'}, 'xcomp': {'unearth', 'frame'}, 'dobj': {'commentary', 'constructs'}, 'compound': {'vantage', 'overarching'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'relcl': {'been'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}} Long High Low
1133 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means I hold to this goal regardless of learners’ differences, their sociocultural backgrounds, the content domain, or the theoretical framework from which those constructs, principles, and procedures arise 27 12 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB] {'nsubj': {'I', 'backgrounds'}, 'ccomp': {'hold'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'goal', 'which', 'differences'}, 'advmod': {'regardless'}, 'poss': {'learners', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'sociocultural'}, 'compound': {'content'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'framework', 'procedures', 'principles'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'relcl': {'constructs'}, 'ROOT': {'arise'}} Long High Low
1134 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Given this vantage point, I embrace the challenge of discerning the genetic composition of the hybridized or integrated theories described in this special issue and predicting the likelihood that these new theoretical offspring will flour - ish within the educational landscape 41 17 {'VERB': 7, 'DET': 8, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'within', 'of', 'Given'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'compound': {'vantage'}, 'pobj': {'landscape', 'point', 'issue', 'theories'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'offspring', 'I'}, 'ccomp': {'embrace'}, 'dobj': {'challenge', 'likelihood', 'composition'}, 'pcomp': {'discerning'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'genetic', 'new', 'hybridized', 'educational', 'special'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'integrated', 'predicting'}, 'acl': {'described', 'flour'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'ish'}} Long High Medium
1135 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Even more importantly, I assess whether the offspring produced by theoretical recombination or grafting is apt to bear fruit in the form of enhanced learning and academic development for all students 31 15 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'importantly', 'more', 'Even'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'offspring', 'I'}, 'ROOT': {'assess'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'acl': {'produced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'enhanced', 'theoretical', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'form', 'recombination', 'students'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'grafting', 'development'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'apt'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'bear'}, 'dobj': {'fruit'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}} Long High Medium
1136 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Hybridization Versus Integration In proposing this special issue, King and Fryer (this issue) wrote compellingly about the need for hybridization and integration in service of alternative models that repo- sition existing motivation theories in cross-disciplinary space 36 12 {'PROPN': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'motivation', 'Versus', 'Hybridization'}, 'npadvmod': {'Integration'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'about', 'for', 'In'}, 'pcomp': {'proposing'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'-', 'existing', 'cross', 'special', 'alternative', 'disciplinary'}, 'dobj': {'issue', 'theories', 'sition'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'King'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Fryer', 'integration'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'wrote'}, 'advmod': {'compellingly'}, 'pobj': {'service', 'models', 'hybridization', 'need', 'space'}, 'relcl': {'repo-'}} Long High Low
1137 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means However, hybridiza- tion and integration are quite distinct processes that resolve into outcomes that can either take the form of new variants or new configurations, both of which are evident among the contributions to this special issue 37 21 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'quite', 'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'hybridiza-'}, 'nsubj': {'both', 'that', 'tion'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'integration', 'configurations'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'distinct', 'special', 'new'}, 'attr': {'processes'}, 'relcl': {'take', 'resolve', 'are'}, 'prep': {'into', 'among', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'issue', 'variants', 'outcomes', 'contributions'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'form'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}} Long High Low
1138 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Elaborating on the editors’ metaphor, let me clarify the distinction I am drawing here between hybridization and integra- tion and why it is of significance to insights garnered from the articles comprising this issue 34 18 {'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Elaborating'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'to', 'of', 'between'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'poss': {'editors'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'pobj': {'significance', 'insights', 'hybridization', 'metaphor', 'articles'}, 'ROOT': {'let'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'me', 'it'}, 'ccomp': {'clarify'}, 'dobj': {'distinction', 'issue'}, 'aux': {'am'}, 'relcl': {'drawing'}, 'advmod': {'here', 'why'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'integra-'}, 'conj': {'is', 'tion'}, 'acl': {'comprising', 'garnered'}} Long High Medium
1139 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The purpose of hybridization in the biogenetic sciences is to create a new species with select properties of the parent organisms 21 10 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'purpose'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'organisms', 'hybridization', 'properties', 'sciences'}, 'amod': {'biogenetic', 'select', 'new'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'create'}, 'dobj': {'species'}, 'compound': {'parent'}} Long High Low
1140 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Through hybridization, the desired outcomes are thus new specimens or variants that are superior to the parent organ- isms for select features, traits, or strains 25 11 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'for', 'to', 'Through'}, 'pobj': {'isms', 'hybridization', 'features'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'desired', 'select', 'new'}, 'nsubj': {'outcomes', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'thus'}, 'attr': {'specimens'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'strains', 'traits', 'variants'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'superior'}, 'nmod': {'parent'}, 'compound': {'organ-'}} Long High Low
1141 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The resulting specimens or variants may well fail to flourish or bear fruit 13 6 {'DET': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'resulting'}, 'nsubj': {'specimens'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'bear', 'variants'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'ROOT': {'fail'}, 'xcomp': {'flourish'}, 'dobj': {'fruit'}} Medium High Low
1142 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Applying this metaphor to the current offerings in this special issue, the expectation would be to see parent theoretical models with distinct properties selectively combined in a manner that strengthens the motivation features, traits, or strains in the emerging specimen 40 18 {'VERB': 6, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Applying'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'models', 'metaphor', 'features'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'in'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'emerging', 'distinct', 'special', 'current'}, 'pobj': {'offerings', 'issue', 'manner', 'specimen', 'properties'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'expectation', 'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'see'}, 'compound': {'motivation', 'parent'}, 'advmod': {'selectively'}, 'acl': {'combined'}, 'relcl': {'strengthens'}, 'conj': {'strains', 'traits'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Low
1143 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Even more than strengthening the motivation ele- ments in existing models, however, I consider whether this exercise in hybridization would likely bear fruit in the form of improved learning and academic development 32 15 {'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, X, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'likely', 'Even', 'however'}, 'prep': {'than', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'strengthening'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'motivation', 'ele-'}, 'dobj': {'ments', 'fruit'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'academic', 'improved'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'form', 'hybridization', 'learning'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'exercise'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'bear'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'development'}} Long High Medium
1144 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In contrast to hybridization, integration is a process that is typically less species- intrusive and less technically precise 18 9 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADJ] {'prep': {'to', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'hybridization', 'contrast'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'integration'}, 'ROOT': {'precise', 'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'process'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'technically', 'less', 'typically'}, 'acomp': {'species-'}, 'amod': {'intrusive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'less'}} Medium High Low
1145 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Examples of integration in agriculture, for example, would be when pest-resistant plants are placed around the perimeter of a plot or when certain non-native species are combined with native plants 30 15 {'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Examples'}, 'prep': {'around', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'agriculture', 'integration', 'plot', 'perimeter', 'example', 'plants'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'npadvmod': {'pest'}, 'amod': {'-', 'certain', 'native', 'resistant', 'non'}, 'nsubjpass': {'plants', 'species'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'placed', 'combined'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High High
1146 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Cross-pol- lination could result from the combinations, but such outcomes are not purposefully 13 7 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV] {'amod': {'-', 'Cross', 'such'}, 'compound': {'pol-'}, 'nsubj': {'outcomes', 'lination'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ROOT': {'result'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'combinations'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'purposefully'}} Medium High Low
1147 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:23 Page 3 of 13 23 orchestrated 12 1 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, ADJ] {'nummod': {'13', '36:23', '1', '3'}, 'amod': {'3Educational'}, 'compound': {'Psychology'}, 'nsubj': {'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'appos': {'Page'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'23'}, 'ROOT': {'orchestrated'}} Medium Low Low
1148 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In the context of this special issue, theoretical integrations would be more apt to stay within a given field, such as achievement motivation, rather than venture into diverse territories, such as teacher beliefs and pedagogical practices or cognitive and metacognitive strategies 41 20 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADJ': 9, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'into', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'territories', 'issue', 'field', 'context', 'motivation', 'beliefs'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'given', 'diverse', 'pedagogical', 'such', 'special', 'cognitive'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'integrations'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'rather', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'apt'}, 'xcomp': {'stay'}, 'compound': {'achievement', 'teacher'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than', 'or'}, 'conj': {'metacognitive', 'practices', 'venture', 'strategies'}} Long High Low
1149 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Further, rather than aim for a new specimen, integration researchers would be seeking to produce stronger or more viable variants of existing variants 23 11 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'rather', 'more', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'than'}, 'advcl': {'aim'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'stronger', 'existing', 'new'}, 'pobj': {'specimen', 'variants'}, 'compound': {'integration'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'aux': {'would', 'be', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'seeking'}, 'xcomp': {'produce'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'viable'}, 'dobj': {'variants'}} Long High Medium
1150 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means How do these analogical contrasts between hybridization and integration extend to the articles in this special issue and to the contributions those articles make to the new “strains” that the editors envisioned 32 18 {'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [SCONJ, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'How'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this', 'those'}, 'amod': {'new', 'special', 'analogical'}, 'ROOT': {'contrasts'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'hybridization', 'strains', 'contributions', 'articles'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'integration', 'extend'}, 'nsubj': {'articles', 'editors'}, 'relcl': {'make', 'envisioned'}, 'punct': {'”', '“'}, 'mark': {'that'}} Long High High
1151 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means I look first at the theoretical integrations before turning to hybridized models 12 6 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'look'}, 'advmod': {'first'}, 'prep': {'at', 'before', 'to'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'hybridized', 'theoretical'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'integrations'}, 'pcomp': {'turning'}} Medium High Low
1152 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means There were several articles that clearly adopted integration as the means to achieve the ends sought in this special issue (Elliot & Sommet, this issue; Skinner, this issue) 28 12 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 5, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'amod': {'several', 'special'}, 'attr': {'articles', 'issue'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'clearly'}, 'relcl': {'adopted'}, 'dobj': {'ends', 'integration'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'means', 'issue'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'sought', 'achieve'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Elliot', 'Skinner', 'issue'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Sommet'}} Long High Low
1153 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Other authors took on the challenge of strengthening motivational strains by embracing hybridization as their preferred technique (Dinsmore et al., this issue; Noetel et al., this issue) 27 9 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 8} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Other', 'motivational', 'preferred'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'took'}, 'prt': {'on'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'challenge', 'strains', 'hybridization'}, 'prep': {'by', 'as', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'embracing', 'strengthening'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'technique'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'et', 'Dinsmore', 'issue'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'Noetel', 'et'}, 'conj': {'al', '.'}} Long High Low
1154 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Nonetheless, even within these two broad categories of theoretical consolidation and cross-breeding, there were marked differences in these authors’ methods and in the explanatory and predictive findings they forwarded 29 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless', 'even'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'amod': {'explanatory', 'theoretical', 'marked', 'broad'}, 'pobj': {'consolidation', 'categories', 'findings', 'methods'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'-', 'cross', 'in', 'breeding', 'predictive'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'differences'}, 'poss': {'authors'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'forwarded'}} Long High Low
1155 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Theoretical Integrations As noted, several contributors following the integration path did not attempt to pro- duce new theoretical models 19 6 {'PROPN': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Theoretical', 'integration'}, 'nsubj': {'Integrations', 'contributors'}, 'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'noted'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'several', 'new'}, 'acl': {'following'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'path'}, 'aux': {'did', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'attempt'}, 'xcomp': {'duce', 'pro-'}, 'dobj': {'models'}} Medium High Medium
1156 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Rather, they set out to illustrate how models they had already generated and revised served the ends of this special issue (Elliot & Som- met, this issue; Martin, this issue) 30 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'already', 'Rather', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'models', 'Elliot', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'set'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'illustrate'}, 'relcl': {'generated'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Som-', 'revised'}, 'ccomp': {'served'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'ends', 'issue'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'special'}, 'pobj': {'issue'}, 'parataxis': {'met'}, 'appos': {'Martin', 'issue'}} Long High Medium
1157 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means For example, Elliot and Sommet (this issue) reoriented the Hierarchical Model of Achievement Motivation (HMAM; Elliot & Thrash, 2001) that has been used to explore the associations among related achieve- ment motivation constructs such as approach-avoidance goals and the research on emotions (Elliot & Church, 1997; Elliot & Pekrun, 2007; Pekrun et al., 2006, 2009) 55 17 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 16, 'PROPN': 17, 'CCONJ': 5, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'NUM': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'among', 'of', 'as', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'goals', 'emotions', 'example', 'motivation', 'Motivation'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'Elliot'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'al', 'Sommet', 'Church', 'Pekrun', 'Elliot', 'constructs', 'research', 'Thrash'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'appos': {'issue', '.', '2009', '2006', '1997', 'et', '2007', 'Elliot', 'HMAM', '2001'}, 'ROOT': {'Pekrun', 'reoriented'}, 'compound': {'ment', 'Hierarchical', 'approach', 'achieve-', 'avoidance', 'Achievement'}, 'dobj': {'Model', 'associations'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ccomp': {'used'}, 'xcomp': {'explore'}, 'amod': {'such', 'related'}} Long High Low
1158 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In the current iteration, Elliot and Sommet (this issue) centered on achievement goals as the model linchpin and offered a detailed amalgamation of motivation con- structs, along with descriptive models of their proposed interplay 34 14 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'along', 'In'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'descriptive', 'detailed', 'proposed', 'current'}, 'pobj': {'goals', 'linchpin', 'models', 'structs', 'interplay', 'iteration'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Elliot'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Sommet', 'offered'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'centered'}, 'compound': {'con-', 'achievement', 'model', 'motivation'}, 'dobj': {'amalgamation'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
1159 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means While certainly integrative, the rich description of the HMAM does not step far outside the domain of motivation 18 8 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1} [SCONJ, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'advmod': {'certainly', 'far'}, 'advcl': {'integrative'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'rich'}, 'nsubj': {'description'}, 'prep': {'outside', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'HMAM', 'motivation'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'step'}} Medium High Medium
1160 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Also, “learning” is mentioned only once in the entire document, and developmental concerns are primarily relegated to future directions 19 9 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'Also', 'once', 'primarily'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nsubjpass': {'learning', 'concerns'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'are'}, 'ROOT': {'mentioned'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'entire', 'future', 'developmental'}, 'pobj': {'directions', 'document'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'relegated'}} Medium High Low
1161 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In a similar vein, Martin (this issue) revisits two of his existing models that exem- plify intra-domain integration, one dealing with motivation and one focused on instruction, namely, Motivation and Engagement Wheel (Martin, 2007) and Load Reduction Instruction (LRI; Martin, 2016; Martin & Evans, 2021) 45 15 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 15, 'PROPN': 12, 'VERB': 4, 'NUM': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NUM, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PRON, X, NOUN, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'with', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'amod': {'similar', '-', 'existing', 'intra', 'domain'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'vein', 'motivation', 'Motivation', 'instruction'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Martin', 'one', 'that', 'integration'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'issue', 'LRI', 'one', '2016'}, 'ROOT': {'revisits'}, 'dobj': {'two', 'Martin'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'relcl': {'exem-'}, 'nmod': {'plify'}, 'acl': {'dealing'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'ccomp': {'focused'}, 'advmod': {'namely'}, 'compound': {'Load', 'Reduction', 'Engagement'}, 'conj': {'Martin', 'Instruction', 'Evans', 'Wheel'}, 'npadvmod': {'Martin', '2007'}} Long High Low
1162 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Through what he labels as inter-domain integration, Martin explains how the combination of these two extant models illustrates how motivation and engagement share certain underly - ing root structures with instruction aimed at cognitive load reduction 36 13 {'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'at', 'Through', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'structures'}, 'nsubj': {'Martin', 'combination', 'he'}, 'pcomp': {'labels'}, 'amod': {'-', 'extant', 'certain', 'ing', 'inter', 'domain', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'integration', 'reduction', 'instruction'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'explains'}, 'advmod': {'underly', 'how'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'ccomp': {'illustrates'}, 'nmod': {'motivation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'root', 'load', 'engagement'}, 'conj': {'share'}, 'acl': {'aimed'}} Long High High
1163 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In contrast to the Elliot and Sommet article (this issue), Martin (this issue) references learning quite frequently 17 7 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV] {'prep': {'to', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'article', 'contrast'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nmod': {'Elliot', 'Martin'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Sommet'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'references'}, 'acl': {'learning'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'frequently'}} Medium High Low
1164 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means However, most of those referrals are in the form of instructional approaches, such as explicit instruction, discovery learning, and independent learn- ing, and their hypothesized relation to cognitive load. 29 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'nsubj': {'most'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'form', 'load', 'referrals', 'approaches', 'instruction'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'independent', 'instructional', 'learn-', 'hypothesized', 'such', 'explicit', 'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'discovery'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'ing', 'relation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
1165 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:23 1 3 23 Page 4 of 13 The most comprehensive attempt at integration was proposed by Skinner (this issue) 24 7 {'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', '3'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Review', 'attempt'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'quantmod': {'36:23', '1'}, 'nummod': {'4', '23'}, 'appos': {'Page', 'issue'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Skinner', '13', 'integration'}, 'det': {'The', 'this'}, 'advmod': {'most'}, 'amod': {'comprehensive'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'proposed'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
1166 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means As with Elliot and Sommet (this issue), Skinner’s detailed reconfiguration remained within the domain of motivation and, more specifically, achievement moti- vation 22 10 {'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'As', 'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Elliot', 'domain', 'motivation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Sommet'}, 'punct': {'(', 'vation', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'poss': {'Skinner'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'detailed'}, 'nsubj': {'reconfiguration'}, 'ROOT': {'remained'}, 'advmod': {'specifically', 'more'}, 'compound': {'achievement'}, 'dep': {'moti-'}} Long High Low
1167 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means (2009) sought to do for diverse theories of learn- ing, Skinner set out to map constructs pertaining to achievement motivation within a theoretical landscape framed by four guideposts, motivational resilience, academic identity, complex social ecologies, and developmental embeddedness 38 12 {'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 11, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Skinner', '2009'}, 'ccomp': {'sought'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'do', 'map'}, 'prep': {'for', 'within', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'learn-', 'theoretical', 'diverse', 'developmental', 'motivational', 'social', 'academic', 'complex'}, 'pobj': {'landscape', 'guideposts', 'ing', 'motivation', 'theories'}, 'ROOT': {'set'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'dobj': {'constructs'}, 'advcl': {'pertaining'}, 'compound': {'achievement'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'acl': {'framed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'conj': {'ecologies', 'resilience', 'embeddedness', 'identity'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
1168 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Rather than follow pathways carved by those who feel that the solution to addressing the pleth- ora of motivational constructs, conceptual fragmentation, and theoretical siloes is to pare down popular theories to their simplest structures, Skinner (this issue) allowed their complexities to manifest 43 19 {'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NUM, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB] {'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'mark': {'than', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'follow'}, 'dobj': {'ora', 'pathways', 'theories'}, 'acl': {'carved'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'constructs', 'structures', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'solution', 'Skinner', 'complexities', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'feel'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'addressing'}, 'compound': {'pleth-'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'simplest', 'popular', 'conceptual', 'motivational'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'siloes', 'fragmentation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'manifest'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'pare'}, 'prt': {'down'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'allowed'}} Long High High
1169 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means She then used those complex features to discern simi- larities and differences across constructs as they related to context, self, action, and outcomes to forge what she labeled as principled integration 31 15 {'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'She', 'she', 'they'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'amod': {'principled', 'simi-', 'complex'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'larities', 'features'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'discern'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'action', 'self', 'outcomes', 'differences'}, 'prep': {'as', 'across', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'context', 'integration', 'constructs'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'related', 'forge'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ccomp': {'labeled'}} Long High Medium
1170 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means When it came to learn- ing and academic development, Skinner projected that such principled integration within achievement motivation could “foster the design of even more effective class- room interventions, and communicate even more meaningfully with educational stakeholders, especially teachers and parents” (p 42 17 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 6, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'especially', 'meaningfully', 'even', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'Skinner', 'it', 'integration'}, 'advcl': {'came'}, 'prep': {'with', 'within', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'learn-', 'principled', 'effective', 'such', 'educational'}, 'pobj': {'ing', 'interventions', 'stakeholders', 'motivation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'parents', 'communicate', 'academic', 'development'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '”', '“'}, 'ROOT': {'projected'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'room', 'achievement', 'class-'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ccomp': {'foster'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'design'}, 'appos': {'p', 'teachers'}} Long High High
1171 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Theoretical Hybridizations The other contributors to this special issue demonstrated some degree of hybridiza- tion in their efforts to forge alternative theoretical strains (Dinsmore et al., this issue; Fryer et al., this issue; Hornstra et al., this issue; Noetel et al., this issue) 43 13 {'PROPN': 18, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 9} [PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Fryer', 'Theoretical', 'hybridiza-', 'et'}, 'nsubj': {'contributors', 'Hybridizations'}, 'det': {'some', 'The', 'this'}, 'amod': {'other', 'alternative', 'theoretical', 'special'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'efforts', 'issue', 'tion'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrated'}, 'dobj': {'.', 'strains', 'degree'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'forge'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', 'Dinsmore', 'issue', 'et', 'Noetel'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'issue', '.', 'et', 'Hornstra'}, 'conj': {'al', '.'}} Long High Low
1172 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means These hybridizations differed not only in the authors’ primary aims but also in specific dimensions, such as the number and forms of variables or constructs modeled 26 14 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, VERB] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'hybridizations'}, 'ROOT': {'differed'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'authors'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'primary', 'such', 'specific'}, 'pobj': {'number', 'dimensions', 'aims', 'variables'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'conj': {'modeled', 'forms', 'constructs', 'in'}, 'punct': {','}} Long High Low
1173 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means (this issue) grafted components of the Model of Domain Learning (Alexander, 1997, 2003) and Approaches to Learning (Marton & Säljo, 1984) together to produce the MDL-SAL 26 9 {'PUNCT': 10, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, PART, VERB, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'grafted'}, 'dobj': {'components', 'SAL'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Model', 'Learning'}, 'compound': {'Domain', 'MDL'}, 'appos': {'1997', 'Marton', '1984', '2003', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Säljo', 'Approaches'}, 'advmod': {'together'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'produce'}} Long High Low
1174 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means This new model was meant to explain better how metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control influence learners’ surface- and deep-level processing over the course of their academic development 27 10 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'surface-', 'new', 'metacognitive', 'deep', 'academic'}, 'nsubjpass': {'model'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'explain'}, 'advmod': {'better', 'how'}, 'nsubj': {'monitoring'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'influence', 'control'}, 'conj': {'learners', 'level'}, 'punct': {'’', '-'}, 'dobj': {'processing'}, 'prep': {'of', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'development'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
1175 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means had initially set out to fuse Winne and Hadwin’s (1998) COPES (conditions, operations, products, evaluations, and standards) model with the MDL- SAL models 23 8 {'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 1} [AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, PROPN, NOUN] {'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'initially'}, 'ROOT': {'set'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'advcl': {'fuse'}, 'dobj': {'Winne', 'COPES'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'operations', 'Hadwin', 'evaluations', 'products', 'standards'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', '’s', ')'}, 'nummod': {'1998', 'MDL-'}, 'appos': {'conditions', 'model'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'SAL'}, 'pobj': {'models'}} Long High Low
1176 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means However, these authors found that merging a stage model (the MDL) with a cyclical model (COPES) was overly challenging 19 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'advmod': {'overly', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'merging'}, 'compound': {'stage'}, 'dobj': {'model'}, 'appos': {'MDL', 'COPES'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'amod': {'cyclical'}, 'pobj': {'model'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'challenging'}} Medium High Medium
1177 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Nonetheless, the authors were hopeful that their particular hybridization would better explain the interface of learning and cognitive-metacognitive processing over time 21 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless', 'better'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'hybridization'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'hopeful'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'cognitive'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'explain'}, 'dobj': {'interface'}, 'prep': {'of', 'over'}, 'nmod': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'metacognitive'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'time'}} Long High Medium
1178 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means (this issue), sought to fuse aspects of three theoretical models to generate a more robust explana- tion for the development and nurturance of students’ ability beliefs 26 11 {'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'dep': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'fuse'}, 'dobj': {'aspects', 'tion'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'robust'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'beliefs', 'students', 'development'}, 'advcl': {'generate'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'compound': {'ability', 'explana-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'nurturance'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
1179 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The mod- els they explored by means of a meta-analytic approach were Bandura’s (1977) Social Cognitive Theory, Connell’s (1985, 1990) Perceived Control Theory, and Skinner and Belmont’s (1993) Self-System Model of Motivational Development (SSMMD) 34 12 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 13, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 14, 'PART': 3, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'amod': {'meta', 'mod-', 'analytic'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'els'}, 'relcl': {'explored'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'approach', 'means', 'Development'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'Theory', 'were'}, 'poss': {'Bandura'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'appos': {'1990', 'Connell', '1985', '1993', 'Model', '1977', 'SSMMD'}, 'compound': {'Cognitive', 'Self', 'Perceived', 'Motivational', 'System', 'Control', 'Social'}, 'attr': {'Theory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Belmont', 'Skinner'}} Long High Low
1180 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The strains from these models that Fryer and Leenknecht (this issue) targeted in their hybridization were teacher clarity and teacher feedback as con- tributors to student achievement, with self-efficacy as a mediating factor and 34 16 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'these', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'Fryer', 'strains'}, 'prep': {'with', 'as', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'efficacy', 'models', 'tributors', 'hybridization', 'factor'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Leenknecht', 'feedback'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'relcl': {'targeted'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'compound': {'self', 'mediating', 'teacher', 'student'}, 'attr': {'clarity', 'achievement'}, 'amod': {'con-'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Low
1181 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:23 Page 5 of 13 23 perceived control theory “as a bridge from teacher clarity and feedback to self- efficacy” (p 26 6 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'nummod': {'5', '36:23', '1', '23'}, 'amod': {'3Educational', 'perceived', 'self-'}, 'compound': {'Psychology', 'teacher', 'control', '13'}, 'ROOT': {'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', '”', ')', '“'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'appos': {'p', 'Page'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'clarity', 'bridge', 'efficacy', 'theory'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'feedback'}} Long High Low
1182 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The authors concluded their review with what they creatively call “recipe cards” for testing their iteration of SSMMD model 19 9 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'concluded'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'review', 'iteration'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'creatively'}, 'pcomp': {'call', 'testing'}, 'punct': {'”', '“'}, 'compound': {'recipe', 'SSMMD'}, 'oprd': {'cards'}, 'pobj': {'model'}} Medium High Low
1183 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means (this issue) merged literature from teaching and teacher education with inquiry centered on learn- ers 15 5 {'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'merged'}, 'dobj': {'literature'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'teaching', 'ers', 'inquiry'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'teacher'}, 'conj': {'education'}, 'advcl': {'centered'}, 'amod': {'learn-'}} Medium High Low
1184 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In this hybridization, the genetic substances came from the theoretical and empirical work on Teacher Expectations (Harris & Rosenthal, 1985; Rosenthal & Jacobson,1968; Rubie-Davies & Rosenthal, 2016) and Self-Determination The- ory (SDT: Deci & Ryan, 2000; Reeve et al., 2014; Stroet et al., 2013), which the authors characterize as a macrotheory of motivation and well-being 55 16 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 19, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 7, 'PROPN': 22, 'NUM': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'from', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'work', 'hybridization', 'Expectations', 'motivation', 'macrotheory'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'genetic'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'Davies', 'substances'}, 'ROOT': {'came'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Jacobson,1968', 'Deci', 'al', '.', 'empirical', 'Ryan', 'being', 'Stroet', 'The-', 'Rosenthal', 'Harris'}, 'compound': {'Rubie', 'Determination', 'Teacher', 'Self'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'ory', '2013', '1985', 'SDT', 'et', '2000', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'Reeve', 'et'}, 'dobj': {'which'}, 'relcl': {'characterize'}, 'advmod': {'well'}} Long High Low
1185 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Even more specifically, these authors were testing the effects of combining the strands of High Expectation Theory (HET: Cooper & Good, 1983; Rubie-Davies, 2015; Salomon, 1981) with Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT: Vansteenkiste et al., 2020), which is one of the theoretical variants of SDT 45 15 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 15, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 18, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, NUM, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN] {'advmod': {'specifically', 'more', 'Even'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'authors'}, 'aux': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'testing'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'strands'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'combining'}, 'compound': {'Needs', 'Expectation', 'Basic', 'Psychological', 'Rubie', 'High'}, 'pobj': {'Theory', 'SDT', 'variants'}, 'appos': {'al', '2015', '.', 'BPNT', '1981', '2020', 'HET', '1983'}, 'conj': {'Cooper', 'Salomon', 'Davies', 'Good'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'nmod': {'Vansteenkiste'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'one'}, 'amod': {'theoretical'}} Long High Low
1186 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means (this issue) considered the viability of their theoretical cross-breeding as well as the contributions and conundrums that seemed likely to result from the HET-BPNT blending 25 14 {'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'oprd': {'viability', 'likely'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'theoretical'}, 'pobj': {'blending', '-', 'breeding', 'cross'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'contributions', 'conundrums'}, 'relcl': {'seemed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'result'}, 'compound': {'BPNT', 'HET'}} Long High Low
1187 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The fruits that the authors hoped would emerge were described in terms of positive student academic and sociopsycho- logical outcomes 20 8 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'fruits'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'hoped'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'emerge'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'outcomes', 'terms'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'academic', 'logical'}, 'nmod': {'student'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sociopsycho-'}} Long High Low
1188 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Nonetheless, these authors were forthcoming about the theory- to-practice threats that inevitably must be weighed 15 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, ADV, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'inevitably', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'forthcoming'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to'}, 'nmod': {'theory-'}, 'pobj': {'threats', 'practice'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'weighed'}} Medium High Low
1189 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The threats they discussed seem inherent to any of the theoretical models in this special issue that relied on beliefs and the measurement of beliefs 25 14 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'threats', 'that', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'discussed', 'relied'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'oprd': {'inherent'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'any', 'issue', 'beliefs'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'special'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'measurement'}} Long High Low
1190 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Still, these authors remained optimistic that their particular theoretical variant would prove more resistant to such threats than either of the parent theories 23 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'Still'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'variant'}, 'ROOT': {'remained'}, 'acomp': {'optimistic'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'theoretical', 'such'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'prove'}, 'oprd': {'resistant'}, 'prep': {'than', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'threats', 'parent'}, 'pcomp': {'either'}, 'advcl': {'theories'}} Long High Medium
1191 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means (this issue) took was quite ambi- tious in that they set out to extract teacher behaviors from four “prominent” motiva- tional theories that they contended would best predict student engagement among Year 7 students enrolled in physical education classes in low socioeconomic Aus- tralian schools 45 16 {'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 8, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 4} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'punct': {'(', '”', ')', '“'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'issue', 'they'}, 'csubj': {'took'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'best', 'ambi-'}, 'acomp': {'tious'}, 'mark': {'that', 'in'}, 'advcl': {'set', 'extract'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'compound': {'teacher', 'education', 'Aus-', 'tralian', 'student'}, 'dobj': {'behaviors', 'engagement'}, 'prep': {'in', 'among', 'from'}, 'nummod': {'four', '7'}, 'amod': {'socioeconomic', 'low', 'motiva-', 'prominent', 'tional', 'physical'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'schools', 'classes', 'theories'}, 'relcl': {'contended'}, 'conj': {'predict'}, 'nmod': {'Year'}, 'acl': {'enrolled'}} Long High High
1192 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The four theories that they selected were self-determination theory, achievement goal theory, growth mindset theory, and transformational leadership theory (which has its roots in organizational psychology) 26 10 {'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 14, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NUM, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'The'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'they', 'theories'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'roots'}, 'acl': {'selected'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'compound': {'achievement', 'growth', 'determination', 'mindset', 'leadership', 'goal', 'self'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'attr': {'theory'}, 'conj': {'theory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'transformational', 'organizational'}, 'relcl': {'has'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'psychology'}} Long High Medium
1193 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In total, 83 physical edu- cation teachers and 1324 students from 17 of the 130 eligible schools participated 18 5 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NUM': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'schools', '17', 'total'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'130', '1324', '83'}, 'amod': {'eligible', 'edu-', 'physical'}, 'compound': {'cation'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'students'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'participated'}} Medium High Low
1194 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Students’ affective, behavioral, and cognitive engagement as related to physical edu- cation was surveyed at the end of Year 6 and again at the end of Year 7 using a modified version of the Student Engagement in School measure (Lam et al., 2014) 43 17 {'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 3, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'poss': {'Students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nmod': {'Engagement', 'affective'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'behavioral', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubjpass': {'engagement'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'amod': {'edu-', 'related', 'physical', 'modified'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Year', 'School', 'end', 'measure', 'cation'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'surveyed'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nummod': {'6', '7'}, 'advmod': {'again'}, 'advcl': {'using'}, 'dobj': {'version'}, 'compound': {'Student'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'Lam'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Medium
1195 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Midpoint in Year 7, the students also rated their teachers’ performance on 71 items extracted from the motivational theories that were presumed to support stu- dent engagement 27 10 {'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Midpoint'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'Year', 'theories'}, 'nummod': {'71', '7'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'rated'}, 'poss': {'teachers', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'engagement'}, 'acl': {'extracted'}, 'amod': {'motivational'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'presumed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'support'}, 'compound': {'stu-', 'dent'}} Long High Low
1196 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Of those 71 items, the authors deemed that 68 related to a psy - chological need in self-determination theory, 47 were characteristic of a leadership style in transformational leadership theory, 29 reflected either a mastery or perfor - mance classroom climate, and 10 were associated with students’ growth or fixed mindset 51 18 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'NUM': 5, 'NOUN': 19, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 4} [ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NUM, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'Of', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'nummod': {'71'}, 'pobj': {'growth', 'theory', 'items', 'need', 'style'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', '68', '29', '47'}, 'ccomp': {'deemed', 'were'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advcl': {'related'}, 'npadvmod': {'psy'}, 'amod': {'transformational', 'chological', 'fixed'}, 'compound': {'determination', 'leadership', 'perfor', 'classroom', 'self'}, 'acomp': {'characteristic'}, 'ROOT': {'reflected'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'nmod': {'students', 'mastery'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'associated', 'mance', 'mindset'}, 'dobj': {'climate'}, 'nsubjpass': {'10'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}} Long High Medium
1197 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The authors reported that their model indicated that approximately 5% of the change in students’ self-rated engagement from Year 6 to Year 7 was predicted by their ratings of teachers’ engagement-related behaviors 32 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, ADP, PROPN, NUM, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'model'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'teachers', 'their'}, 'ccomp': {'indicated', 'predicted'}, 'advmod': {'approximately'}, 'nummod': {'5', '6', '7'}, 'nsubjpass': {'%'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Year', 'change', 'students', 'behaviors', 'ratings'}, 'punct': {'’', '-'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'engagement'}, 'amod': {'rated', 'related'}, 'appos': {'engagement'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High High
1198 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The authors concluded that “physical education teachers can engage students by being good role models, discussing class values, taking interest in students’ lives, differentiating lessons, and 26 7 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'teachers'}, 'ROOT': {'concluded'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'punct': {',', '’', '“'}, 'amod': {'good', 'physical'}, 'compound': {'role', 'education', 'class'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'engage'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'values', 'interest', 'lessons'}, 'prep': {'by', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'being'}, 'attr': {'models'}, 'advcl': {'discussing'}, 'conj': {'taking', 'differentiating'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'pobj': {'lives'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Medium
1199 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:23 1 3 23 Page 6 of 13 by avoiding unfair rewards, unclear instructions, punishments, and conditional posi- tive regard” (p 25 3 {'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'compound': {'Psychology', '3', 'tive', 'Educational', 'posi-'}, 'ROOT': {'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '”'}, 'npadvmod': {'Page', '2024'}, 'nummod': {'6', '36:23', '23'}, 'quantmod': {'1'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'13'}, 'pcomp': {'avoiding'}, 'amod': {'unclear', 'conditional', 'unfair'}, 'dobj': {'rewards'}, 'conj': {'punishments', 'regard', 'instructions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long Low Low
1200 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Digging Deeper into the Processes of Integration and Hybridization With the lay of the land for these integrated and hybridized models in place, I want to probe deeper into the composition of these proposed or established theoretical variants and prune the promises from the products 45 23 {'VERB': 8, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADP': 9, 'DET': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [VERB, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Digging'}, 'dobj': {'promises', 'Deeper', 'variants'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'into', 'of', 'for', 'With'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'Processes', 'models', 'products', 'lay', 'place', 'these', 'Integration', 'land', 'composition'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'hybridized', 'prune', 'established', 'Hybridization'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'integrated'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'probe'}, 'advmod': {'deeper'}, 'acl': {'proposed'}} Long High Low
1201 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means I want to examine the fruits of these creative endeavors to see whether they, in fact, reveal stronger, more viable strains of motivation, as King and Fryer (this issue) sought 30 15 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB] {'nsubj': {'I', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'want', 'reveal'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'see', 'examine'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'strains', 'fruits'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'stronger', 'viable', 'creative'}, 'pobj': {'King', 'endeavors', 'motivation', 'fact'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Fryer'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}} Long High Medium
1202 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Moreover, I want to determine whether the integration and hybridization techniques would permit the contributors to this special issue to draw optimistic conclusions about their new variants or to make predictions of a causal nature 35 18 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'techniques'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'draw', 'determine'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nmod': {'integration'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'make', 'hybridization'}, 'ccomp': {'permit'}, 'dobj': {'predictions', 'contributors', 'conclusions'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'optimistic', 'causal', 'special', 'new'}, 'pobj': {'nature', 'issue', 'variants'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
1203 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In essence, the purpose of these contributions was to offer educational researchers and practitioners more substantive theoretical models related to motivation constructs than those already populating the literature 28 13 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'than', 'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'those', 'essence', 'constructs', 'contributions'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'purpose'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'offer'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'educational', 'substantive'}, 'dobj': {'models', 'researchers', 'literature'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practitioners'}, 'advmod': {'already', 'more'}, 'acl': {'populating', 'related'}, 'compound': {'motivation'}} Long High Low
1204 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Motivation–Nonmotivation Spectrum The editors for this special issue spoke passionately about the need to break down the theoretical silos that have long formed among motivational researchers 26 11 {'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Motivation', 'spoke'}, 'punct': {'–'}, 'compound': {'Nonmotivation'}, 'appos': {'Spectrum'}, 'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'editors', 'that'}, 'prep': {'about', 'for', 'among'}, 'amod': {'motivational', 'theoretical', 'special'}, 'pobj': {'researchers', 'issue', 'need'}, 'advmod': {'long', 'passionately'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'acl': {'break'}, 'prt': {'down'}, 'dobj': {'silos'}, 'relcl': {'formed'}} Long High Low
1205 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means As they lamented, “within the field of motivation in educational psychology, researchers have failed to learn from each other… creatively combining different theoretical per - spectives might give us a more complete picture of student motivation and learning” (p 39 19 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'lamented', 'combining'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', '”', ',', '…', '“'}, 'prep': {'from', 'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'pobj': {'other', 'psychology', 'motivation', 'field'}, 'amod': {'different', 'theoretical', 'educational', 'complete'}, 'aux': {'have', 'might', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'failed'}, 'xcomp': {'learn'}, 'advmod': {'creatively', 'more'}, 'nmod': {'per'}, 'dobj': {'picture', 'spectives'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'give'}, 'dative': {'us'}, 'compound': {'student'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long High Medium
1206 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Their recommendation to achieve this end was to infuse motivation theories and constructs with insights that could be garnered for theories and constructs out- side motivation 26 13 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'X': 1} [PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, X, NOUN, NOUN] {'poss': {'Their'}, 'nsubj': {'recommendation'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'acl': {'achieve'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'dobj': {'motivation', 'end', 'theories'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'xcomp': {'infuse'}, 'compound': {'side', 'motivation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'constructs'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'theories', 'insights'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'garnered'}, 'prt': {'out-'}} Long High Low
1207 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means I generally agree with the editors that clearer views of motivation’s role in student learning might emerge through theoretical cross-fertilization 20 9 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'views'}, 'advmod': {'generally'}, 'ROOT': {'agree'}, 'prep': {'through', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'editors', '-', 'role', 'cross', 'learning'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'amod': {'clearer', 'theoretical'}, 'poss': {'motivation'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'student'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'relcl': {'emerge'}, 'punct': {'fertilization'}} Long High Low
1208 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Yet, that likelihood rests on how motivation was treated within each contribution and the degree to which nonmotivational theories and constructs were interjected 23 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Yet', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'likelihood', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'rests'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to'}, 'nsubjpass': {'motivation', 'theories'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'pcomp': {'treated'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'contribution'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'degree', 'constructs'}, 'amod': {'nonmotivational'}, 'relcl': {'interjected'}} Long High Medium
1209 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means On that point, the contributors to this special issue were situated very differently on a moti- vation–nonmotivation spectrum 18 9 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'On'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'point', 'issue', 'nonmotivation'}, 'punct': {',', '–'}, 'nsubjpass': {'contributors'}, 'amod': {'moti-', 'special'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'situated'}, 'advmod': {'very', 'differently'}, 'compound': {'vation'}, 'advcl': {'spectrum'}} Medium High Low
1210 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means At the motivation end of the spectrum, Elliot and Sommet (this issue) worked entirely within the motivation landscape by focusing on the HMAM (Elliot & Thrash, 2001) 27 11 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'within', 'At', 'by', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'motivation'}, 'pobj': {'landscape', 'HMAM', 'spectrum', 'end'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Elliot'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Sommet', 'Thrash'}, 'appos': {'Elliot', 'issue', '2001'}, 'ROOT': {'worked'}, 'advmod': {'entirely'}, 'pcomp': {'focusing'}} Long High Low
1211 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means With the exception of achievement motivation (Elliot & Pekrun, 2007; Koenka, 2020) and achievement emotions (Elliot et al., 2006, 2007), there was little attempt to interject DNA from nonmotivation theories into HMAM’s map- ping of constructs with achievement motivation as the focal point 43 14 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PROPN': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'from', 'into', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'With'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'exception', 'ping', 'point', 'motivation', 'theories', 'constructs'}, 'compound': {'achievement', 'map-', 'nonmotivation'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Elliot', '2007', '2020', '2006'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'emotions', 'al', '.', 'Pekrun', 'Koenka'}, 'npadvmod': {'Elliot', 'et'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'amod': {'focal', 'little'}, 'attr': {'attempt'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'interject'}, 'dobj': {'DNA'}, 'poss': {'HMAM'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High Low
1212 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Thus, despite the authors’ claims of comprehensiveness and inclusivity of this hierarchical model, the question remains about the nonmotivational strands that might have been explored such as the role of human development 32 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'about', 'despite', 'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'poss': {'authors'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'role', 'claims', 'comprehensiveness', 'development', 'model', 'strands'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'inclusivity'}, 'amod': {'nonmotivational', 'hierarchical', 'such', 'human'}, 'nsubj': {'question'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'have', 'might'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'explored'}} Long High Medium
1213 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Similarly situated at the motivation end of the spectrum was Skinner’s (this issue) efforts to confront the conceptual fragmentation and theoretical siloes found within the expansive literature on achievement motivation 30 13 {'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Similarly'}, 'ROOT': {'situated', 'efforts'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'achievement', 'motivation'}, 'pobj': {'literature', 'spectrum', 'end', 'motivation'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'attr': {'Skinner'}, 'punct': {'(', '’s', ')'}, 'nmod': {'issue'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'found', 'confront'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'expansive', 'conceptual'}, 'dobj': {'fragmentation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'siloes'}} Long High Low
1214 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:23 Page 7 of 13 23 pursue a hierarchical model like the HMAM, however, Skinner chose to employ a systems approach that positioned different achievement motivation theories and constructs within multidimensional space marked by their shared similari- ties with regard to motivational resilience, academic identity, complex social ecologies, and developmental embeddedness 56 14 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 9, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'36:23', '1', '23', '7'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'multidimensional', 'developmental', 'different', '3Educational', 'motivational', 'social', 'hierarchical', 'academic', 'complex'}, 'compound': {'systems', 'Psychology', 'achievement', 'similari-', '13', 'motivation'}, 'nsubj': {'Skinner', 'Review', 'that', 'pursue'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'appos': {'Page'}, 'prep': {'within', 'like', 'to', 'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'approach', 'model', 'theories'}, 'pobj': {'resilience', 'ties', 'regard', 'HMAM', 'space'}, 'advmod': {'however'}, 'ROOT': {'chose'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'employ'}, 'relcl': {'positioned'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ecologies', 'embeddedness', 'identity', 'constructs'}, 'acl': {'marked'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
1215 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means I acknowledge that by mining the attributional strains that exist in the achievement motivation both Skinner (this issue) and Elliot and Sommet (this issue) have labored to map the genome of this vast literature 34 17 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'Skinner', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledge'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'mining'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'achievement', 'attributional'}, 'dobj': {'genome', 'strains'}, 'relcl': {'exist'}, 'pobj': {'literature', 'motivation'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Elliot', 'Sommet'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'labored'}, 'xcomp': {'map'}, 'amod': {'vast'}} Long High Medium
1216 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means However, their decision to remain largely within this terrain begs the question of whether any attributional or methodological weaknesses inherent in this extensive theoretical family were retained 27 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'However', 'largely'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'decision'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'remain'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'any', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'family', 'terrain'}, 'ROOT': {'begs'}, 'dobj': {'question'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'attributional', 'extensive', 'inherent'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'methodological'}, 'nsubjpass': {'weaknesses'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'pcomp': {'retained'}} Long High Medium
1217 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means At the nonmotivational end of the spectrum were those contributions where explicit motivational theories or constructs appeared tangential to the alterna- tive models that authors proffered 26 11 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'At', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'motivational', 'nonmotivational', 'alterna-', 'explicit'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'spectrum', 'end'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'contributions'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'theories'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'constructs'}, 'relcl': {'appeared', 'proffered'}, 'oprd': {'tangential'}, 'compound': {'tive'}, 'dobj': {'that'}} Long High Medium
1218 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means (this issue) generated, the central elements of the merger were changes in cognitive and metacognitive processing that shape learning over time 21 9 {'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue', 'elements'}, 'advcl': {'generated'}, 'amod': {'central', 'cognitive'}, 'prep': {'over', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'merger', 'processing', 'time'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'changes'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'metacognitive'}, 'dobj': {'shape'}, 'acl': {'learning'}} Long High Low
1219 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Although motivation is a component of the theoretical models that Din- smore et al 14 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'motivation'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'component'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'theoretical'}, 'pobj': {'models'}, 'dep': {'Din-'}, 'acomp': {'smore'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'punct': {'al'}} Medium High Medium
1220 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means hybridized, especially the MDL where individual and situational interest are key variables in learners’ academic development, these components were not central to the new configuration that the authors devised 29 12 {'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, PUNCT, ADV, DET, PROPN, SCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'advcl': {'hybridized'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'especially'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'appos': {'MDL'}, 'nsubj': {'individual', 'components', 'authors'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'situational', 'academic', 'key', 'new'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'attr': {'variables'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'poss': {'learners'}, 'pobj': {'configuration', 'development'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'central'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'devised'}} Long High Medium
1221 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Thus, the potential contributions that the MDL-SAL variant may make to learning and academic development did not expressly address the motivation dilemmas that the editors of this special issue expressly targeted 31 15 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'expressly'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'potential', 'academic', 'special'}, 'nsubj': {'editors', 'variant', 'contributions'}, 'dobj': {'dilemmas', 'that', 'motivation'}, 'compound': {'SAL', 'MDL'}, 'aux': {'did', 'may'}, 'relcl': {'make'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'development'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'address'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'pobj': {'issue'}, 'ccomp': {'targeted'}} Long High Medium
1222 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The remaining contributions to this special issue, which all mingle theories pertaining to teachers or pedagogy with motivation-related theories or con- structs, fall somewhere along the motivation–nonmotivation spectrum 28 12 {'DET': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB] {'det': {'all', 'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'remaining', 'related', 'special'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'contributions', 'theories'}, 'prep': {'with', 'along', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 'issue', 'motivation', 'theories'}, 'punct': {',', '–', '-'}, 'compound': {'mingle'}, 'acl': {'pertaining'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'structs', 'pedagogy', 'con-'}, 'npadvmod': {'motivation'}, 'relcl': {'fall'}, 'advmod': {'somewhere'}, 'appos': {'nonmotivation'}, 'ROOT': {'spectrum'}} Long High Low
1223 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means What these remaining integrations and hybridizations have in common is the prem- ise that changes in the learning environment or teachers’ actions within that environment should translate into improved learner motivation 31 15 {'PRON': 2, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, ADJ, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'det': {'the', 'that', 'these'}, 'amod': {'prem-', 'learning', 'remaining', 'learner', 'improved'}, 'nsubj': {'changes', 'integrations', 'that'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'hybridizations', 'actions'}, 'csubj': {'have'}, 'prep': {'into', 'within', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'environment', 'motivation', 'common'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'ise'}, 'nmod': {'teachers'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'relcl': {'translate'}} Long High Low
1224 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means On the instruc- tional side, the pedagogical alterations included teacher clarity and appropriate feedback (Fryer & Leenknecht, this issue), high teacher expectations and need- supportive instruction (Hornstra et al., this issue), load reduction instruction (Martin, this issue), and teachers’ exhibition of behaviors such as role modeling, opportunity for student choice, and interest in students (Noetel et al., this issue) 59 17 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 25, 'PUNCT': 19, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 11, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'On', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'supportive', 'pedagogical', 'instruc-', 'tional', 'high', 'such', 'appropriate'}, 'pobj': {'modeling', 'side', 'choice', 'students', 'behaviors'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'alterations'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'compound': {'role', 'teacher', 'load', 'reduction', 'student'}, 'dobj': {'clarity'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'exhibition', 'expectations', 'interest', 'Leenknecht', 'feedback', 'Fryer', 'instruction'}, 'appos': {'opportunity', 'issue', 'Martin', 'Hornstra', 'Noetel'}, 'nummod': {'need-'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}} Long High Low
1225 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The motivational benefits that were presumed to accrue from such instruc- tional changes included stronger self-efficacy beliefs (Fryer & Leenknecht, this issue), increased student engagement (Martin, this issue; Noetel et al., this issue), a greater sense of autonomy, and well-being among students (Hornstra et al., this issue) 47 16 {'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 15, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 16, 'PROPN': 11, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'this'}, 'amod': {'increased', 'greater', 'motivational', 'tional', 'stronger', 'such', 'instruc-'}, 'nsubj': {'benefits'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'presumed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'accrue'}, 'prep': {'among', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'changes', 'autonomy'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'compound': {'self', 'efficacy', 'student'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'dobj': {'beliefs'}, 'appos': {'issue', 'sense', 'et', 'Martin', 'Fryer', 'Hornstra', 'Noetel'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'Leenknecht', 'being', 'engagement'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
1226 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Of course, there are significant internal and external factors that affect the viability of these theoretical integrations and hybridizations 19 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'theoretical', 'internal'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'external', 'hybridizations'}, 'attr': {'factors'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'affect'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'viability'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'integrations'}} Medium High Low
1227 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In essence, the fruits that emerge from these theoretical variants may fail to thrive due to inherent traits of the parent theories, the overall climate of the classroom or educational environment, or the individual characteristics of the teachers or students who populate those learning environments. 45 22 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'from', 'to', 'of', 'In', 'due'}, 'pobj': {'traits', 'teachers', 'variants', 'essence', 'classroom', 'theories'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'det': {'the', 'those', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'fruits', 'that', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'populate', 'emerge'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'overall', 'inherent', 'individual', 'learning', 'educational'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'fail'}, 'xcomp': {'thrive'}, 'compound': {'parent'}, 'appos': {'climate'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'students', 'environment', 'characteristics'}, 'dobj': {'environments'}} Long High Low
1228 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:23 1 3 23 Page 8 of 13 Internal and External Conditions As stated, whether the promises of these alternative variants are realized hinges on strengths and weaknesses within the parent theories from which they arise and on extraneous factors in the environments in which these variants are implanted and the natives who inhabit those environments 60 27 {'PROPN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 8, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 4} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', 'parent', '3'}, 'nsubj': {'Review', 'they', 'who'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'nummod': {'13', '8', '36:23', '23'}, 'quantmod': {'1'}, 'appos': {'Page'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'from', 'in', 'of'}, 'amod': {'extraneous', 'alternative', 'Internal'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'natives', 'on', 'weaknesses', 'External'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'variants', 'factors', 'strengths', 'theories', 'environments', 'Conditions'}, 'mark': {'As', 'whether'}, 'ROOT': {'stated'}, 'det': {'the', 'those', 'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'promises', 'variants'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'realized'}, 'dobj': {'environments', 'hinges'}, 'relcl': {'arise', 'inhabit', 'implanted'}} Long High High
1229 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In certain cases, those potential threats were explicitly acknowledged by the authors, whereas in other instances, they were just touched upon or overlooked entirely 24 13 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADV] {'prep': {'upon', 'In', 'in'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'other', 'potential'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'authors', 'instances'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubjpass': {'threats', 'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'explicitly', 'entirely'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledged'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'advcl': {'touched'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'overlooked'}} Long High High
1230 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Yet, unless attention is directed to these internal and external variables, those attempting to empirically validate the proposed models overviewed in this special issue stand on shaky ground when it comes to voicing causal claims 35 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'Yet', 'empirically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'unless'}, 'nsubjpass': {'attention'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'comes', 'directed', 'claims'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'amod': {'shaky', 'special', 'proposed', 'internal'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'external'}, 'pobj': {'ground', 'issue', 'variables'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'those'}, 'acl': {'attempting', 'overviewed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'validate'}, 'dobj': {'models', 'causal'}, 'ROOT': {'stand'}, 'pcomp': {'voicing'}} Long High High
1231 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means One of the crucial internal conditions that those exploring motivation theories alone or in conjunction with nonmotivation theories must address is the nature of the data upon which the parent theories or models were generated 35 19 {'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'One', 'parent', 'theories'}, 'prep': {'with', 'upon', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'exploring', 'crucial', 'internal'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'conjunction', 'data', 'conditions', 'theories'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'compound': {'motivation', 'nonmotivation'}, 'advmod': {'alone'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'relcl': {'address', 'theories'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'nature'}, 'conj': {'models'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ccomp': {'generated'}} Long High High
1232 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In many instances, those data were in the form of self-reports, which have inherent short- comings that should not be disregarded (Fulmer & Frijters, 2009) 25 13 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'many', 'inherent'}, 'pobj': {'reports', 'form', 'instances'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'data'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'compound': {'self', 'short-'}, 'relcl': {'have', 'disregarded'}, 'dobj': {'comings'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'appos': {'Fulmer'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Frijters'}, 'npadvmod': {'2009'}} Long High Low
1233 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Among those shortcomings are the accuracy of respondents’ perceptions and their interpreta- tion of what is being asked of them 20 13 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'prep': {'Among', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'shortcomings', 'perceptions', 'them'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'nsubj': {'accuracy'}, 'poss': {'respondents', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'interpreta-'}, 'conj': {'tion'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'asked'}} Long High Low
1234 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Importantly, the problem of construct clarity and meaning is not isolated to motivation research 14 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Importantly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'problem'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'construct'}, 'pobj': {'clarity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'meaning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'isolated'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'motivation'}, 'dobj': {'research'}} Medium High Low
1235 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The empirical and theoretical literature in the social sciences is replete in cases of “jingle-jangle fallacies” (Kel- ley, 1927; Thorndike, 1904) 21 7 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2} [DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'social', 'jingle', 'empirical'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'theoretical'}, 'nsubj': {'literature'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'fallacies', 'sciences'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'replete'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'compound': {'jangle', 'Kel-'}, 'attr': {'ley'}, 'appos': {'Thorndike', '1904', '1927'}} Long High Low
1236 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means This is where two different concepts or constructs are similarly labeled (jingle fallacy) or the same or very similar concepts or con- structs bear different labels (jangle fallacy) 28 12 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1} [PRON, AUX, SCONJ, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'This'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'very', 'where', 'similarly'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'amod': {'different', 'same'}, 'nsubjpass': {'concepts'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'similar', 'concepts', 'structs', 'bear', 'constructs'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'labeled'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'compound': {'jingle', 'jangle'}, 'oprd': {'fallacy'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dep': {'con-'}, 'dobj': {'labels'}, 'appos': {'fallacy'}} Long High Medium
1237 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means There is nothing inherently definitive about the language that populates educational or psychological research, includ- ing terms like engagement, achievement, learning, or well-being 23 10 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5} [PRON, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'nothing'}, 'advmod': {'inherently', 'well'}, 'amod': {'definitive', 'educational', 'ing'}, 'prep': {'like', 'about'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'engagement', 'terms', 'language'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'populates'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'achievement', 'being', 'psychological', 'learning', 'includ-'}, 'dobj': {'research'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}} Long High Low
1238 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Nonetheless, those generating or using self-report measures rarely bother to ascertain how respondents to their self-report measures may be interpreting the questions asked of them (Hartwell & Kaplan, 2018; Schoute et al., 2022) 33 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'rarely', 'Nonetheless', 'how'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'respondents', 'generating', 'those'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'using', 'Kaplan'}, 'compound': {'self', 'Schoute', 'report', 'et'}, 'dobj': {'.', 'measures', 'questions'}, 'ROOT': {'bother'}, 'aux': {'be', 'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'ascertain'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'measures', 'them'}, 'ccomp': {'interpreting'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'asked'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Hartwell', '2022'}, 'dep': {'al'}} Long High Medium
1239 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means From a data-analytic standpoint, there are often significant correlations that result when multiple motivation constructs are measured to the point that they may pose the threat of multicollinearity 28 15 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'From', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'data'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'multiple', 'analytic'}, 'pobj': {'standpoint', 'point', 'multicollinearity'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'when'}, 'attr': {'correlations'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'result'}, 'compound': {'motivation'}, 'nsubjpass': {'constructs'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'measured'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'acl': {'pose'}, 'dobj': {'threat'}} Long High High
1240 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means That is why Skinner (this issue) strongly recommended that researchers “include only one of such ‘twin’ or ‘triplet’ con- structs” and “should not send more than one in to predict the same outcomes” (p 34 20 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 11, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2} [PRON, AUX, SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, NUM, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NUM, ADP, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'That', 'Skinner', 'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'strongly', 'only', 'why'}, 'punct': {'’', '‘', ')', '(', '”', '“'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'appos': {'p', 'issue'}, 'advcl': {'recommended', 'predict'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'include'}, 'dobj': {'one', 'outcomes'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'same', 'such', 'more'}, 'nmod': {'twin'}, 'cc': {'or', 'con-', 'and'}, 'conj': {'triplet', 'send'}, 'pobj': {'structs'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}} Long High High
1241 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In addition to pruning the redundant and overlapping constructs in studies when trying to combine and consolidate, it is essential to know whether findings from such investigations are practically significant and not just statistically sig- nificant, warranting a contextual discussion of effect sizes (Plonsky & Oswald, 2014) 47 20 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, PART, ADV, ADV, X, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'addition', 'sizes', 'investigations'}, 'pcomp': {'pruning'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'contextual', 'such', 'redundant'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'nificant', 'Oswald', 'overlapping', 'consolidate'}, 'dobj': {'discussion', 'constructs'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'practically', 'just', 'statistically', 'sig-'}, 'advcl': {'warranting', 'trying'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'combine', 'know'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'findings', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'significant', 'essential'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'compound': {'effect'}, 'appos': {'Plonsky'}, 'npadvmod': {'2014'}} Long High High
1242 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means There are also external threats that must be weighed as researchers move ahead to test the theoretical variants described in this issue 22 12 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'ahead'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'external'}, 'attr': {'threats'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'weighed'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'advcl': {'move', 'test'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'variants'}, 'acl': {'described'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'issue'}} Long High Medium
1243 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Among such external forces are the influences exerted by the teachers shaping the learning environ- ment and the individual differences of students who are the recipients of instruc- tional modifications 30 14 {'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'Among', 'of'}, 'amod': {'external', 'individual', 'tional', 'instruc-', 'such'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'forces', 'teachers', 'modifications'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'influences', 'who'}, 'acl': {'exerted', 'shaping'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nmod': {'learning'}, 'compound': {'environ-'}, 'dobj': {'ment'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'differences'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'attr': {'recipients'}} Long High Low
1244 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means (this issue) were forthcoming in their acknowledgment of the role played by external forces in the research on the effects of high teacher expectations on students’ achievement and sense of well-being: 31 17 {'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'punct': {'’', '-', ':', ')', '('}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'forthcoming'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'pobj': {'forces', 'achievement', 'role', 'acknowledgment', 'being', 'effects', 'research', 'expectations'}, 'acl': {'played'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'high', 'external'}, 'compound': {'teacher'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sense'}, 'advmod': {'well'}} Long High Low
1245 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:23 Page 9 of 13 23 HET-teaching and need-supportive teaching do not take place in a vacuum but are affected by contextual conditions and teacher beliefs 31 11 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'9', '36:23', '1', '23'}, 'amod': {'3Educational', 'contextual'}, 'compound': {'Psychology', 'teacher', '13', 'need'}, 'nsubj': {'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2024'}, 'appos': {'Page'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'nmod': {'teaching', 'HET'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'supportive', 'beliefs', 'affected'}, 'pobj': {'teaching', 'conditions', 'vacuum'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'place'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
1246 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Even though the teaching principles put forward by HET and SDT are believed to be universally effective, not all teachers apply these principles in their eve- ryday practices 28 14 {'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PART, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'forward', 'universally', 'Even'}, 'mark': {'though'}, 'det': {'all', 'the', 'these'}, 'compound': {'teaching', 'eve-', 'ryday'}, 'nsubjpass': {'principles'}, 'acl': {'put'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'practices', 'HET'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'SDT'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'believed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'effective'}, 'punct': {','}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers'}, 'ROOT': {'apply'}, 'dobj': {'principles'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
1247 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Contextual conditions, referring, for example, to school- level factors, as well as the pedagogical beliefs and beliefs about their stu- dents that teachers endorse, may account for this gap between theory and practice 33 15 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'pedagogical', 'Contextual'}, 'nsubj': {'conditions', 'teachers'}, 'punct': {','}, 'acl': {'referring'}, 'prep': {'about', 'for', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'gap', 'dents', 'example', 'theory'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'conj': {'practice', 'beliefs', 'school-'}, 'compound': {'stu-', 'level'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'factors'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'relcl': {'endorse'}, 'ROOT': {'account'}} Long High Low
1248 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means nd) Regrettably, the individual differences of teachers or students who are expected to benefit from the theoretical variants described in this issue were not consistently given the attention they warrant 30 14 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2} [PROPN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'dep': {'nd'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'Regrettably', 'consistently'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'theoretical'}, 'nsubjpass': {'who', 'differences'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 'variants', 'issue'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'were'}, 'relcl': {'expected'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'benefit'}, 'acl': {'described'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'given'}, 'dobj': {'attention'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'warrant'}} Long High Low
1249 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In part, this condition may reflect the fact that the majority of studies grounding these theoretical variants were variable-centered and not person-centered in nature 24 13 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'nature', 'part'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'condition', 'majority'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'reflect'}, 'dobj': {'variants', 'fact'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'grounding', 'were'}, 'amod': {'theoretical'}, 'advmod': {'variable'}, 'acomp': {'centered'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'npadvmod': {'person'}, 'conj': {'centered'}} Long High Medium
1250 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means That means that the out- comes reported are based on mean differences for the variables of interest and not differences among the participants in these studies 26 14 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, DET, VERB, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'That'}, 'ROOT': {'means'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'out-', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'comes'}, 'acl': {'reported'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'based'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'among', 'of', 'for'}, 'amod': {'mean'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'differences', 'interest', 'variables', 'participants'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'differences'}} Long High Medium
1251 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Consequently, while the authors can explain the overall effects of treatments they are not positioned to predict for which clusters of teachers or students, their proposed models would likely result in positive, negative, or no appreciable changes 37 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Consequently', 'likely'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'models', 'authors', 'they'}, 'aux': {'can', 'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'explain'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'overall', 'appreciable', 'proposed'}, 'dobj': {'effects'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'teachers', 'clusters', 'treatments', 'changes'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'positioned'}, 'xcomp': {'predict'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'students', 'negative'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ccomp': {'result'}} Long High Medium
1252 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Let me use Martin’s (this issue) Load Reduction Instruction to better illumi- nate my point about variable-centered versus person-centered analyses 20 6 {'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [VERB, PRON, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Let'}, 'nsubj': {'me'}, 'ccomp': {'use'}, 'dobj': {'Martin', 'point', 'issue'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', '’s', ')'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'compound': {'Reduction', 'Load'}, 'appos': {'Instruction'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'amod': {'centered', 'better'}, 'pobj': {'illumi-', 'analyses'}, 'xcomp': {'nate'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'prep': {'about', 'versus'}, 'npadvmod': {'variable', 'person'}} Long High Low
1253 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means nd) identifies five principles of LRI: Principle #1: Reduce the difficulty of instruction in the initial stages of learn- ing, as appropriate to the learner’s level of prior knowledge and skill 31 13 {'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 1, 'SYM': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [X, PUNCT, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'nd'}, 'punct': {',', ':', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'identifies'}, 'nummod': {'1', 'five'}, 'dobj': {'difficulty', 'principles'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'stages', 'ing', 'knowledge', 'LRI', 'level', 'instruction'}, 'appos': {'Principle'}, 'quantmod': {'#'}, 'acl': {'Reduce'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'learn-', 'initial', 'appropriate', 'prior'}, 'poss': {'learner'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skill'}} Long High Low
1254 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Principle #2: Provide appropriate support and scaffolding to learn relevant knowledge and skill 13 3 {'NOUN': 4, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'dep': {'Principle'}, 'quantmod': {'#'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'ROOT': {'Provide'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'appropriate'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'support'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skill', 'scaffolding'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'learn'}} Medium High Low
1255 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Principle #4: Provide appropriate feedback-feedforward (combination of cor - rective information and specific improvement-oriented guidance) as needed 17 3 {'NOUN': 8, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NOUN, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB] {'dep': {'Principle'}, 'quantmod': {'#'}, 'nummod': {'4'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ':', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'Provide'}, 'amod': {'specific', 'feedforward', 'appropriate', 'oriented', 'rective'}, 'compound': {'feedback'}, 'dobj': {'combination'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'npadvmod': {'improvement', 'cor'}, 'pobj': {'information'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'guidance'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'needed'}} Medium High Medium
1256 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Each of these research-based principles speaks about instructional modifica- tions that are “appropriate” to a specific learner 17 8 {'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Each', 'that'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'npadvmod': {'research'}, 'punct': {'-', '”', '“'}, 'amod': {'based', 'modifica-', 'instructional', 'specific'}, 'pobj': {'tions', 'learner', 'principles'}, 'ROOT': {'speaks'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'appropriate'}} Medium High Low
1257 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Yet, how is that appropriate- ness ascertained for the mix of students populating typical classrooms, who will inevitably differ in their background knowledge, skills, need for support, or abil- ity and willingness to function independently 35 15 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV] {'cc': {'or', 'Yet', 'and'}, 'punct': {',', 'ness'}, 'advmod': {'independently', 'inevitably', 'how'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'dep': {'ity', 'appropriate-', 'ascertained', 'need'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'mix', 'support', 'knowledge'}, 'acl': {'populating', 'function'}, 'amod': {'abil-', 'typical'}, 'dobj': {'classrooms'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'relcl': {'differ'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'background'}, 'conj': {'skills', 'willingness'}} Long High Medium
1258 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means In such contexts, it would seem highly improbable that regular classroom teachers could deliver 20 to 25 ver - sions of LRI 22 9 {'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NUM, PART, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'amod': {'regular', 'such'}, 'pobj': {'LRI', 'contexts'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'teachers'}, 'aux': {'would', 'could'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'advmod': {'highly'}, 'oprd': {'improbable'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'ver', 'classroom'}, 'ccomp': {'deliver'}, 'quantmod': {'to', '20'}, 'nummod': {'25'}, 'dobj': {'sions'}} Long High Medium
1259 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Instead, LRI, as instantiated, would be more likely to target some hypothetical student population and, thus, not be as individualized as the prin- ciples suggest 25 13 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'Instead', 'as', 'thus', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'ciples', 'LRI'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'suggest', 'instantiated'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'individualized', 'likely'}, 'xcomp': {'target'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'amod': {'hypothetical'}, 'compound': {'prin-', 'student'}, 'dobj': {'population'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'be'}} Long High High
1260 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means By conducting person-centered analyses on the impact of some more ecologically-practical form of LRI, researchers may be better positioned to identify which clusters of students seem to benefit most from the LRI. 32 17 {'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'By', 'of', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'conducting'}, 'npadvmod': {'person'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.'}, 'amod': {'practical', 'centered'}, 'dobj': {'which', 'analyses'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'form', 'impact', 'LRI'}, 'advmod': {'ecologically', 'most', 'better', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'clusters', 'researchers'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'positioned'}, 'advcl': {'identify'}, 'ccomp': {'seem'}, 'xcomp': {'benefit'}} Long High Low
1261 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Educational Psychology Review (2024) 36:23 1 3 23 Page 10 of 13 The Desired Fruits of Integration and Hybridization At the beginning of this commentary, I established my deep-seated interest in what fruits this concerted pursuit of alternative theoretical models might bear 42 15 {'PROPN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, DET, ADJ, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', '3'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'Review', 'pursuit'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Page', '2024'}, 'nummod': {'36:23', '23', '10'}, 'quantmod': {'1'}, 'prep': {'At', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'beginning', 'commentary', '13', 'Integration'}, 'det': {'what', 'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'Desired', 'theoretical', 'alternative', 'seated', 'deep', 'concerted'}, 'appos': {'Fruits'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Hybridization'}, 'ROOT': {'established'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'dobj': {'interest', 'fruits'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'pcomp': {'bear'}} Long High Low
1262 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means As I indicated then, my particular interests are squarely on these variants’ pro- spective value to learning and academic development for all students 23 11 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, X, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'interests'}, 'advcl': {'indicated'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'squarely'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'amod': {'learning', 'particular', 'spective'}, 'ROOT': {'are', 'value'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to'}, 'det': {'all', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'variants', 'development'}, 'dep': {'pro-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'academic'}} Long High Medium
1263 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Certainly, the means applied to propagate desired outcomes encompassed integrations and hybridizations of theories with differential investment in motivation models and constructs 22 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'Certainly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'means', 'outcomes'}, 'ROOT': {'applied'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'propagate'}, 'amod': {'desired', 'differential'}, 'ccomp': {'encompassed'}, 'dobj': {'integrations'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'hybridizations', 'constructs'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'investment', 'theories'}, 'compound': {'motivation'}} Long High Low
1264 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Moreover, the ends of this process sought by contributors included promises of greater clarity and precision among families of motivation con- structs; increased student engagement; enhanced feelings of well-being, stronger self-efficacy beliefs, more facilitative cognitive, and metacognitive procedures; and improved achievement 41 15 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 19, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'well', 'Moreover', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ';'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'ends'}, 'prep': {'among', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'clarity', 'contributors', 'structs', 'process', 'beliefs', 'families'}, 'acl': {'sought'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'promises'}, 'amod': {'increased', 'enhanced', 'greater', 'metacognitive', 'stronger', 'facilitative', 'improved'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'precision', 'achievement', 'procedures', 'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'efficacy', 'motivation', 'student', 'self', 'con-'}, 'appos': {'feelings', 'engagement'}, 'nmod': {'being'}} Long High Low
1265 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Yet, the fruit that I most wanted these integration and hybridization efforts to bear—improved learn- ing and academic development—was not often front and center in the minds of the contributors to this special issue 34 20 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'most', 'often', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'fruit'}, 'dobj': {'efforts', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'wanted'}, 'nmod': {'integration'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'was', 'center', 'development', 'hybridization', 'academic'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'bear'}, 'ROOT': {'improved'}, 'dep': {'learn-', 'ing'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'front'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'contributors', 'minds', 'issue'}, 'amod': {'special'}} Long High Low
1266 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Thankfully, there were certain authors who shared my personal investment in students’ learning and their academic develop- ment (Dinsmore et al., this issue; Fryer & Leenknecht, this issue) 28 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 6, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thankfully'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'personal', 'academic'}, 'attr': {'authors'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'shared'}, 'poss': {'students', 'my', 'their'}, 'dobj': {'investment'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'compound': {'develop-'}, 'conj': {'Leenknecht', '.', 'ment'}, 'appos': {'Fryer', 'Dinsmore', 'issue'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}, 'det': {'this'}} Long High Low
1267 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means I grant that the notion of learning is as amorphous and complex as terms like motivation, engagement, well-being, or achievement 20 11 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'notion'}, 'ROOT': {'grant'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'like', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'motivation', 'terms'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'acomp': {'amorphous'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'achievement', 'being', 'complex', 'engagement'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}} Long High Medium
1268 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Thus, let me offer a work - ing definition of learning that guides my thinking and then relate that conception to the outcomes that were represented in the pages of this special issue 33 17 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PRON': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'then'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'let'}, 'nsubj': {'me', 'that'}, 'ccomp': {'offer'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'npadvmod': {'work'}, 'amod': {'ing', 'special'}, 'dobj': {'definition', 'conception', 'thinking'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'relcl': {'represented', 'guides'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'relate'}, 'pobj': {'pages', 'outcomes', 'issue'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}} Long High Low
1269 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means (2009): Learning is a multidimensional process that results in a relatively enduring change in a person or persons, and consequently how that person or persons will perceive the world and reciprocally respond to its affordances physi- cally, psychologically, and socially 40 18 {'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 6, 'CCONJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'X': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, X, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV] {'punct': {'(', '):', ','}, 'ROOT': {'is', '2009'}, 'nsubj': {'Learning', 'that', 'person'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'enduring', 'multidimensional'}, 'attr': {'process'}, 'relcl': {'results'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'relatively', 'psychologically', 'socially', 'cally', 'consequently', 'reciprocally', 'how'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'affordances', 'person'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'respond', 'perceive', 'persons'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'dobj': {'world'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'dep': {'physi-'}} Long High Medium
1270 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The process of learning has as its foun- dation the systemic, dynamic, and interactive relation between the nature of the learner and the object of the learning as ecologically situated in a given time and place as well as over time 41 23 {'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 4} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NUM, NOUN, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'process'}, 'prep': {'in', 'between', 'of', 'as', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'dation', 'learning', 'nature', 'time', 'learner'}, 'ROOT': {'has'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'nummod': {'foun-'}, 'amod': {'given', 'systemic'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'interactive', 'place', 'object', 'dynamic'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'dobj': {'relation'}, 'advmod': {'ecologically', 'as', 'well'}, 'advcl': {'situated'}} Long High Low
1271 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means 186) Based on this definition, I would regard the multitude of motivation constructs captured in the Hierarchical Model of Achievement Motivation (Elliot & Thrash, 2001) that Elliot and Sommet (this issue) described and the Integrated Model of Academic Motivation that Skinner (this issue) proffered as crucial elements that can support the growth and development of student learning 57 23 {'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 13, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'186', 'regard'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'on', 'issue', 'Based', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'definition', 'elements', 'learning', 'Elliot', 'Model', 'Motivation', 'constructs'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'Skinner', 'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'can'}, 'dobj': {'multitude', 'growth'}, 'compound': {'Hierarchical', 'Integrated', 'motivation', 'student', 'Academic', 'Achievement'}, 'acl': {'captured'}, 'appos': {'Elliot', 'issue', '2001'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Model', 'Sommet', 'Thrash', 'development'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'described', 'support'}, 'ccomp': {'proffered'}, 'amod': {'crucial'}} Long High High
1272 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means The same can be said for the substance of the Motivation and Engagement Wheel set forth by Mar - tin (this issue) 22 11 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3} [DET, ADJ, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, ADP, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'same'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'said'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'tin', 'substance', 'Wheel'}, 'nmod': {'Motivation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'Engagement', 'Mar'}, 'acl': {'set'}, 'prt': {'forth'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'appos': {'issue'}} Long High Low
1273 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Still, while many of the motivation constructs explicated in the contributions to this special issue—ranging from engagement (Martin, this issue; Hornstra, this issue; Noetel, this issue) to self-efficacy (Elliot & Sommet, this issue; Fryer & Leenknecht, this issue: Skinner, this issue)—are worthwhile out- comes, they do not speak directly to learning 51 21 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 18, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 8, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'X': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, ADJ, X, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'directly', 'Still'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', '—', ')', '(', 'issue)—are', ',', ';'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'nsubj': {'Skinner', 'they', 'this', 'many', 'Martin'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'worthwhile', 'self', 'motivation'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'efficacy', 'engagement', 'contributions', 'constructs'}, 'advcl': {'explicated', 'ranging', 'comes'}, 'amod': {'special'}, 'appos': {'issue', 'Fryer', 'Hornstra', 'Noetel', 'Elliot'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Leenknecht', 'Sommet'}, 'ROOT': {'issue'}, 'dep': {'out-'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acl': {'speak'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Medium
1274 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means Of course, some may argue that achievement equates to the concept of learn- ing that I am espousing 18 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'achievement', 'some'}, 'aux': {'may', 'am'}, 'ROOT': {'argue'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'equates'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'ing', 'concept'}, 'amod': {'learn-'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'espousing'}} Medium High Medium
1275 Hybridizing Psychological Theories- Weighing the Ends Against the Means However, in my writings and teaching, I have distin- guished between achievement and learning in non-trivial ways (Alexander, 2018; 19 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'distin-', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '('}, 'prep': {'between', 'in'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'achievement', 'writings'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'teaching', 'learning'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'guished'}, 'amod': {'-', 'non', 'trivial'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018'}} Medium High Low
1276 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education biological fact is combined with the realization that the lives humans experience are equally idiosyncratic, the story of human uniqueness becomes extremely complicated.Individual differences are the term for the systematic investigation of human similarities and differences, and the study of human similarities and differences remains a cornerstone in educational psychology and educational assessment (Jonassen & Crabowski, 2011) 57 22 {'ADJ': 10, 'NOUN': 18, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Individual', 'systematic', 'human', 'educational', 'biological'}, 'nsubjpass': {'fact'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'combined'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'uniqueness', 'investigation', 'realization', 'similarities', 'psychology'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'humans', 'lives'}, 'nsubj': {'story', 'experience', 'study', 'differences'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'equally', 'extremely'}, 'acomp': {'complicated', 'idiosyncratic'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '.', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'becomes', 'are'}, 'attr': {'cornerstone', 'term'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'assessment', 'Crabowski', 'remains', 'differences'}, 'appos': {'Jonassen', '2011'}} Long High Medium
1277 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Sir Francis Galton (1869) is the individual most often credited with turning humans’ fascination with uniqueness into the science of individual differences when he set out totest whether the frequent occurrence of eminence (i.e., exceptional mental ability) withincertain families was inherited 41 16 {'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'X': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'compound': {'withincertain', 'Sir', 'Francis'}, 'nsubj': {'Galton', 'he'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '’'}, 'appos': {'1869', 'ability'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'individual'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'when', 'most', 'i.e.'}, 'acl': {'credited'}, 'prep': {'into', 'with', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'turning'}, 'dobj': {'totest', 'humans', 'fascination'}, 'pobj': {'differences', 'uniqueness', 'eminence', 'science'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'exceptional', 'mental', 'frequent'}, 'advcl': {'set'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubjpass': {'occurrence'}, 'conj': {'families'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ccomp': {'inherited'}} Long High High
1278 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Borrowing a technique that a Belgian astronomer, Qu /C19etelet, used to track patterns in astronomic observations, Galton summarized thousands ofmeasurements and found what is commonly described as the bell curve 30 11 {'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Borrowing'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'technique', 'patterns', 'that', 'ofmeasurements'}, 'amod': {'astronomic', 'Belgian'}, 'nsubj': {'astronomer', 'Galton'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'bell', 'Qu'}, 'appos': {'/C19etelet'}, 'relcl': {'used'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'track'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'observations', 'curve'}, 'ROOT': {'summarized'}, 'nummod': {'thousands'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'found'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'commonly'}, 'ccomp': {'described'}} Long High Low
1279 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In this way, helaid the groundwork for how we think about the ‘normal distribution’ of human characteristics (Alexander, 2006) 19 9 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'about', 'for', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'distribution', 'characteristics', 'way'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'ROOT': {'helaid'}, 'dobj': {'groundwork'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'pcomp': {'think'}, 'amod': {'normal', 'human'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2006'}} Medium High Medium
1280 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Galton is also credited with introducing the mathe- matical concepts of correlation and regression into the lexicon 17 8 {'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Galton'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'credited'}, 'prep': {'into', 'with', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'introducing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'matical', 'mathe-'}, 'dobj': {'concepts'}, 'pobj': {'correlation', 'lexicon'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regression'}} Medium High Low
1281 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education However, it fell to KarlPearson (1895), his collaborator, to provide the mathematics required for correlationalanalyses; the way to ascertain the association that exists between characteristics orvariables 26 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'fell'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'correlationalanalyses', 'orvariables', 'KarlPearson'}, 'appos': {'collaborator', '1895'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'provide'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'association', 'mathematics'}, 'acl': {'required'}, 'dep': {'way'}, 'relcl': {'ascertain', 'exists'}, 'compound': {'characteristics'}} Long High Low
1282 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Ultimately, this historical sojourn reminds us that the science of individual differencesentails the systematic study of human typicality and atypicality for an indefinite number ofcognitive and non-cognitive characteristics (Ackerman, 1988; Guilford, 1956) 32 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Ultimately'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'-', 'systematic', 'individual', 'historical', 'indefinite', 'non', 'ofcognitive', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'sojourn', 'science'}, 'ROOT': {'reminds'}, 'dobj': {'us', 'study'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'ccomp': {'differencesentails'}, 'compound': {'human'}, 'pobj': {'typicality', 'characteristics'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'atypicality'}, 'npadvmod': {'number'}, 'appos': {'Ackerman', '1988', '1956', 'Guilford'}} Long High Medium
1283 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education It also reinforces the notion that this science is intricately intertwined with assessment (Adams, 2014; Cronbach, 1956; Spearman, 1927) 19 7 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 3} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'advmod': {'intricately', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'reinforces'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'notion'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'science'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'acl': {'intertwined'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'assessment'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'Adams', '1927', '1956'}, 'conj': {'Cronbach', 'Spearman'}} Medium High Medium
1284 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In accordance with the aims of this Special Issue (Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia & Shavelson, this issue), my goal is to look at the topic of individual differences and assessment from theperspective of young adult learners 33 15 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'from', 'with', 'of', 'at', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'differences', 'theperspective', 'topic', 'Issue', 'learners', 'accordance', 'aims'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'adult', 'Zlatkin'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'issue', 'Troitschanskaia'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'assessment', 'Shavelson'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'nsubj': {'goal'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'look'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'young'}} Long High Low
1285 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education With the literature on adult differences as thebackdrop, I overview research in which my colleagues and I have been engaged 20 12 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'as', 'With', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'literature', 'differences'}, 'compound': {'adult'}, 'amod': {'thebackdrop'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'overview'}, 'dobj': {'research'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'nsubjpass': {'colleagues'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'engaged'}} Long High Low
1286 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Thisresearch establishes an association between younger and older adults’ domain-specificlearning and performance (Alexander, 1997, 2003) and their ability to discern meaningful relations within seemingly unrelated information (Alexander, Dumas, Grossnickle, List, & Firetto, 2016) 33 8 {'PROPN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 13, 'NUM': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Thisresearch'}, 'ROOT': {'establishes'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'dobj': {'relations', 'association'}, 'prep': {'within', 'between'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'unrelated', 'younger'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Grossnickle', 'List', 'specificlearning', 'Firetto', 'ability', 'Dumas', 'performance', 'older'}, 'nmod': {'adults'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'domain'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'pobj': {'Alexander', 'information'}, 'appos': {'1997', '2003', 'Alexander', '2016'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'discern'}, 'advmod': {'seemingly'}} Long High Low
1287 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Mapping the neurobiological and cognitive landscape for college-aged learners One does not have to be an expert in individual differences to recognize that with age comes marked changes in how humans look, think, and behave 35 17 {'VERB': 9, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 3, 'SCONJ': 2} [VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NUM, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADP, NOUN, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'advcl': {'Mapping', 'recognize'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'aged', 'neurobiological', 'marked', 'individual'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'behave', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'landscape'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'in'}, 'npadvmod': {'college'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'age', 'differences'}, 'nsubj': {'humans', 'One', 'changes'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'expert'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'comes'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'pcomp': {'think', 'look'}} Long High High
1288 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education One needs only tocompare healthy 2-year-olds to 20-year-olds to see the effects of time on the humanspecies 17 9 {'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2} [NUM, VERB, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'One'}, 'ROOT': {'needs'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'xcomp': {'tocompare', 'see'}, 'amod': {'healthy'}, 'nummod': {'20', '2'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'compound': {'year'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'olds'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'humanspecies', 'time', 'olds'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
1289 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Yet, some of the more significant developments that occur in the first decades oflife and in the decades that follow are not visible to the naked eye 27 16 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, PART, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Yet', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'some'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'naked', 'significant', 'first'}, 'pobj': {'eye', 'developments', 'oflife', 'decades'}, 'relcl': {'follow', 'occur'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'visible'}} Long High Low
1290 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education They are the transformations occurring within the hardware (i.e., neuroanatomy) and software (i.e., neurophysiology) of the human mind 18 8 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'X': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'transformations'}, 'acl': {'occurring'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'hardware', 'mind'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'appos': {'neuroanatomy', 'neurophysiology'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'software'}, 'amod': {'human'}} Medium High Low
1291 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Moreover, with changes in the brain’s architecturecome concomitant changes in cognitive, psychological, and socioemotional processesthat impact college students’ learning and performance 21 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'ROOT': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'changes'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'students', 'brain'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'concomitant', 'architecturecome', 'cognitive'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'psychological', 'socioemotional'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'impact', 'processesthat', 'college'}} Long High Low
1292 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Neurobiological changes Much attention is paid to children’s, cognitive, biological, and socioemotional develop- ment (Bjorklund & Causey, 2017) 18 5 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'biological', 'cognitive', 'Much', 'Neurobiological'}, 'ROOT': {'changes'}, 'nsubjpass': {'attention'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'paid'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'children'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'develop-'}, 'conj': {'Causey', 'ment', 'socioemotional'}, 'appos': {'Bjorklund'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017'}} Medium High Low
1293 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education transformations that occur in the way that young children think and behave 12 5 {'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'ROOT': {'transformations'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'children'}, 'relcl': {'think', 'occur'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'way'}, 'advmod': {'that'}, 'amod': {'young'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'behave'}} Medium High Low
1294 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Similarly, early adolescence is a period of dramatic change, as any parent of 10 –16 years old can attest 19 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, ADJ, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Similarly'}, 'punct': {',', '–'}, 'amod': {'dramatic', 'early', 'old'}, 'nsubj': {'adolescence', 'parent'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'any'}, 'attr': {'period'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'change', '10'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nummod': {'16'}, 'npadvmod': {'years'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'advcl': {'attest'}} Medium High Medium
1295 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education However, the cognitive, behavioural, social, and emotional transformations takingplace among college students are particularly vital to their ability to be independent and goal-directed and, ultimately, successful in their future endeavours (Ackerman, 2000) 32 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 10, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'ultimately', 'However', 'particularly'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'future', 'cognitive'}, 'conj': {'social', 'emotional', 'directed', 'behavioural'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'transformations', 'college'}, 'nsubj': {'takingplace'}, 'prep': {'to', 'among', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'endeavours', 'ability'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'independent', 'successful', 'vital'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'be'}, 'npadvmod': {'goal'}, 'appos': {'Ackerman', '2000'}} Long High Low
1296 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The shifts of particular importance here are situated in two types of brain matter that makeup human’s central nervous system (CNS) –the control centre for all human functions that consists of our brain and spinal cord 36 16 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PART, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'all', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'shifts'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'spinal', 'central', 'human', 'nervous', 'particular'}, 'pobj': {'brain', 'types', 'matter', 'functions', 'importance'}, 'advmod': {'here'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'situated'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'compound': {'control', 'brain', 'makeup'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'our', 'human'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'dep': {'system'}, 'punct': {'(', '–', ')'}, 'appos': {'centre', 'CNS'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'consists'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'cord'}} Long High Medium
1297 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education That CNS is composed of grey matter (GM) and whitematter (WM), which serve different roles in human thoughts, behaviours, and emotions.GM contains the brain’s neuronal elements (cell bodies, dendrites, axon terminals, andsynapses), while the WM consists of axon bundles covered in myelin 42 13 {'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 17, 'PUNCT': 14, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'That', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'CNS'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'composed', 'contains'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'axon', 'cell', 'grey'}, 'pobj': {'bundles', 'myelin', 'thoughts', 'matter'}, 'punct': {'(', '.', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'GM', 'WM', 'bodies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'emotions', 'dendrites', 'terminals', 'andsynapses', 'behaviours', 'whitematter'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'GM', 'WM'}, 'relcl': {'serve'}, 'amod': {'different', 'neuronal', 'human'}, 'dobj': {'elements', 'roles'}, 'poss': {'brain'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'consists'}, 'acl': {'covered'}} Long High Medium
1298 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The principal job ofWM is conducting nerve signals up and down the spinal cord 14 6 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'spinal', 'principal'}, 'compound': {'job', 'nerve'}, 'nsubj': {'ofWM'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'conducting'}, 'dobj': {'signals'}, 'prep': {'up'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'down'}, 'pobj': {'cord'}} Medium High Low
1299 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education WM makes up the bulk of the deep parts of the brain, what Newman (2017) called ‘the brain’s flexible but underrated superhighway.’ From childhood to early adulthood, there is a decrease in GM and a corresponding increase in WM (Sowell, Thompson, Tessner, & Toga, 2001) 45 19 {'PROPN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 13, 'PRON': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Newman', 'WM'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'makes'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'bulk', 'what'}, 'prep': {'From', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'flexible', 'early', 'corresponding'}, 'pobj': {'brain', 'GM', 'childhood', 'WM', 'parts', 'adulthood'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'2017'}, 'relcl': {'called'}, 'poss': {'brain'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', '&'}, 'conj': {'Thompson', 'increase', 'Tessner', 'Toga', 'underrated'}, 'oprd': {'superhighway'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'attr': {'decrease'}, 'nmod': {'Sowell'}, 'npadvmod': {'2001'}} Long High Low
1300 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In fact, the frontal regions ofthe cerebral cortex associated with higher-level executive functions are the last toundergo myelination (Fields, 2010) 20 6 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'with', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'functions', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'frontal', 'executive', 'cerebral', 'higher', 'last'}, 'nsubj': {'cortex', 'regions'}, 'nmod': {'level', 'ofthe'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'compound': {'toundergo'}, 'attr': {'myelination'}, 'appos': {'Fields'}, 'npadvmod': {'2010'}} Long High Low
1301 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education With this increase in WM comes greater neurologicalefficiency and enhanced capacity to engage in more complex, higher-order cognitivefunctions (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006) 22 7 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'With', 'in'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'nsubj': {'increase'}, 'pobj': {'cognitivefunctions', 'WM'}, 'ROOT': {'comes'}, 'amod': {'enhanced', 'higher', 'greater', 'complex'}, 'dobj': {'neurologicalefficiency'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'capacity', 'Choudhury'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'engage'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'order'}, 'appos': {'Blakemore'}, 'npadvmod': {'2006'}} Long High Low
1302 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education It is important to recognize that this neurological shift comes just as college students begin making crucial decisions about academic and career paths 23 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'students', 'It', 'shift'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'making', 'recognize'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'amod': {'neurological', 'academic', 'crucial'}, 'ccomp': {'comes'}, 'advmod': {'just'}, 'compound': {'college'}, 'advcl': {'begin'}, 'dobj': {'decisions'}, 'prep': {'about'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'career'}, 'pobj': {'paths'}} Long High High
1303 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Thus, they seem neurologically and cognitively betterequipped to build the knowledge, interests, and problem-solving skills required toachieve future goals 19 7 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'neurologically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'interests', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skills', 'cognitively'}, 'oprd': {'betterequipped'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'build'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'goals', 'knowledge'}, 'npadvmod': {'problem'}, 'amod': {'future', 'solving'}, 'ccomp': {'required'}, 'nmod': {'toachieve'}} Medium High Low
1304 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Thankfully, what college students begin to lose in speededperformance, attention, or working memory, they gain in cognitive flexibility, reasoning,and decision-making (Ackerman, Beier, & Boyle, 2002) 25 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thankfully'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'compound': {'decision', 'working', 'college'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'begin'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'lose'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'speededperformance', 'flexibility'}, 'conj': {'Ackerman', 'reasoning', 'Boyle', 'making', 'attention', 'Beier', 'memory'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'ROOT': {'gain'}, 'amod': {'cognitive'}, 'appos': {'2002'}} Long High Low
1305 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Executive function and academic development As noted, the neurobiological transformations during this period allow for higher-levelmental processing and control, referred to as executive function or EF (Diamond, 2013).EF encompasses humans’ ability to act intentionally, reflect on ideas, recognize and weighalternatives, understand consequences, control emotion responses, make reasoneddecisions, stay focused, set future goals, and be generally stable yet flexible (Jurado &Rosselli, 2007; McGivern, Andersen, Byrd, Mutter, & Reilly, 2002; Taylor, Barker, Heavey,& McHale, 2013) 73 17 {'ADJ': 10, 'NOUN': 17, 'CCONJ': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 11, 'PUNCT': 28, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 13, 'NUM': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ...] {'amod': {'neurobiological', 'executive', 'levelmental', 'future', 'higher', 'Executive', 'academic'}, 'nsubj': {'transformations', 'function'}, 'cc': {'and', 'yet', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Taylor', 'flexible', 'Byrd', 'understand', 'Andersen', 'development', 'Mutter', '2002', 'encompasses', 'Diamond', 'Barker', 'McGivern', 'Rosselli', 'recognize', 'weighalternatives', 'make', 'responses', 'control', 'stay', 'set', 'be', 'Reilly', 'McHale', 'Heavey'}, 'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'noted', 'referred'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', '2013).EF', ';'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'prep': {'on', 'during', 'to', 'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'period', 'ideas', 'function'}, 'ROOT': {'allow'}, 'nmod': {'EF'}, 'dobj': {'goals', 'reasoneddecisions', 'humans', 'ability', 'consequences'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'act', 'reflect'}, 'advmod': {'generally', 'intentionally'}, 'compound': {'control', 'emotion'}, 'acomp': {'stable', 'focused'}, 'attr': {'Jurado'}, 'npadvmod': {'2013', '2007'}} Long High Medium
1306 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Such characteristics are valued for college students working to succeed in their studies and to do well in career pursuits 20 11 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'Such'}, 'nsubjpass': {'characteristics'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'valued'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'compound': {'career', 'college'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'pursuits', 'studies'}, 'acl': {'working'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'succeed'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'do'}, 'advmod': {'well'}} Long High Low
1307 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Indeed, ‘examination of the literature on executive function leaves little doubt this domain of cognitive control and behaviouralregulation is involved in numerous aspects of academics and everyday life’ (Baggetta &Alexander, 2016;p 31 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM] {'advmod': {'Indeed'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '‘', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'examination'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'academics', 'aspects', 'literature', 'function', 'control'}, 'amod': {'numerous', 'executive', 'little', 'everyday', 'cognitive'}, 'ROOT': {'leaves'}, 'dobj': {'doubt'}, 'nsubjpass': {'domain'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'behaviouralregulation', 'life', 'Alexander'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'involved'}, 'npadvmod': {'Baggetta'}, 'nummod': {'2016;p'}} Long High Low
1308 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Also, there is the expectation that college students are increasingly more aware of their specific cognitive, psychological, social, and emotional strengths and have careeraspirations matched to those strengths (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994) 33 14 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'increasingly', 'Also', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'attr': {'expectation'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'college'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'acl': {'matched', 'are'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nmod': {'specific'}, 'amod': {'psychological', 'cognitive'}, 'conj': {'Hackett', 'emotional', 'social', 'have', 'Brown'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'pobj': {'strengths'}, 'dobj': {'careeraspirations'}, 'appos': {'Lent'}, 'npadvmod': {'1994'}} Long High Medium
1309 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Reflecting onthese abilities and interests, students can decide on their programme of study and work towards whatever career goals they envision 21 9 {'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 1} [VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'amod': {'Reflecting', 'onthese'}, 'dep': {'abilities'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'work', 'interests'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'decide'}, 'prep': {'on', 'towards', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'goals', 'programme', 'study'}, 'det': {'whatever'}, 'compound': {'career'}, 'ccomp': {'envision'}} Long High Low
1310 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Such actions are foundational to the development of expertise in specific fields of study (Ackerman, 2003; Alexander, 1997,2018) 18 7 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Such'}, 'nsubj': {'actions'}, 'ROOT': {'are', 'Alexander'}, 'acomp': {'foundational'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'fields', 'study', 'expertise', 'development'}, 'compound': {'specific'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Ackerman', '1997,2018', '2003'}} Medium High Low
1311 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education As a consequence, EFs can manifest differently when measured in students’domains of study rather than generically (Romine & Reynolds, 2005) 20 8 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'As', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'consequence', 'study', 'students’domains'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'EFs'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'manifest'}, 'advmod': {'differently', 'when', 'generically', 'rather'}, 'advcl': {'measured'}, 'cc': {'than', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'Romine', '2005'}, 'conj': {'Reynolds'}} Long High Medium
1312 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Specifically, withthe increased domain-specific knowledge, interest, and problem-solving abilities that418 Patricia A 12 2 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'Patricia', 'that418', 'withthe', 'domain', 'specific'}, 'amod': {'solving', 'increased'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'problem'}, 'appos': {'abilities'}, 'ROOT': {'A'}} Medium High Low
1313 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education accompany expertise development, students can deepen their thinking and reflection, inform their decision-making, increase their focus, and exhibit more cognitive flexibilityin that domain (Ackerman, 2000; Alexander, 2003; Ericsson, 2004) 29 8 {'PROPN': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 3} [PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'accompany', 'decision', 'expertise'}, 'dep': {'development'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'deepen'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'making', 'flexibilityin', 'focus', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'exhibit', 'increase', 'inform', 'domain', 'reflection'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'amod': {'cognitive'}, 'det': {'that'}, 'appos': {'2004', 'Ackerman', '2000', '2003', 'Alexander', 'Ericsson'}} Long High Medium
1314 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The three moststudied EFs are working memory, inhibitory control, and relational reasoning 12 4 {'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NUM, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'amod': {'moststudied', 'inhibitory', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'EFs'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'working'}, 'dobj': {'memory'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'reasoning', 'control'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
1315 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Relational reasoning as a crucial executive function Relational reasoning (RR) can be defined as individuals’ ability to notice and attend to critical similarities and differences in what, on the surface, appear to be unrelatedinformation or data (Alexander, Singer, Jablansky, & Hattan, 2016; Alexander, Dumas, et al 46 16 {'PROPN': 10, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 12, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, AUX, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN] {'compound': {'Relational'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reasoning'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'executive', 'crucial', 'critical'}, 'nmod': {'function'}, 'pobj': {'similarities', 'reasoning', 'surface', 'ability'}, 'punct': {'al', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'Dumas', 'et', 'RR', 'Alexander', '2016'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'defined', 'Alexander'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'acl': {'notice'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Jablansky', 'Hattan', 'differences', 'data', 'Singer', 'attend'}, 'nsubj': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'appear'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'unrelatedinformation'}} Long High Low
1316 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education These perceived relations further coalesce into meaningful patterns that guide thinking and action 13 5 {'DET': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'These'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'further', 'perceived'}, 'nsubj': {'relations', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'coalesce'}, 'prep': {'into'}, 'pobj': {'patterns'}, 'relcl': {'guide'}, 'dobj': {'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'action'}} Medium High Low
1317 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In effect, RR is the ability to perceive deep and relevantassociations where they do not obviously exist 17 9 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB] {'prep': {'In'}, 'pobj': {'effect'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'RR'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'ability'}, 'aux': {'do', 'to'}, 'acl': {'perceive'}, 'dobj': {'deep'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'relevantassociations'}, 'advmod': {'obviously', 'where'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'exist'}} Medium High Medium
1318 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education For the past decade, our research team hasbeen investigating nature, manifestations, assessment, and malleability of RR 16 5 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'past'}, 'pobj': {'decade', 'RR'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'ROOT': {'team'}, 'appos': {'hasbeen'}, 'acl': {'investigating'}, 'dobj': {'nature'}, 'conj': {'malleability', 'assessment', 'manifestations'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
1319 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education As othersbefore us (Cattell, 1940; Spearman, 1927), we regard this higher-order executive functionas a defining difference in human cognition and development, and important to assessgenerally and domain-specifically 27 10 {'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, ADV, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV] {'prep': {'As', 'othersbefore', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'us', 'cognition'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'Cattell', '1927', 'Spearman'}, 'npadvmod': {'1940'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'regard'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'amod': {'defining', 'higher', 'executive', 'human'}, 'compound': {'order'}, 'dobj': {'difference', 'functionas'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'important', 'development'}, 'pcomp': {'assessgenerally'}, 'advmod': {'specifically'}} Long High Low
1320 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education From our extensive work, we have garnered insightsinto RR that have bearing on college students’ learning and performance and into issues of assessment 23 11 {'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'From', 'on', 'insightsinto', 'of'}, 'poss': {'our', 'students'}, 'amod': {'extensive'}, 'pobj': {'issues', 'learning', 'assessment', 'work', 'RR'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'garnered'}, 'advcl': {'bearing'}, 'compound': {'college'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'into'}} Long High Low
1321 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The nature and forms of relational reasoning My colleagues and I are by no means the first to recognize the power of relationalreasoning 23 13 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'det': {'no', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'nature'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'I', 'forms'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'means', 'relational'}, 'acl': {'reasoning'}, 'poss': {'My'}, 'dobj': {'power', 'colleagues'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'first'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'recognize'}, 'pcomp': {'relationalreasoning'}} Long High Low
1322 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Spearman (1927), for one, considered reasoning by relations as the sine qua non for human cognitive ability, and his belief shaped the work of his students, Cattell (1940) and Raven (1941), who created intelligence tests around reasoning about complex relations 40 15 {'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 11, 'NUM': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3} [NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'who', 'Spearman'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1941', '1940', 'Cattell', '1927'}, 'prep': {'for', 'around', 'of', 'about', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'relations', 'ability', 'reasoning', 'one', 'non'}, 'acl': {'considered'}, 'oprd': {'reasoning'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'sine', 'cognitive', 'complex', 'human'}, 'compound': {'intelligence', 'qua'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'conj': {'belief', 'Raven'}, 'ROOT': {'shaped'}, 'dobj': {'tests', 'work'}, 'relcl': {'created'}} Long High Low
1323 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In fact, within cognitive science and cognitive neuroscience, the Raven’s Progressive Matrices is still regarded as the gold standard for assessing this executivefunction (Dumas, Alexander, & Grossnickle, 2013) 28 11 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PART, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'as', 'within', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'standard', 'fact', 'science'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Grossnickle', 'neuroscience', 'Alexander'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'poss': {'Raven'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'gold', 'Progressive'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Matrices'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'still'}, 'ROOT': {'regarded'}, 'pcomp': {'assessing'}, 'dobj': {'executivefunction'}, 'appos': {'2013', 'Dumas'}} Long High Low
1324 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education While our definition of RR isconsistent with the research in cognitive neuroscience, we broadened its conceptual-ization to encompass not only the ability to recognize similarities (i.e., analogicalreasoning), but also the dissimilarities 31 16 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PART': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, PART, ADV, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'poss': {'our', 'its'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'definition'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'neuroscience', 'research', 'RR'}, 'advcl': {'isconsistent', 'encompass'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'conceptual', 'cognitive'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'broadened'}, 'dobj': {'similarities', 'dissimilarities', 'ization', 'ability'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'i.e.', 'also'}, 'acl': {'recognize', 'analogicalreasoning'}, 'cc': {'but'}} Long High Medium
1325 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education This effort to unearth reasoning patternspredicated on dissimilarities was informed by writings in intelligence, higher-orderthinking, and mathematics set theory (Cattell, 1940; Russell, 1903; Spearman, 1927) 25 7 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 3} [DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'effort'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'unearth', 'patternspredicated'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'dissimilarities', 'writings', 'intelligence'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'informed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'higher'}, 'nmod': {'orderthinking'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'mathematics'}, 'conj': {'Russell', 'set'}, 'appos': {'theory', '1903', '1927', 'Cattell', 'Spearman'}, 'npadvmod': {'1940'}} Long High Low
1326 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Ultimately, three distinct forms representing varied patterns of dissimilarities were identified as follows: anomaly, antinomy, and antithesis (Alexander, Dumas, et al 21 5 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Ultimately'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', 'al'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'amod': {'distinct', 'varied'}, 'nsubj': {'forms'}, 'acl': {'representing'}, 'dobj': {'patterns'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'dissimilarities'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'identified'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'follows'}, 'appos': {'Alexander', 'anomaly', 'et'}, 'conj': {'antinomy', 'Dumas', 'antithesis'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Medium
1327 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Sample items from the Test of Relational Reasoning (TORR; Alexander & the Disciplined Reading and Learning Research Laboratory [DRLRL],2012) help to explain these forms (see Figure 1) 27 8 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 11, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, X, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Relational', 'Disciplined', 'Sample', 'Learning', 'Research'}, 'nsubj': {'items'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'DRLRL],2012', 'Test', 'Reasoning'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ')'}, 'appos': {'Alexander', 'TORR'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Laboratory', 'Reading'}, 'dep': {'['}, 'ROOT': {'help'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'explain'}, 'dobj': {'Figure', 'forms'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Long High Low
1328 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The TORR is a fluid measure of RRcreated for older adolescents and adults, which means it measures the ability to applyreasoning to a novel rather than a ‘schooled’ problem 29 15 {'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1} [DET, PROPN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'it', 'TORR'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'fluid', 'older', 'schooled'}, 'attr': {'measure'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'novel', 'RRcreated', 'adolescents'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than'}, 'conj': {'adults'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'relcl': {'means'}, 'ccomp': {'measures'}, 'dobj': {'ability', 'problem'}, 'pcomp': {'applyreasoning'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}} Long High Low
1329 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education It consists of 32 figural itemsorganized in four 8-item scales, one for each form 14 7 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'DET': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADJ, VERB, ADP, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'consists'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'8', 'four', '32'}, 'pobj': {'figural', 'scales', 'form'}, 'ccomp': {'itemsorganized'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'item'}, 'npadvmod': {'one'}, 'det': {'each'}} Medium High Low
1330 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Of the aforementioned forms, analogical reasoning is the most familiar and involves the process of discerning similarities across objects, ideas, and experiences that areseemingly unrelated 25 11 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, ADJ] {'prep': {'Of', 'across', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'aforementioned', 'analogical'}, 'pobj': {'similarities', 'forms', 'objects'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'most', 'areseemingly'}, 'acomp': {'familiar'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'experiences', 'ideas', 'involves'}, 'dobj': {'process'}, 'compound': {'discerning'}, 'ccomp': {'unrelated'}} Long High Low
1331 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education As shown in Figure 1a, respondents must recognize the systematicchanges in shape and number occurring within rows and columns in the array in order toselect the missing piece from the options shown 32 14 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'shown', 'toselect'}, 'prep': {'from', 'within', 'in'}, 'compound': {'Figure'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'rows', '1a', 'options', 'array', 'shape'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'respondents'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'recognize'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'systematicchanges', 'piece'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'number', 'columns'}, 'acl': {'occurring'}, 'amod': {'missing'}} Long High Medium
1332 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education As with the Raven’s (1941), all items inthis scale are configured as matrices 13 7 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'As', 'as'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'matrices', 'Raven'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1941', 'scale'}, 'nsubjpass': {'items'}, 'compound': {'inthis'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'configured'}} Medium High Low
1333 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Anomalous reasoning , by comparison, is theIndividual differences in college-age learners 419 12 3 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'amod': {'Anomalous', 'theIndividual'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'by', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'comparison'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'differences'}, 'compound': {'age', 'college'}, 'nummod': {'419'}} Medium High Low
1334 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education process of identifying a discrepant case or outlier within a set of objects, ideas, or experiences 16 7 {'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2} [NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'process'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'identifying'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'discrepant'}, 'dobj': {'case'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'outlier', 'experiences', 'ideas'}, 'pobj': {'set', 'objects'}, 'punct': {','}} Medium High Low
1335 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education For problem 1b, the set consists of figures composed of horizontal andvertical lines 13 4 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'figures', 'lines', 'problem'}, 'nummod': {'1b'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'set'}, 'ROOT': {'consists'}, 'acl': {'composed'}, 'amod': {'andvertical', 'horizontal'}} Medium High Low
1336 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In this problem, there is a particular ratio of horizontal to vertical linescommon to all but one member –the anomaly 20 12 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'all', 'problem', 'vertical', 'horizontal'}, 'punct': {',', '–'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'particular'}, 'attr': {'ratio'}, 'advmod': {'linescommon'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'conj': {'member'}, 'appos': {'anomaly'}} Long High Low
1337 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Antinomous reasoning is the process of reaching a categorical judgment as to whether an object, idea, or experience can or cannot be a member of a given set of objects, ideas, orexperiences 32 18 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 4, 'DET': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, CCONJ, AUX, PART, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB] {'amod': {'Antinomous', 'given', 'categorical'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'whether', 'the'}, 'attr': {'member', 'process'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'object', 'reaching'}, 'dobj': {'judgment'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'be', 'idea', 'ideas', 'experience'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'appos': {'can'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'pobj': {'set', 'objects'}, 'ROOT': {'orexperiences'}} Long High Medium
1338 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education To illustrate, theantinomy item (Figure 1c) requires respondents to determine which of the option setscan have no members in common with the given 23 10 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2} [PART, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB] {'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'csubj': {'illustrate'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'theantinomy'}, 'dobj': {'members', 'respondents', 'item'}, 'appos': {'Figure', '1c'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'relcl': {'determine'}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'option', 'setscan', 'given'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'amod': {'common'}} Long High Low
1339 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Finally, for antithetical reasoning , the judgment to be made is not categorical but one of contrasts or opposition 19 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, AUX, PART, ADJ, CCONJ, NUM, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'antithetical'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'contrasts'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'judgment'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'made'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'categorical'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'opposition', 'one'}} Medium High Low
1340 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Thus, inFigure 1d, respondents must discern the pattern of change represented in the given problem 15 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'inFigure'}, 'npadvmod': {'1d'}, 'nsubj': {'respondents'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'discern'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'pattern'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'problem'}, 'acl': {'represented'}, 'amod': {'given'}} Medium High Low
1341 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Over the course of multiple studies, the TORR has been shown to be a psychome- trically sound measure 18 9 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, ADJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'Over', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'studies'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'sound', 'psychome-'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'TORR'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'shown'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'trically'}, 'attr': {'measure'}} Medium High Low
1342 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education (Details on the TORR, including item difficulties, intercorrela-tions, reliability coefficients, invariance testing, and the resulting factor structure are Figure 1 20 5 {'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, NUM] {'punct': {'(', '-', ','}, 'nsubj': {'Details'}, 'prep': {'on', 'including'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'difficulties', 'TORR'}, 'compound': {'intercorrela', 'invariance', 'factor', 'item', 'reliability'}, 'conj': {'structure', 'coefficients', 'tions', 'testing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'resulting'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'Figure'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Long High Low
1343 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Sample items from the Test of Relational Reasoning (TORR) from the scales for (a) analogical reasoning; (b) anomalous reasoning; (c) antinomous reasoning; and (d) antithetical reasoning.420 Patricia A 28 9 {'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 13, 'ADJ': 4, 'X': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN] {'compound': {'Sample', 'Relational', 'Patricia'}, 'ROOT': {'items'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'scales', 'Test', 'reasoning', 'Reasoning'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ')'}, 'appos': {'reasoning', 'TORR'}, 'amod': {'antinomous', 'anomalous', 'antithetical', 'analogical'}, 'meta': {'d', 'b', 'c'}, 'conj': {'reasoning', 'reasoning.420'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dobj': {'A'}} Long High Low
1344 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Even more importantly for this Special Issue, the TORR has been found to predict older adolescents’ and adults’ performance on a variety ofdemanding cognitive tasks including writing an argumentative essay (Singh, Sun, & Zhao,2018), developing creative solutions to engineering design problems (Dumas, Schmidt, & Alexander, 2016; Jablansky, Alexander, & Schmidt, 2018), and thinking critically about maternity patients’ care (Fountain, 2016) 60 15 {'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 13, 'PUNCT': 22, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 13, 'CCONJ': 5, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'critically', 'importantly', 'more', 'Even'}, 'prep': {'on', 'including', 'for', 'to', 'about'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'engineering', 'design', 'maternity'}, 'pobj': {'care', 'tasks', 'problems', 'Issue'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubjpass': {'TORR'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'xcomp': {'predict'}, 'amod': {'creative', 'argumentative', 'ofdemanding', 'older', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'solutions', 'essay', 'adolescents'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Sun', 'Jablansky', 'adults', 'developing', 'thinking', 'Zhao,2018', 'Schmidt', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'variety', '2016'}, 'pcomp': {'writing'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Dumas', 'Singh', 'Fountain', '2016'}, 'poss': {'patients'}} Long High Low
1345 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Although not the focus of this article, twoadditional measures of RR have been developed and validated: the Verbal Test ofRelational Reasoning (vTORR, Alexander, Singer, et al 26 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 7} [SCONJ, PART, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'advcl': {'focus'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'article', 'RR'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', 'al'}, 'amod': {'ofRelational', 'twoadditional'}, 'nsubjpass': {'measures'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Singer', 'Alexander', 'validated'}, 'compound': {'Verbal'}, 'nmod': {'Test'}, 'appos': {'Reasoning', 'vTORR', 'et'}} Long High Medium
1346 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education , 2016) for adolescents and adults; and the Test of Relational Reasoning-Junior (TORRjr; Alexander & the DRLRL, 2015) forchildren and younger adolescents 22 7 {'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 7, 'ADJ': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'ROOT': {'for', '2016'}, 'pobj': {'Junior', 'adolescents'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'adults', 'DRLRL', 'adolescents', 'forchildren', 'Test', 'Alexander'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'Reasoning'}, 'appos': {'TORRjr', '2015'}, 'amod': {'younger'}} Long High Low
1347 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education While I have illustrated the forms of RR with sample items from TORR, it should be understood that these forms have been documented in everyday discourse and group problem solving 30 16 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'mark': {'that', 'While'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'should', 'have'}, 'advcl': {'illustrated', 'solving'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'forms'}, 'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'TORR', 'discourse', 'RR'}, 'compound': {'group', 'sample'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'forms', 'it'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'been'}, 'ROOT': {'understood'}, 'ccomp': {'documented'}, 'amod': {'everyday'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'problem'}} Long High High
1348 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education For instance, all four forms were evident in the verbalizations of mathematics and science teachers, undergraduate engineering students working on adesign task, and residents and their attending physician diagnosing patients’ conditions(Dumas, Alexander, Baker, Jablansky, & Dunbar, 2014; Jablansky et al 40 12 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 9, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 7} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'verbalizations', 'teachers', 'instance'}, 'punct': {',', ';', 'al'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'nsubj': {'forms'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'nmod': {'residents', 'mathematics'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Jablansky', 'science', 'physician', 'Dunbar', 'conditions(Dumas', 'Baker', 'Alexander'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'attending'}, 'compound': {'adesign', 'engineering'}, 'appos': {'students', '2014', 'et'}, 'acl': {'working', 'diagnosing'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'patients'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
1349 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Significance for adult learning and performance What has this decade of research into relational reasoning revealed about adult differences and assessment methods that addresse the goals of this Special Issue 30 13 {'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN] {'ROOT': {'Significance'}, 'prep': {'about', 'into', 'for', 'of'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'assessment', 'adult'}, 'pobj': {'differences', 'Issue', 'learning', 'reasoning', 'research'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'methods'}, 'dobj': {'goals', 'What', 'decade'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'relational'}, 'relcl': {'addresse', 'revealed'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}} Long High Low
1350 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Here, we shareinsights that speak to between- and within-group findings, developmental and domaindifferences, as well as the co-occurrence of forms during problem solving 23 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'Here', 'as', 'well'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'shareinsights'}, 'ccomp': {'speak'}, 'prep': {'during', 'to', 'of'}, 'nmod': {'between-'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'domaindifferences', 'co', 'within', 'developmental'}, 'pobj': {'group', 'forms', 'problem', 'findings'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'occurrence', '-'}, 'acl': {'solving'}} Long High Low
1351 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Between- and within-group differences In validating the TORR, Dumas and Alexander (2016) determined that relational reasoning is normally distributed among older adolescents and adults, but that total score does not tell the whole story 34 15 {'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, CCONJ, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'Between-'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'nmod': {'within'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'pobj': {'group', 'adolescents'}, 'conj': {'adults', 'tell', 'Alexander', 'differences'}, 'prep': {'In', 'among'}, 'pcomp': {'validating'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'story', 'TORR'}, 'nsubj': {'score', 'Dumas'}, 'appos': {'2016'}, 'ROOT': {'determined'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'total', 'whole', 'older', 'relational'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reasoning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'normally'}, 'ccomp': {'distributed'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Low
1352 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education While most individuals scoring in the upper ranges of the test wereconsistently strong across all scales and those markedly below average were consistentlyweak, there was noticeable variability for those in the mid-ranges 32 18 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADV, ADV, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'amod': {'upper', 'noticeable', 'most'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'those'}, 'acl': {'scoring'}, 'prep': {'below', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'across'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'mid', '-', 'those', 'scales', 'test', 'ranges', 'average'}, 'advmod': {'wereconsistently', 'markedly'}, 'advcl': {'strong'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'were'}, 'attr': {'consistentlyweak', 'variability'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}} Long High Medium
1353 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education For example, the sametotal score was achieved by students who scored moderately on each scale, as well asthose who were high on one or two scales but low on the others 31 19 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'example', 'others', 'scales', 'scale'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'amod': {'sametotal'}, 'nsubjpass': {'score'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'achieved'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'scored'}, 'advmod': {'moderately', 'well', 'as'}, 'advcl': {'asthose'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'high'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'two', 'low'}} Long High Low
1354 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In effect, the specificscales of the TORR were informative sources of individual variability 13 6 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'effect', 'variability', 'TORR'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'specificscales'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'informative'}, 'attr': {'sources'}} Medium High Low
1355 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Also, theinvestigation of differential item functioning for various groups (Dumas & Alexander, 2018, np) showed that the TORR was not only structurally invariant, but also could be ‘meaningfully calibrated, normed, and scored in adolescent and adult populations likethose enrolled in higher education, without explicitly accounting for the demographicgroup membership’ (i.e., gender, race, and ethnicity) 54 21 {'ADV': 6, 'PUNCT': 16, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, AUX, PART, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, AUX, AUX, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'Also', 'explicitly', 'structurally', 'i.e.', 'meaningfully'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'theinvestigation', 'TORR'}, 'prep': {'for', 'without', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'various', 'differential', 'higher', 'adolescent'}, 'pobj': {'item', 'education', 'populations', 'membership', 'groups'}, 'acl': {'functioning'}, 'appos': {'np', '2018', 'gender', 'Dumas'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', '&'}, 'conj': {'normed', 'race', 'ethnicity', 'scored', 'calibrated', 'enrolled', 'Alexander', 'adult'}, 'ROOT': {'showed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'invariant'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'dobj': {'likethose'}, 'pcomp': {'accounting'}, 'compound': {'demographicgroup'}} Long High Medium
1356 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Developmental, task, and domain differences Developmentally, there is evidence of relevant changes in relational reasoning over time (Jablansky, Alexander, Dumas, & Compton, 2016) 23 6 {'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Developmental'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Compton', 'differences', 'Dumas', 'task', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'compound': {'domain'}, 'advmod': {'Developmentally'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'evidence'}, 'prep': {'over', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'time', 'changes'}, 'appos': {'Jablansky', '2016'}} Long High Low
1357 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education found that even kindergartens were capable of reasoning analogically, anomalously, antithetically,and antinomously when presented in a familiar problem-solving task 19 8 {'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [VERB, SCONJ, ADV, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'analogically', 'when', 'antithetically', 'antinomously', 'anomalously', 'even'}, 'nsubj': {'kindergartens'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'capable'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'reasoning'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'presented'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'solving', 'familiar'}, 'npadvmod': {'problem'}} Medium High High
1358 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education What was particularly striking was the differentialreliance on various forms between the early grades (Kindergarten, second, and fourth)Individual differences in college-age learners 421 23 10 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'aux': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'particularly'}, 'csubj': {'striking'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'differentialreliance'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'between'}, 'amod': {'second', 'various', 'early'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'forms', 'grades'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ','}, 'appos': {'Kindergarten'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'fourth)Individual', 'differences'}, 'compound': {'age', 'college'}, 'nummod': {'421'}} Long High Low
1359 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Specifically, there was strong reliance on analogies and antitheses and minimal evidence of anomalies and antinomies among theyounger students 19 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'amod': {'minimal', 'strong'}, 'attr': {'reliance'}, 'prep': {'on', 'among', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'anomalies', 'analogies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'antitheses', 'evidence', 'antinomies'}, 'compound': {'theyounger'}} Medium High Low
1360 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In contrast, older students voiced more anomalies and antinomies,and very few analogies and antitheses during task performance 17 8 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'during', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'contrast'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'few', 'older', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'voiced'}, 'dobj': {'anomalies', 'analogies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'antinomies', 'antitheses'}, 'advmod': {'very'}, 'compound': {'task'}} Medium High Low
1361 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In light of this evidence, we tentatively concluded that certain forms of RR may be later developing than others 19 10 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'than', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'others', 'evidence', 'light', 'RR'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'forms', 'we'}, 'advmod': {'tentatively', 'later'}, 'ROOT': {'concluded'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'certain'}, 'aux': {'be', 'may'}, 'ccomp': {'developing'}} Medium High Medium
1362 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education However, there are intervening factors that come into play, most notablytask or content familiarity 14 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'intervening'}, 'dobj': {'factors'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'come'}, 'prep': {'into'}, 'pobj': {'play'}, 'amod': {'most'}, 'conj': {'familiarity', 'notablytask'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'content'}} Medium High Low
1363 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education To be more precise, when the ‘technological’ object the younger children were manipulating was familiar (e.g., juice box), their RR was more sophisticated than whenthe object was novel (e.g., an unusual vegetable cutter) 33 14 {'PART': 1, 'AUX': 5, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'PUNCT': 10, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 2} [PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'aux': {'To', 'were'}, 'advcl': {'be', 'was', 'object'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'when', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'precise', 'novel', 'familiar', 'sophisticated'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'unusual', 'technological', 'younger'}, 'nsubj': {'children', 'object', 'RR'}, 'ccomp': {'was', 'manipulating'}, 'compound': {'juice', 'vegetable'}, 'npadvmod': {'box'}, 'poss': {'their', 'whenthe'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'than'}, 'parataxis': {'cutter'}} Long High High
1364 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Older students, by comparison,engaged in more frequent and more sophisticated RR when the object was novel 16 8 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'amod': {'Older', 'frequent'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'object'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'by', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'comparison', 'RR'}, 'ROOT': {'engaged'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'more'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sophisticated'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'novel'}} Medium High Medium
1365 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Thissuggests that the features of the problem should be taken into consideration when measuring RR 15 8 {'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2} [NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Thissuggests'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'features'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'problem', 'consideration'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'acl': {'taken'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'measuring'}, 'dobj': {'RR'}} Medium High High
1366 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Should a given task be too commonplace or too simple, then there seemingly little need to reasoning relationally 18 9 {'AUX': 3, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1} [AUX, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV] {'aux': {'Should', 'to'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'given', 'little'}, 'nsubj': {'task'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'too', 'relationally', 'there', 'then', 'seemingly'}, 'acomp': {'commonplace'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'simple'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'need'}, 'xcomp': {'reasoning'}} Medium High Low
1367 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Conversely, when a task is highly complexand novel, then perhaps even adult learners may not be able to reason at an optimal level 23 12 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'highly', 'perhaps', 'even', 'then', 'Conversely'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'nsubj': {'task', 'learners'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'amod': {'complexand', 'optimal'}, 'attr': {'novel'}, 'compound': {'adult'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'reason'}, 'prep': {'at'}, 'pobj': {'level'}} Long High Medium
1368 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The malleability of relational reasoning The prior discussion raises the question as to whether RR is malleable 17 8 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'malleability', 'discussion', 'RR'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'relational'}, 'acl': {'reasoning'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'ROOT': {'raises'}, 'dobj': {'question'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'pcomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'malleable'}} Medium High Medium
1369 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Can explicittraining delivered generically or domain-specifically alter the developmental trajectory for RR 12 4 {'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [AUX, NOUN, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'aux': {'Can'}, 'nsubj': {'explicittraining'}, 'ROOT': {'delivered'}, 'advmod': {'generically', 'specifically'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'conj': {'alter'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'developmental'}, 'dobj': {'trajectory'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'RR'}} Medium High Low
1370 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education There are certain data that can shed some light on the malleability of this higher-order executive function 17 9 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'higher'}, 'attr': {'data'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'shed'}, 'det': {'this', 'the', 'some'}, 'dobj': {'light'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'malleability', 'function'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'compound': {'order', 'executive'}} Medium High Low
1371 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education For one, my colleaguesand I have been successful at training analogical reasoning in children and adolescentswithin the context of reading, history, or human biology instruction (Alexander, Pate,Kulikowich, Farrell, & Wright, 1989; White & Alexander, 1986) 35 12 {'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 3, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 7} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'at', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'one', 'children'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'colleaguesand'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'acomp': {'successful'}, 'pcomp': {'training'}, 'amod': {'human', 'analogical'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning', 'context'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'history', 'White', 'Pate', 'adolescentswithin', 'Farrell', 'Kulikowich', 'Alexander', 'Wright', 'instruction'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'biology'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'nummod': {'1989'}, 'npadvmod': {'1986'}} Long High Low
1372 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Let me also state that I see no value in training RR by means of abstract, decontextualized problems like those on the TORR for two reasons 26 14 {'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, NUM, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Let'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'me'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ccomp': {'see', 'state'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'problems', 'value', 'RR'}, 'prep': {'on', 'like', 'in', 'by', 'of', 'for'}, 'pcomp': {'training'}, 'pobj': {'means', 'TORR', 'those', 'reasons', 'abstract'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'decontextualized'}, 'nummod': {'two'}} Long High Medium
1373 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education For one, the history of generic problem-solving programmes is not encouraging (Wagner & Sternberg, 1984) 15 6 {'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'programmes'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'history'}, 'amod': {'generic', 'solving'}, 'npadvmod': {'1984', 'problem'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'encouraging'}, 'dobj': {'Wagner'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Sternberg'}} Medium High Low
1374 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education For another, the value of assessments like the TORR lies in their novelty and abstraction, sotraining to the test would be counterproductive and ill-advised 24 13 {'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, PRON, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB] {'prep': {'like', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'another', 'assessments', 'novelty', 'lies', 'test'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'value', 'TORR'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'advised', 'abstraction'}, 'csubj': {'sotraining'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'counterproductive'}, 'advmod': {'ill'}} Long High Low
1375 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Rather, training shouldfocus on nature of the forms as they manifest in different academic domains and theunderlying processes they entail 20 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'training', 'manifest'}, 'dobj': {'shouldfocus'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'nature', 'domains', 'forms'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'amod': {'different', 'theunderlying', 'academic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'processes'}, 'ROOT': {'entail'}} Long High Medium
1376 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In the past, my colleagues and I used Sternberg’s (1977)componential processes (i.e., encoding, inferring, mapping, and applying) to trainanalogical reasoning (Alexander et al 23 9 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'prep': {'to', 'In'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'past'}, 'punct': {'al', '’s', ')', '(', ','}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'nsubj': {'colleagues'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'I', 'applying', 'mapping', 'inferring'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'dobj': {'processes', 'Sternberg'}, 'nummod': {'1977)componential'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'parataxis': {'encoding'}, 'amod': {'trainanalogical'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
1377 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Using Bayesian network analysis, Gross- nickle, Dumas, Alexander, and Baggetta (2016) found that these same componential processes –especially inferring and mapping –distinguished high-performing from low- performing students on the TORR 30 9 {'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 2} [VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'advcl': {'performing', 'Using'}, 'amod': {'performing', 'componential', 'same', 'Bayesian', 'low-'}, 'compound': {'network', 'Gross-'}, 'dobj': {'analysis'}, 'punct': {'–', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'processes', 'nickle'}, 'conj': {'Baggetta', 'mapping', 'Alexander', 'Dumas'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'inferring', '2016'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'advmod': {'high', 'especially'}, 'ccomp': {'distinguished'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'TORR'}} Long High Medium
1378 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education There have been two recent studies that involved training the forms of relational reasoning, although the results were mixed 19 10 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'expl': {'There'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'amod': {'recent'}, 'attr': {'studies'}, 'nsubj': {'results', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'involved'}, 'xcomp': {'training'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'forms'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'relational'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'advcl': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'mixed'}} Medium High Medium
1379 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education There were quite positive outcomes for anintervention Hattan (2018) conducted in language arts classrooms serving a rural,economically disadvantaged community 19 6 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'economically'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'disadvantaged', 'rural'}, 'attr': {'outcomes'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'compound': {'anintervention', 'arts', 'language'}, 'pobj': {'classrooms', 'Hattan'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'acl': {'serving', 'conducted'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'community'}} Medium High Low
1380 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The middle-school students were trained inthe forms of RR as a way to improve their comprehension and recall of expositorytexts 20 9 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'inthe'}, 'amod': {'middle'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'compound': {'school'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'trained'}, 'dobj': {'forms', 'comprehension'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'expositorytexts', 'way', 'RR'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'improve'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'recall'}} Long High Low
1381 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Students were taught to pose questions representing each form before, during, and after reading as a way to relate the unfamiliar content (i.e., Ancient Greece and Rome) to their own lives and experiences 33 16 {'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'taught'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'pose'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'form', 'questions'}, 'acl': {'representing'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'before'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'as', 'during', 'to'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'after', 'Rome', 'experiences'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'pobj': {'lives', 'way'}, 'relcl': {'relate'}, 'amod': {'unfamiliar', 'own'}, 'compound': {'Ancient'}, 'appos': {'Greece'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
1382 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education For example, the students were asked toconsider how something in the reading reminded them of their own lives (analogy) orcould never be true in their lives (antinomy) 27 15 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'lives', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'dobj': {'them', 'toconsider'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubj': {'something'}, 'csubj': {'reminded'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'own'}, 'appos': {'analogy'}, 'aux': {'orcould'}, 'neg': {'never'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'true'}, 'attr': {'antinomy'}} Long High Medium
1383 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education This approach was compared to aknowledge mobilization technique (i.e., ‘tell me what you know’), and a control (text422 Patricia A 20 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'det': {'a', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'approach'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'compared'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'aknowledge', 'tell'}, 'compound': {'Patricia', 'mobilization', 'text422'}, 'dobj': {'technique', 'me', 'what'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'nsubj': {'you'}, 'ccomp': {'know'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'control'}, 'appos': {'A'}} Long High Low
1384 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The effectiveness of the relational reasoning approach over the other treatment and control conditions was demonstrated on immediate and delayedcomprehension assessments 21 10 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'effectiveness'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'over'}, 'amod': {'other', 'immediate', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'pobj': {'conditions', 'assessments', 'approach'}, 'nmod': {'treatment'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'control', 'delayedcomprehension'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrated'}} Long High Low
1385 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In contrast, two Israeli researchers taught the four forms as a way to enhance eighth graders’ understanding of key physics concepts (Aharon & Eilam, 2018) 25 8 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'as', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'concepts', 'contrast', 'way'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'nummod': {'two', 'four'}, 'amod': {'Israeli', 'eighth', 'key'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'taught'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'forms', 'understanding'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'enhance'}, 'nmod': {'graders'}, 'compound': {'physics'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Aharon'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Eilam'}} Long High Low
1386 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The training involved 16 90-min lessons where students learned the RR forms using examples fromtheir everyday lives 17 4 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'training'}, 'ROOT': {'involved'}, 'nummod': {'90', '16'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'compound': {'min', 'examples', 'RR'}, 'dobj': {'lessons', 'fromtheir', 'forms', 'lives'}, 'advmod': {'everyday', 'where'}, 'relcl': {'learned'}, 'advcl': {'using'}} Medium High Medium
1387 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Then, the four forms were used as the physics content (e.g.,acceleration and velocity) was taught 15 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'Then'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ',acceleration', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'nsubjpass': {'forms'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'ccomp': {'used'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'compound': {'physics'}, 'pobj': {'content'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'velocity'}, 'ROOT': {'taught'}} Medium High Low
1388 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education To assess the effectiveness of the intervention,the eighth graders took a researcher-developed measure that required students toidentify and explain the similarities and differences between two types of motion beingdepicted (e.g., constant velocity and constant acceleration) 35 14 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'assess'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'similarities', 'effectiveness', 'measure', 'velocity'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'intervention', 'types', 'motion'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'required', 'developed', 'eighth', 'constant'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'graders', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'took'}, 'npadvmod': {'researcher'}, 'relcl': {'toidentify'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'differences', 'acceleration', 'explain'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'acl': {'beingdepicted'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}} Long High Low
1389 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The repeated-measuresanalysis showed no significant difference between treatment and control classes on this measure, suggesting that the intervention did not improve students’ learning of physics 25 11 {'DET': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'no', 'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'repeated', 'significant'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'intervention', 'measuresanalysis'}, 'ROOT': {'showed'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'difference'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'between'}, 'nmod': {'treatment'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'control'}, 'pobj': {'physics', 'measure', 'classes'}, 'advcl': {'suggesting'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'improve'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Medium
1390 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The researchers concluded that the students’ struggle to deal both with thenovelty of RR and the unfamiliar and challenging physics content may simply havebeen too much 26 13 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADV] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'struggle', 'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'concluded'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'acl': {'deal'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'thenovelty', 'RR'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'unfamiliar'}, 'conj': {'content', 'challenging'}, 'compound': {'physics'}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'too'}, 'ccomp': {'havebeen'}, 'dobj': {'much'}} Long High Medium
1391 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The interplay among relation reasoning forms Finally, I want to share one other significant finding; the orchestrated ways in which the forms of RR work in concert 27 12 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NUM, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'interplay'}, 'prep': {'of', 'among', 'in'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'relation', 'RR'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'forms', 'concert', 'work'}, 'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}, 'ccomp': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'share'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'amod': {'other', 'significant', 'orchestrated'}, 'dobj': {'finding'}, 'ROOT': {'ways'}, 'relcl': {'forms'}} Long High Low
1392 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In those situations where we have examined RR as it occurs naturally among individuals jointly engaged in problem solving, one fact has becomeapparent 23 11 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, AUX, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'among', 'in'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'pobj': {'situations', 'individuals', 'solving'}, 'advmod': {'naturally', 'where', 'jointly'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we', 'fact'}, 'aux': {'has', 'have'}, 'relcl': {'examined'}, 'dobj': {'RR'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'occurs'}, 'acl': {'engaged'}, 'compound': {'problem'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'ROOT': {'becomeapparent'}} Long High High
1393 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The forms do not function in isolation, but unfold in a systematic, almostrhythmic manner set in motion by the task at hand 22 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'forms'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'function'}, 'prep': {'at', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'manner', 'isolation', 'task', 'hand', 'motion'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'unfold'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'almostrhythmic'}, 'acl': {'set'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
1394 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education We witnessed this with the residentsand attending physicians diagnosing patients’ conditions and determining appropriatetreatment, a science teacher trying to instruct her students about weather patterns, andthe engineering students coming up with a viable design for their senior project (Dumaset al 40 14 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'We', 'physicians', 'residentsand'}, 'ROOT': {'witnessed'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'conditions', 'appropriatetreatment', 'this'}, 'prep': {'about', 'for', 'with'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'andthe'}, 'pcomp': {'attending'}, 'ccomp': {'diagnosing'}, 'poss': {'patients', 'their', 'her'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'students', 'determining'}, 'punct': {',', '('}, 'compound': {'weather', 'engineering', 'science'}, 'npadvmod': {'teacher', 'al'}, 'acl': {'coming', 'trying'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'instruct'}, 'pobj': {'design', 'patterns', 'project'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'amod': {'viable', 'senior'}, 'appos': {'Dumaset'}} Long High Low
1395 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education One particular form of reasoning utterance was predictably followed by another (see Dumas et al 15 6 {'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'amod': {'particular'}, 'nsubjpass': {'form'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'pobj': {'utterance', 'another'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'predictably'}, 'ROOT': {'followed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {'(', 'al'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'Dumas', 'et'}} Medium High Low
1396 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education , 2014 for an detailed example of the pattern among medical doctors) 12 5 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3} [PUNCT, NUM, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'punct': {',', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'2014'}, 'prep': {'for', 'among', 'of'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'medical', 'detailed'}, 'pobj': {'doctors', 'example', 'pattern'}} Medium High Low
1397 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Collectively, these studies are critical reminders that the forms of RR arenot only important singularly in problem solving, but also collectively 21 9 {'ADV': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADV, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV] {'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'collectively', 'Collectively', 'singularly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'forms'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'important', 'critical'}, 'attr': {'reminders'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'arenot', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'solving', 'RR'}, 'compound': {'problem'}, 'cc': {'but'}} Long High Medium
1398 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Conclusion and implications What can those interested in individual differences among higher education students andtheir assessment garner from this overview I have offered 23 10 {'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'garner', 'I', 'Conclusion'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'implications'}, 'dobj': {'What'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have'}, 'det': {'this', 'those'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'higher', 'interested', 'andtheir'}, 'prep': {'from', 'among', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'overview', 'differences'}, 'compound': {'assessment', 'education'}, 'ROOT': {'offered'}} Long High Low
1399 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education For one, in light ofneurobiological and cognitive transformations students of this age are undergoing,higher education is an opportune time to gather crucial data about college students’capabilities to think and reason relationally 31 13 {'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV] {'prep': {'about', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students’capabilities', 'age', 'one'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'light', 'ofneurobiological', 'opportune', 'crucial', 'higher'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reason', 'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'transformations', 'college'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'education'}, 'det': {'an', 'this'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'undergoing'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'time'}, 'relcl': {'gather'}, 'dobj': {'data'}, 'advcl': {'think'}, 'advmod': {'relationally'}} Long High Low
1400 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education It is also a time to build on those capacities byconsciously embedding the language and processes of reasoning relationally ininstruction and in assessments of learning and performance 27 14 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3} [PRON, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'byconsciously', 'also', 'relationally'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'attr': {'time'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'build'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'assessments', 'capacities'}, 'advcl': {'embedding'}, 'dobj': {'ininstruction', 'language'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'processes', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'reasoning'}} Long High Low
1401 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In this way, I concur withBl€omeke, Gustafsson, and Shavelson’s (2015) conception of a competence continuum that encompasses not only underlying capacities but also the manifestation of those capacities in performance of complex, real-world problems 34 17 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'way', 'problems', 'capacities', 'performance', 'continuum'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'concur'}, 'dobj': {'capacities', 'withBl€omeke'}, 'conj': {'manifestation', 'Gustafsson', 'conception'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'poss': {'Shavelson'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nummod': {'2015'}, 'compound': {'world', 'competence'}, 'relcl': {'encompasses'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'amod': {'real', 'underlying', 'complex'}} Long High Low
1402 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education In effect, as a foundationalcognitive ability that remains critical to learning and performance throughout formaleducation and beyond, relational reasoning should have an acknowledged the presencewithin that continuum 27 14 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, PROPN] {'prep': {'throughout', 'as', 'to', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'effect', 'ability', 'formaleducation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'acknowledged', 'foundationalcognitive', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'remains', 'continuum'}, 'acomp': {'critical'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'beyond'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'presencewithin'}} Long High Low
1403 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education As a starting point, the TORR could be administered early incollege, arming students with knowledge about their capabilities to perceive meaningfulIndividual differences in college-age learners 423 26 10 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'prep': {'about', 'with', 'As', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'age', 'starting', 'college'}, 'pobj': {'capabilities', 'knowledge', 'learners', 'point'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'TORR'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'administered'}, 'amod': {'early', 'meaningfulIndividual'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'incollege', 'differences'}, 'advcl': {'arming', 'perceive'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'npadvmod': {'423'}} Long High Low
1404 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education What matters next, of course, is how those capabilities are enacted, refined, and reinforced in instruction 16 9 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'What'}, 'csubj': {'matters'}, 'advmod': {'how', 'next'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'instruction'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'nsubjpass': {'capabilities'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'enacted'}, 'conj': {'reinforced', 'refined'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Medium
1405 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education As I have argued (Alexander, 2003), the trajectory that leads to competence and potentially expertise in any field of study requires individuals to forge principled knowledge –significant understandings representing complex interrelations of concep- tual and procedural information encountered in diverse contexts and at varied times.Those progressing on the path to expertise must also recognize when and where to applyto problem-solving skills they have been taught 65 29 {'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 12, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 17, 'ADP': 8, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 6} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'Those', 'that', 'trajectory'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to', 'must'}, 'advcl': {'argued', 'applyto'}, 'punct': {'–', '-', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'dobj': {'skills', 'knowledge', 'interrelations', 'individuals', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2003', 'problem'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'relcl': {'leads'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'path', 'tual', 'field', 'expertise', 'competence', 'times', 'study', 'contexts'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'potentially', 'when', 'also'}, 'conj': {'at', 'where', 'expertise', 'information'}, 'ROOT': {'recognize', 'requires'}, 'xcomp': {'forge'}, 'amod': {'solving', 'principled', 'diverse', 'concep-', 'varied', 'procedural', 'significant', 'complex'}, 'appos': {'understandings'}, 'acl': {'progressing', 'encountered', 'representing'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ccomp': {'taught'}} Long High High
1406 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education For that reason, through the instructionthey receive, these students should be made aware of how the forms RR manifest in theirspecific field of study (e.g., how an anomaly in astronomy differs from an anomaly inmedical practice) 36 18 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'through', 'from', 'in', 'of', 'For'}, 'det': {'an', 'that', 'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'theirspecific', 'practice', 'forms', 'receive', 'astronomy', 'study', 'reason'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'anomaly', 'instructionthey', 'RR'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'oprd': {'aware'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'relcl': {'differs', 'manifest'}, 'acl': {'field'}, 'appos': {'e.g.'}, 'nmod': {'anomaly'}, 'amod': {'inmedical'}} Long High High
1407 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Moreover, they should recognize how those forms can assist them inforging connections among the content and topics to which they are exposed 22 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'forms', 'them', 'they'}, 'aux': {'should', 'can'}, 'ROOT': {'recognize'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'ccomp': {'inforging', 'assist'}, 'dobj': {'connections'}, 'prep': {'to', 'among'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'content'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'topics'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'exposed'}} Long High Medium
1408 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Additionally, those responsible for providing young adults with a meaningful education should model those reasoning process in their teaching and build them into theirassessments 24 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Additionally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'those'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'responsible', 'young'}, 'prep': {'into', 'for', 'with', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'providing'}, 'dobj': {'adults', 'process', 'them'}, 'det': {'a', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'teaching', 'theirassessments', 'education'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'model'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'build'}} Long High Low
1409 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Rather than being inundated with overly simplistic, one-dimensionalquestions, students routinely should be required to demonstrate a deeper understandingof learned content by making critical comparisons, noting discrepancies, offeringcounterarguments, or perceiving contradictions 30 11 {'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADP, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'overly', 'routinely', 'Rather', 'deeper'}, 'prep': {'by', 'than', 'with'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'being'}, 'pcomp': {'making', 'inundated'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'understandingof', 'learned', 'simplistic', 'noting'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students', 'dimensionalquestions'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'xcomp': {'demonstrate'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'contradictions', 'comparisons'}, 'appos': {'discrepancies'}, 'conj': {'offeringcounterarguments', 'perceiving'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Low
1410 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Regardless of the quality of the education experienced, its value will be significantly limited unless college students can recognize how academic content relates to what they experience in the outside world 31 15 {'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'significantly', 'Regardless', 'how'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'quality', 'education', 'world'}, 'ccomp': {'experienced', 'relates'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'nsubjpass': {'value'}, 'aux': {'can', 'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'limited'}, 'mark': {'unless'}, 'compound': {'college'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'content', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'recognize'}, 'amod': {'outside', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'experience'}} Long High High
1411 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education The question remains whether students will be able to see how ideas, problems, or experiences encountered in the everyday life –and consequently messier, less stylized, and less familiar than those upon which they areschooled –are nonetheless occasions for transfer 39 21 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'PRON': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'ideas', 'question'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'ccomp': {'be', 'are', 'encountered'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'see'}, 'advmod': {'consequently', 'nonetheless', 'less', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '–'}, 'conj': {'stylized', 'messier', 'experiences', 'problems', 'familiar'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'prep': {'for', 'than', 'upon', 'in'}, 'amod': {'everyday'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'life', 'those', 'transfer'}, 'relcl': {'areschooled'}, 'attr': {'occasions'}} Long High High
1412 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Therefore, as part of the competence continuum, I see a place for performance assessments that draw on RR nested withincomplex, domain-specific, real-world problems, such as those devised by Shavelson,Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia, and Mari ~no (2018) 33 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 12, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Therefore'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'assessments', 'those', 'part', 'continuum', 'Shavelson', 'RR'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Zlatkin', 'world', 'Mari', 'competence', 'domain', 'performance'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'problems', 'place'}, 'relcl': {'draw'}, 'amod': {'nested', 'such', 'real'}, 'nmod': {'withincomplex'}, 'conj': {'~no', 'specific', 'Troitschanskaia'}, 'acl': {'devised'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'2018'}} Long High Low
1413 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Through such assessments, there is the opportunity to acquire valuable information on outcomes reflecting competence and rich data on the reasoning processes leading to those outcomes 26 12 {'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'Through'}, 'amod': {'rich', 'such', 'valuable', 'reflecting'}, 'pobj': {'assessments', 'competence', 'processes', 'outcomes'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'attr': {'opportunity'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'leading', 'acquire'}, 'dobj': {'information'}, 'nmod': {'outcomes'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'data'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}} Long High Low
1414 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Of course, I am aware of the barriers that exist to higher education’s embrace of RR in assessment and instructional practices 21 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'am'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'assessment', 'RR', 'embrace', 'barriers'}, 'relcl': {'exist'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'higher'}, 'poss': {'education'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practices'}} Long High Low
1415 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education I am arguing for RR just at the time whenanalogies, the one form of RR that has had a presence on well-known assessments (e.g.,SAT and GRE), have been excised in favour of text-based questions 34 20 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'aux': {'has', 'have', 'am'}, 'ccomp': {'arguing'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'assessments', 'questions', 'whenanalogies', 'favour', 'RR'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'well', 'e.g.'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'time'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ',SAT'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'appos': {'form'}, 'relcl': {'had'}, 'dobj': {'presence'}, 'amod': {'based', 'known'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'GRE'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'excised'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}} Long High Low
1416 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education There is also the realitythat the other forms of RR are relatively unfamiliar to most students, educators,educational researchers, and even some assessment experts 23 13 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'relatively', 'also', 'even'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'attr': {'realitythat'}, 'amod': {'other', 'educational', 'most'}, 'nsubj': {'forms'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'RR'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'unfamiliar'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'researchers', 'experts', 'educators'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'assessment'}} Long High Low
1417 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Further, constructing eitherfluid or crystallized items for these less familiar forms, especially antinomies and antitheses, can be daunting tasks 19 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'especially', 'less', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'csubj': {'constructing'}, 'amod': {'eitherfluid', 'familiar'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'antitheses', 'crystallized'}, 'dobj': {'items', 'tasks'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'pobj': {'forms'}, 'appos': {'antinomies'}, 'aux': {'can', 'be'}, 'ROOT': {'daunting'}} Medium High Low
1418 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Yet, unlike the verbal analogies on the SAT or GRE, the items on the TORR are non- verbal and novel and found to be culturally-fair (Dumas & Alexander, 2018) 29 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, PART, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Yet', 'culturally'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'on', 'unlike'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'fair', 'verbal'}, 'pobj': {'SAT', 'analogies', 'TORR'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'novel', 'GRE', 'Alexander', 'found'}, 'nsubj': {'items'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'dep': {'non-'}, 'acomp': {'verbal'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'Dumas'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018'}} Long High Low
1419 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education More to thepoint, our research has documented that these forms manifest when individuals andgroups engage in complex problem solving and are predictive of performance (Dumaset al 26 11 {'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN] {'advcl': {'solving', 'More', 'engage'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'thepoint'}, 'punct': {',', '('}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubj': {'forms', 'individuals', 'research', 'andgroups'}, 'ROOT': {'documented'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'ccomp': {'manifest'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'complex'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'problem'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'predictive'}, 'compound': {'Dumaset'}, 'npadvmod': {'al'}} Long High High
1420 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education It would seem, therefore, that if students, educators, educational researchers, and assessment experts remain in the dark about the nature and importanceof relational reasoning, they cannot adequately harness whatever potential this ability holds for college-age learners 36 18 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'PART': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'students', 'ability', 'It', 'they'}, 'aux': {'would', 'can'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'therefore', 'adequately'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'conj': {'researchers', 'experts', 'educators'}, 'amod': {'importanceof', 'educational'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'age', 'assessment', 'college', 'relational'}, 'advcl': {'remain'}, 'prep': {'for', 'about', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'whatever'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'reasoning', 'dark'}, 'nmod': {'nature'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'holds', 'harness'}, 'dobj': {'potential'}} Long High High
1421 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education I appreciate the incalculable differences that distinguish one human from another, and recognize that differences continue to manifest within higher education 21 10 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that', 'differences'}, 'ROOT': {'appreciate'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'incalculable'}, 'dobj': {'human', 'differences'}, 'relcl': {'distinguish'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'prep': {'within', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'another', 'education'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'recognize'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'continue'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'manifest'}} Long High Medium
1422 Individual differences in college-age learners- The importance of relational reasoning for learning and assessment in higher education Nonetheless, Imaintain that the competence young adults manifest in their ability to perceivemeaningful relations within all they see, hear, or experience will remain crucial to their424 Patricia A 28 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'Imaintain', 'adults', 'they'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'competence'}, 'amod': {'perceivemeaningful', 'young'}, 'ccomp': {'manifest'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'A', 'relations', 'all', 'ability'}, 'relcl': {'see'}, 'conj': {'hear', 'experience'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'remain'}, 'acomp': {'crucial'}, 'compound': {'Patricia', 'their424'}} Long High Medium
1423 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 2 Abstract This study explored an alternative approach to assessing individuals’ word knowledge by gauging the ability to recognize subtle similarities and differences among associated terms 26 8 {'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, PROPN, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'explored', '2'}, 'advmod': {'Abstract'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'study'}, 'amod': {'associated', 'alternative', 'subtle'}, 'dobj': {'approach', 'ability', 'similarities', 'knowledge', 'individuals'}, 'prep': {'by', 'to', 'among'}, 'pcomp': {'assessing', 'gauging'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'compound': {'word'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'recognize'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'differences'}, 'pobj': {'terms'}} Long High Low
1424 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Informed by the theoretical and empirical work on relational reasoning , the Measure of Vocabulary Knowledge through Relational Reasoning (M VKR2) was developed and validated 25 9 {'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'advcl': {'Informed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'relational'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'empirical', 'validated'}, 'pobj': {'Knowledge', 'work', 'Reasoning', 'reasoning'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'of'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Measure'}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'Vocabulary'}, 'nmod': {'M'}, 'appos': {'VKR2'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}} Long High Low
1425 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Participants were 338 college students who completed theM VKR2, the Test of Relational Reasoning (TORR) , and released items from the SAT Verbal and Math tests 26 9 {'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 8, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [NOUN, AUX, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB] {'nsubj': {'Participants', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'nummod': {'338'}, 'compound': {'SAT', 'Relational', 'college'}, 'attr': {'students'}, 'relcl': {'completed'}, 'nmod': {'theM', 'Verbal'}, 'dobj': {'items', 'VKR2'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'Test', 'TORR'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'tests', 'Reasoning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'released', 'Math'}} Long High Low
1426 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The TORR and SAT tests were administered to examine the convergent and concurrent validities of theM VKR2 17 8 {'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PROPN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nmod': {'TORR'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'SAT'}, 'nsubjpass': {'tests'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'administered'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'examine'}, 'dobj': {'convergent'}, 'amod': {'concurrent'}, 'conj': {'validities'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'theM'}, 'npadvmod': {'VKR2'}} Medium High Low
1427 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Findings from item confirmatory analyses and correlations demonstrated that the MVKR2 is a reliable and valid measure of vocabulary knowledge for college -age students 25 9 {'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, AUX, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'MVKR2', 'Findings'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'from'}, 'nmod': {'item'}, 'amod': {'vocabulary', 'reliable', 'confirmatory'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'knowledge', 'analyses'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'valid', 'correlations'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrated'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'measure'}, 'compound': {'-age', 'college'}} Long High Medium
1428 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In addition, fluid relational reasoning ability was associated with the performance on this novel measure , but the association with vocabulary knowledge was stronger 25 10 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'prep': {'on', 'with', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'measure', 'addition', 'knowledge'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'novel', 'fluid', 'vocabulary'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'relational'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ability'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'associated'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'nsubj': {'association'}, 'conj': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'stronger'}} Long High Low
1429 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge When examined on the scale and item levels, the contribution of fluid relational reasoning varied across scales and items within each scale 22 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'advcl': {'examined'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'across', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'nmod': {'scale'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'items', 'item'}, 'pobj': {'scales', 'reasoning', 'scale', 'levels'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'contribution'}, 'amod': {'fluid'}, 'compound': {'relational'}, 'acl': {'varied'}} Long High Medium
1430 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Th is study offered an alternative way to examine vocabulary knowledge that has implications for future empirical research and instructional practice 21 7 {'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, AUX, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'study', 'that', 'Th'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'offered'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'empirical', 'future', 'alternative', 'vocabulary'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'implications', 'way'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'examine', 'has'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'research'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practice'}} Long High Low
1431 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 1 INVESTIGATING A NOVEL APPROACH TO ASSESSING VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE “Words are central to listening, speaking, reading, and writing, and are therefore an essential component of almost every aspect of our lives” (Webb & Nation, 2017, pp 36 14 {'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN] {'meta': {'1'}, 'ROOT': {'INVESTIGATING', 'are'}, 'det': {'A', 'every', 'an'}, 'compound': {'NOVEL'}, 'dobj': {'APPROACH'}, 'prep': {'TO', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'ASSESSING', 'listening'}, 'punct': {'(', 'VOCABULARY', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nmod': {'KNOWLEDGE'}, 'nsubj': {'Words'}, 'acomp': {'central'}, 'conj': {'reading', 'writing', 'Nation', 'are', 'speaking'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'advmod': {'therefore', 'almost', 'pp'}, 'amod': {'essential'}, 'attr': {'component'}, 'pobj': {'lives', 'aspect'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'appos': {'Webb'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017'}} Long High Low
1432 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The words that individuals know and use expressively or productively are commonly referred to as their vocabulary ( Butler et al., 2010) 22 8 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubjpass': {'words'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals'}, 'relcl': {'know'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'use', 'productively'}, 'advmod': {'expressively', 'commonly'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'referred'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'vocabulary'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nmod': {'Butler'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2010'}} Long High Low
1433 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Further , how much individuals know about the words that comprise their vocabulary is described as their vocabulary knowledge (Anderson & Freebody, 1981) 23 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Further', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'much', 'vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'know'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'words'}, 'relcl': {'comprise'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'vocabulary'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'described'}, 'appos': {'1981', 'Anderson'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Freebody'}} Long High Medium
1434 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Vocabulary has also been identified as one of five major components of reading byt he National Reading Panel ( National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000) 29 11 {'PROPN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Vocabulary'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'identified', 'Panel'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'components', 'one', 'Health'}, 'nummod': {'2000', 'five'}, 'amod': {'major'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'dep': {'byt'}, 'compound': {'Child', 'National', 'he', 'Human', 'Reading'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Institute'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Development'}} Long High Low
1435 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Individuals’ vocabulary knowledge is considered a significant predictor of academic outcomes, such as reading comprehension (Muter et al., 2004; Roth et al., 2002; Snow et al., 1995), writing ( Olinghouse & Wilson, 2013; Staehr, 2008), mathematics (Akbasli et al., 2016; Carlson et al., 2011), and science ( Cohen, 2012; Taboada, 2012) 52 6 {'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 27, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 25, 'NUM': 9, 'CCONJ': 2} [NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'poss': {'Individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'such', 'academic', 'vocabulary'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'oprd': {'predictor'}, 'prep': {'Muter', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'outcomes'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'Olinghouse', 'comprehension'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '2012', 'et', 'Akbasli', 'Carlson'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'mathematics', 'Staehr', 'science', 'Taboada', 'Wilson'}, 'appos': {'2004', 'al', '.', '2013', '2012', '1995', 'et', 'Snow', '2011', 'Cohen', '2008', '2002', '2016'}, 'nsubj': {'Roth'}, 'compound': {'et'}, 'advcl': {'writing'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}} Long Low Low
1436 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Despite its educational significance, it has been argued that the assessment of vocabulary “is grossly undernourished, both in its theoretical and practical aspects— that it has been driven by tradition, convenience, psychometric standards, and a quest for economy of effort rather than a clear conceptualization of its nature ” (Pearson et al., 2007,p 53 26 {'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 10, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM] {'prep': {'for', 'of', 'Despite', 'in'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'amod': {'psychometric', 'theoretical', 'clear', 'educational'}, 'pobj': {'aspects', 'significance', 'tradition', 'economy', 'effort', 'nature', 'vocabulary'}, 'punct': {'—', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'argued', 'Pearson'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'assessment'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'grossly', 'rather'}, 'acomp': {'undernourished'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than'}, 'conj': {'standards', 'convenience', 'conceptualization', 'practical', 'quest'}, 'advcl': {'driven'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2007,p'}} Long High High
1437 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Regrettably, Pearson et al.’s impassioned plea has not resulted in a cache of new measures that afford richer and deeper understandings of individuals’ vocabulary knowledge 25 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Regrettably'}, 'punct': {',', '’s'}, 'nsubj': {'.', 'Pearson', 'plea', 'that'}, 'compound': {'vocabulary', 'et'}, 'appos': {'al'}, 'amod': {'impassioned', 'richer', 'new'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'resulted'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'cache', 'measures'}, 'relcl': {'afford'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'deeper'}, 'dobj': {'understandings'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
1438 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In this study, we introduce a novel measure of vocabulary knowledge that was constructed to address the shortcomings that Pearson and others (Pearson et al., 2007) have identified. 28 13 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '.', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Pearson', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'introduce'}, 'amod': {'novel', 'vocabulary'}, 'dobj': {'shortcomings', 'measure', 'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'relcl': {'constructed', 'identified'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'address'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'others'}, 'appos': {'2007', 'Pearson'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
1439 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 2 A Brief Review of the Current Vocabulary Assessment Vocabulary assessment is an area of study that has a long history within the domain of literacy (Beck & McKeown, 1985) 30 12 {'X': 1, 'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [X, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'2'}, 'det': {'A', 'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Brief', 'Current', 'Assessment', 'Vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'Review', 'that'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'literacy', 'assessment', 'study'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'area'}, 'relcl': {'has'}, 'amod': {'long'}, 'dobj': {'history'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'conj': {'Beck', 'McKeown'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'1985'}} Long High Low
1440 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Since the 1910s , researchers have developed various measures to gauge individuals’ knowledge of words 15 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'Since', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'words', '1910s'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'amod': {'various'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'measures'}, 'relcl': {'gauge'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}} Medium High Medium
1441 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Although existing measures differ along multiple dimensions , our focus in this study pertains to the assessment of words whose meanings must be derived through their relation to other words rather than in is olation 36 19 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADP, AUX, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'amod': {'other', 'multiple', 'existing'}, 'nsubj': {'measures', 'focus'}, 'advcl': {'is', 'differ'}, 'prep': {'through', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'along'}, 'pobj': {'dimensions', 'relation', 'assessment', 'words', 'study'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'our', 'whose', 'their'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'ROOT': {'pertains'}, 'nsubjpass': {'meanings'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'derived'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'attr': {'olation'}} Long High Medium
1442 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Vocabulary assessments also differ in whether the focus is on common or less common word meanings that are derived from a given context 23 12 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'compound': {'word', 'Vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'assessments', 'focus'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'differ'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'in'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pcomp': {'is'}, 'amod': {'given', 'common'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'common'}, 'pobj': {'meanings', 'context'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'derived'}} Long High Medium
1443 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For the tests that require analysis of multiple words, respondents may be assessed on whether they are able to identify two or more words that are meaningfully associated 29 16 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NUM, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'tests', 'words'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'associated', 'require'}, 'dobj': {'words', 'analysis'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'respondents', 'that'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'ROOT': {'assessed'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'pcomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'more'}, 'advmod': {'meaningfully'}} Long High Medium
1444 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For example, respondents may be asked to identify two words that are habitually used together (e.g., edit - text) 19 9 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For'}, 'pobj': {'example'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'respondents', 'that'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'dobj': {'words'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'habitually', 'together'}, 'relcl': {'used'}, 'compound': {'edit'}, 'dep': {'text'}} Medium High Low
1445 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge As we will discuss, the novel measure we proffer expressly differs even from such multiple -word assessments 17 8 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'measure', 'we'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'advcl': {'discuss'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'novel', 'such'}, 'relcl': {'proffer'}, 'advmod': {'expressly', 'even'}, 'ROOT': {'differs'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'compound': {'-word'}, 'pobj': {'assessments'}} Medium High Medium
1446 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Here we briefly overview several commonly used measures that fall into the individual and multiple word categories 17 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here', 'commonly', 'briefly'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'overview'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'several', 'multiple', 'used'}, 'dobj': {'measures'}, 'relcl': {'fall'}, 'prep': {'into'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'word'}, 'pobj': {'categories'}} Medium High Low
1447 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Individual Word Knowledge Assessments Vocabulary assessments that tap individuals’ knowledge of individual words can be differentiated based on the level of context they provide for determining the meaning of target words (Pearson et al., 2007; Read, 2000) 37 11 {'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 9, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 2} [ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Individual', 'individual'}, 'compound': {'tap', 'Knowledge', 'Word', 'target', 'Assessments'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'Vocabulary'}, 'ROOT': {'assessments'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'preconj': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'based', 'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'words', 'level', 'context'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'differentiated'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'relcl': {'provide'}, 'pcomp': {'determining'}, 'dobj': {'meaning'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2000', '2007', 'Pearson'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}, 'conj': {'Read'}} Long High Low
1448 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Word meanings can be assessed in a completely isolated fashion (decontextualized) in which respondents select a definition, synonym, or perhaps an antonym for a target word 27 12 {'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'Word', 'target'}, 'nsubjpass': {'meanings'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'assessed'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'advmod': {'perhaps', 'completely'}, 'amod': {'isolated'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'word', 'fashion'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'parataxis': {'decontextualized'}, 'nsubj': {'respondents'}, 'advcl': {'select'}, 'dobj': {'definition'}, 'conj': {'synonym', 'antonym'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Low
1449 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For example, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Figure 1; Dunn & Dun n, 1997) asks individuals to select a picture that maps onto the meaning of a spoken word 30 9 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'onto', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'word', 'meaning', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Peabody', 'Picture', 'Vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'Test', 'that'}, 'appos': {'Figure', '1997', 'Dunn'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'cc': {'&', 'n'}, 'conj': {'Dun'}, 'ROOT': {'asks'}, 'dobj': {'individuals', 'picture'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'select'}, 'relcl': {'maps'}, 'amod': {'spoken'}} Long High Low
1450 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The Iowa Test of Basic Skills ( Hoover et al., 2001) requires respondents to select a definition or synonym for a target word ( To sink in the water – play, rest, wash, go down) 36 12 {'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NOUN': 10, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Iowa', 'target', 'Basic'}, 'nsubj': {'.', 'Test'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'word', 'water', 'Skills'}, 'punct': {'(', '–', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Hoover', '2001'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'dobj': {'definition', 'respondents'}, 'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'select'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'synonym', 'go', 'rest', 'wash'}, 'advcl': {'sink'}, 'dep': {'play'}, 'advmod': {'down'}} Long High Low
1451 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The Vocabulary Level Test ( Nation, 1983, 1990) asks examinees to match a subgroup of given words 17 4 {'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'compound': {'Level', 'Vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'Test'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1990', 'Nation'}, 'npadvmod': {'1983'}, 'ROOT': {'asks'}, 'dobj': {'subgroup', 'examinees'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'match'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'given'}, 'pobj': {'words'}} Medium High Low
1452 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In the Antonym section of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test (Woodcock, 1998) , respondents are required to read a target word aloud (e.g., near ) and then provide a word that means the opposite (e.g., far ) 37 12 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 6, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Mastery', 'Reading', 'Woodcock', 'target', 'Antonym'}, 'pobj': {'section', 'Test'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Woodcock'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998'}, 'nsubjpass': {'respondents'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'dobj': {'opposite', 'word'}, 'advmod': {'near', 'e.g.', 'far', 'then', 'aloud'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'provide'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'means'}} Long High Low
1453 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Another decontextualized way of assessing vocabulary knowledge is to have examinees self-report the ir perceived level of knowledge 19 7 {'DET': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'Another', 'the'}, 'amod': {'decontextualized', 'perceived', 'vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'way'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pcomp': {'assessing'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'level'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'examinees'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'conj': {'report'}, 'advmod': {'ir'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}} Medium High Low
1454 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For example, the Eurocentres Vocabulary Size Test ( Meara, 1990; Meara & Buxton, 1987) requires examinees to indicate whether they know each given word or not 27 8 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PART] {'prep': {'For'}, 'pobj': {'example'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'compound': {'Size', 'Eurocentres', 'Vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'Meara', 'Test', 'they'}, 'appos': {'1987', 'Meara'}, 'npadvmod': {'1990'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Buxton', 'not'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'dobj': {'word', 'examinees'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'indicate'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'ccomp': {'know'}, 'amod': {'given'}} Long High Medium
1455 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For this particular measure, a number of nonwords are inserted within the word list as a validity check 18 9 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'within', 'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'particular'}, 'pobj': {'list', 'measure', 'nonwords', 'check'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'number'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'inserted'}, 'compound': {'word', 'validity'}} Medium High Low
1456 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Another decontextualized measure that relies on the self -report format is the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (Figure 2b; Paribakht & Wesche , 1993; Wesche & Paribakht , 1996) 28 6 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'Another', 'the'}, 'amod': {'decontextualized'}, 'nsubj': {'measure', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'relies'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'compound': {'-report', 'Figure', 'Knowledge', 'Vocabulary', 'self'}, 'pobj': {'format'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'Scale'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1996', '2b'}, 'conj': {'Wesche', 'Paribakht'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'1993'}} Long High Low
1457 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Responses at the (a) to (b) level were characterized as perceived knowledge , whereas responses at levels (c) to (e) were coded as demonstrated knowledge 26 11 {'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'X': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2} [NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Responses', 'responses'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'as'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'pobj': {'e', 'levels', 'a', 'knowledge', 'level'}, 'nmod': {'b'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'characterized'}, 'amod': {'perceived'}, 'mark': {'as', 'whereas'}, 'appos': {'c'}, 'advcl': {'coded', 'demonstrated'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}} Long High High
1458 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Self -report measures have the advantage of assessing vocabulary knowledge for a large number of words within a short period of time 22 9 {'NOUN': 8, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3} [NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'-report', 'Self'}, 'nsubj': {'measures'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'advantage'}, 'prep': {'for', 'within', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'assessing'}, 'amod': {'large', 'short', 'vocabulary'}, 'pobj': {'number', 'period', 'words', 'time'}} Long High Low
1459 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge However, the shortcoming is that the validity of the assessment results relies on participants’ honest answers and careful evaluation of their knowledge for every word presented to them 28 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'det': {'every', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'validity', 'shortcoming'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'compound': {'assessment'}, 'pobj': {'results', 'them', 'knowledge', 'answers', 'word'}, 'ccomp': {'relies'}, 'nmod': {'participants'}, 'amod': {'honest', 'careful'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'evaluation'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'acl': {'presented'}, 'dative': {'to'}} Long High Medium
1460 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Although there is the built -in mechanism to prevent cheating or overestimating one’s vocabulary size (i.e., inclusion of nonwords), it is impossible for individuals to demonstrate their knowledge for every word, which might affect the test validity 37 19 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'X': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NUM, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'for', 'Although'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'demonstrate', 'is'}, 'det': {'every', 'the'}, 'amod': {'built', '-in'}, 'attr': {'mechanism'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'prevent', 'affect'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'cheating', 'size', 'validity'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'overestimating'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'test', 'vocabulary'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'appos': {'inclusion'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'word', 'nonwords'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'individuals', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'impossible'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
1461 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Moreover, it is almost impossible to control the easiness for rejection of the nonwords 14 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'almost', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'impossible'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'control'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'easiness'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'nonwords', 'rejection'}} Medium High Low
1462 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Some combinations of the base and affix in some nonwords may seem less likely than other, hence making them easier to reject than other nonwords 25 16 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'some', 'Some'}, 'nsubj': {'them', 'combinations'}, 'prep': {'than', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'nonwords', 'base'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'affix'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'advmod': {'hence', 'less'}, 'oprd': {'likely'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'making'}, 'ccomp': {'easier'}, 'xcomp': {'reject'}} Long High Low
1463 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For L2 learners who have different first languages, it might be easier for some L2 learners to reject certain nonwords than other L2 learners due to the different levels of resemblance of the nonwords with those real words in their first language (Read, 2000). 44 23 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 13, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'than', 'For', 'due'}, 'compound': {'L2'}, 'pobj': {'resemblance', 'language', 'levels', 'learners', 'words', 'nonwords'}, 'nsubj': {'learners', 'it', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'amod': {'first', 'certain', 'different', 'other', 'real'}, 'dobj': {'languages', 'nonwords'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '.', ')'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'easier'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'some'}, 'advcl': {'reject'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'Read'}, 'npadvmod': {'2000'}} Long High Medium
1464 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 4 For context-dependent vocabulary assessment s, such as the National Assessment of Educational Progress , the meaning of a target is determined based on the text that is read 30 13 {'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'dep': {'4'}, 'prep': {'on', 'based', 'of', 'as', 'For'}, 'npadvmod': {'context'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'such', 'dependent'}, 'compound': {'National', 'assessment', 'Educational', 'vocabulary'}, 'pobj': {'s', 'Assessment', 'Progress', 'target', 'text'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that', 'meaning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'determined'}, 'relcl': {'read'}} Long High Low
1465 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Respondents read the text and then select the most appropriate word or definition 14 6 {'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Respondents'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'word', 'text'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'most'}, 'conj': {'select', 'definition'}, 'amod': {'appropriate'}} Medium High Low
1466 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For example, in the following two items, a) The people consumed their dinner 13 7 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'For'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'conj': {'in'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'following'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'ROOT': {'consumed', 'a'}, 'nsubj': {'people'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'dinner'}} Medium High Low
1467 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge enjoyed b) The citizens consumed their supply of gravel through wanton development 12 4 {'VERB': 2, 'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2} [VERB, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'consumed', 'enjoyed'}, 'advmod': {'b'}, 'punct': {')'}, 'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'citizens'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'supply'}, 'prep': {'through', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'gravel', 'development'}, 'compound': {'wanton'}} Medium High Low
1468 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge destroyed Although textual conte nt is provided for both items , the first one taps into the common meaning of the target word, consume (i.e., ate and drank), whereas respondents would need to draw on the context for the second item that targets a less common meaning (i.e., used up) 50 24 {'VERB': 8, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 7, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NUM': 1, 'X': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'destroyed'}, 'mark': {'whereas', 'Although'}, 'amod': {'first', 'textual', 'second', 'common'}, 'nsubjpass': {'conte'}, 'advmod': {'nt', 'i.e.', 'less'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'provided', 'need'}, 'prep': {'into', 'for', 'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'both', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'context', 'items', 'meaning', 'item', 'word'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'respondents', 'taps'}, 'compound': {'target'}, 'ccomp': {'consume'}, 'dobj': {'meaning', 'ate'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'drank'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'draw'}, 'relcl': {'targets'}, 'parataxis': {'used'}, 'prt': {'up'}} Long High High
1469 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Multiple Word Assessments A few existing measures assess word knowledge in association with other related words , including a free association task (Meara, 1984; Schmitt, 1998), the Word Associate Test for English language learners (WAT; Read, 1993, 1998), and a similar test to WAT but for middle school students (Deane et al., 2014 ) 54 13 {'ADJ': 7, 'PROPN': 13, 'NOUN': 13, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 16, 'NUM': 5, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'school', 'language', 'Deane', 'Multiple', 'Word', 'Associate', 'association', 'word'}, 'npadvmod': {'Assessments', '1998', 'et'}, 'det': {'A', 'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'similar', 'existing', 'related', 'free', 'few', 'other', 'English', 'middle'}, 'nsubj': {'measures'}, 'ROOT': {'assess'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'including', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'task', 'learners', 'WAT', 'association', 'words'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'al', '1998', 'Meara', '1993', 'WAT', 'Schmitt', '1984'}, 'conj': {'Read', '.', 'Test', 'test'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}} Long High Low
1470 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In the free association task (Meara, 1984; Schmitt, 1998), respondents are asked to name the words that first came to their minds upon hearing a given word (e.g., abandon) 29 12 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'upon'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'free', 'given'}, 'compound': {'association'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'minds'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Meara', 'Schmitt'}, 'npadvmod': {'abandon', '1984', '1998'}, 'nsubjpass': {'respondents'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'name'}, 'dobj': {'words', 'word'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'first', 'e.g.'}, 'relcl': {'came'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'hearing'}} Long High Medium
1471 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Schmitt (1998a) developed a four- level descriptive system of association behavior in determining whether English learners ’ word association network was native-like 22 5 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'network', 'Schmitt'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')', '’'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998a'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'descriptive', 'native', 'four-', 'English'}, 'nmod': {'learners', 'level'}, 'dobj': {'system'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'word', 'association'}, 'pobj': {'behavior'}, 'pcomp': {'determining'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'like'}} Long High Medium
1472 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Three associated words for the target word abandon (i.e., leave , desert , and alone ) provided by an English language learner were classified as highly native- like if they were also frequently mentioned by native speakers 37 14 {'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'INTJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, INTJ, INTJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'Three'}, 'amod': {'native', 'associated', 'English'}, 'nsubjpass': {'words', 'they'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'target', 'language'}, 'pobj': {'speakers', 'word', 'learner'}, 'appos': {'abandon'}, 'punct': {'(', 'native-', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'frequently', 'also', 'highly', 'i.e.', 'as'}, 'parataxis': {'leave'}, 'conj': {'alone', 'desert'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'acl': {'provided'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'mentioned', 'classified'}, 'mark': {'like', 'if'}} Long High Medium
1473 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge One shortcoming of the free association task is that it is difficult to assess its validity and reliability , rendering it a less used tool for assessing vocabulary knowledge 29 15 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'shortcoming'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'free', 'used', 'vocabulary'}, 'compound': {'association'}, 'pobj': {'task'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'difficult'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'assess'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'dobj': {'tool', 'it', 'knowledge', 'validity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reliability'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'rendering'}, 'advmod': {'less'}, 'pcomp': {'assessing'}} Long High Medium
1474 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Read (1993, 1998) developed the Word Associate Test ( WAT ) that assessed college 14 2 {'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Read', 'that'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'1993'}, 'appos': {'WAT', '1998'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'Word', 'Associate'}, 'dobj': {'Test', 'college'}, 'relcl': {'assessed'}} Medium Low Low
1475 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 5 English language learners’ knowledge of the semantic network for academic words of high frequency 15 4 {'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1} [NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'5'}, 'amod': {'semantic', 'high', 'academic', 'English'}, 'compound': {'language'}, 'poss': {'learners'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ROOT': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'frequency', 'words', 'network'}} Medium High Low
1476 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In the item shown, respondents are asked to select all the words from the eight options that are semantically associated with the target word , edit: arithmetic film pole publishing revise risk surface text Each item was developed to have four correct associate words and four unrelated distractors 48 20 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 17, 'VERB': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'NUM': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'In', 'from'}, 'det': {'Each', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'word', 'options', 'item'}, 'acl': {'shown'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'nsubjpass': {'respondents', 'that', 'item'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'was'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'select', 'have'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'dobj': {'words'}, 'nummod': {'four', 'eight'}, 'advmod': {'semantically'}, 'relcl': {'associated', 'developed'}, 'compound': {'revise', 'publishing', 'film', 'pole', 'risk', 'surface', 'target', 'associate'}, 'appos': {'edit', 'text'}, 'amod': {'correct', 'unrelated', 'arithmetic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'distractors'}} Long High Low
1477 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The correct choices represented one of the three possible relations with the target word: a) paradigmatic : the two words are synonyms or share a general meaning, such as edit – revise ; b) syntagmatic : the two words are collocates, which are words often used together, such as edit – text; c) analytic : the associated word represents one aspect of the frequently -used meaning of the target word, such as edit – publishing (Read, 1993) 77 33 {'DET': 9, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 22, 'VERB': 7, 'NUM': 6, 'ADP': 7, 'PUNCT': 19, 'X': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NUM, ADP, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'correct', 'associated', '-used', 'possible', 'such', 'general'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'choices', 'word', 'words'}, 'ccomp': {'represented'}, 'dobj': {'one', 'aspect', 'meaning'}, 'prep': {'with', 'as', 'of'}, 'nummod': {'two', 'one', 'three', 'c'}, 'pobj': {'relations', 'meaning', 'word', 'edit', 'analytic'}, 'compound': {'target'}, 'punct': {'–', ':', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'Read', 'paradigmatic', 'text'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'synonyms', 'collocates', 'words'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'syntagmatic', 'revise', 'publishing', 'represents', 'are', 'share'}, 'meta': {'b'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'frequently', 'together'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'nmod': {'edit'}, 'npadvmod': {'1993'}} Long High Low
1478 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Similar to the WAT , the Educational Testing Service developed a test for middle school students (Deane et al., 2014) 21 5 {'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 8, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Similar'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'WAT'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'Testing', 'Educational', 'school'}, 'nsubj': {'Service'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'dobj': {'test'}, 'amod': {'middle'}, 'nmod': {'Deane'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'al'}, 'conj': {'.'}} Long High Low
1479 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge This variation was devised to identify three types of word relations: (a) typical co -occurrence patterns of multiple -word use (similar to syntagmatic relation in WAT ; Figure 2c ); (b)g eneral word associations to a single topic or concept without necessarily having a deeper conceptual understanding of the target (similar to analytic relation in WAT ; Figure 2c ); (c) broad or categorical meaning to which the target word belongs (similar to paradigmatic relation in WAT ; Figure 2c ) 81 24 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 25, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 11, 'PUNCT': 17, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 15, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, PRON, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'variation'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'devised'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'dobj': {'types', 'understanding'}, 'prep': {'without', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'word', 'target', 'co', '-word'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'relations', 'topic', 'relation', 'use', 'WAT', 'target'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ':', ')'}, 'meta': {'a', 'c'}, 'amod': {'similar', 'paradigmatic', 'syntagmatic', 'broad', 'typical', 'single', 'deeper', 'conceptual', 'eneral', 'multiple', 'b)g', 'analytic'}, 'nmod': {'-occurrence'}, 'appos': {'patterns', 'meaning'}, 'advcl': {'Figure'}, 'npadvmod': {'2c'}, 'dep': {'associations'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'Figure', 'concept', 'categorical'}, 'advmod': {'necessarily'}, 'pcomp': {'having'}, 'nsubj': {'word'}, 'relcl': {'belongs'}, 'acomp': {'similar'}} Long High Low
1480 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Limitations of the Current Vocabulary Assessments After reviewing the current vocabulary assessments, one limitation was particularly salient to this investigation 20 8 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Limitations', 'limitation'}, 'prep': {'to', 'After', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'Current', 'Vocabulary'}, 'pobj': {'Assessments', 'investigation'}, 'pcomp': {'reviewing'}, 'amod': {'vocabulary', 'current'}, 'dobj': {'assessments'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'particularly'}, 'acomp': {'salient'}} Long High Low
1481 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge No measure we identified allows researchers to assess the individuals’ nuanced understanding of a word’s meaning 16 7 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN] {'det': {'No', 'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'measure', 'researchers', 'we'}, 'relcl': {'identified'}, 'ROOT': {'allows'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'nuanced', 'assess'}, 'dobj': {'individuals', 'understanding'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'poss': {'word'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'pobj': {'meaning'}} Medium High Low
1482 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge By nuanced understanding, we are referring to respondents’ ability to demonstrate broad and fluid knowledge of words that manifests according to distinct types of relations 26 10 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'according', 'By', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'nuanced', 'distinct', 'broad'}, 'pobj': {'types', 'relations', 'ability', 'understanding', 'words'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'referring'}, 'nmod': {'respondents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'acl': {'demonstrate'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'fluid'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'relcl': {'manifests'}} Long High Low
1483 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 6 participants’ knowledge of the commonly used meaning of individual target words, without explicit reference to other words 18 7 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'6'}, 'nmod': {'participants'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'ROOT': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'without', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'commonly'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'used', 'explicit', 'other'}, 'pobj': {'words', 'meaning', 'reference'}, 'compound': {'target'}} Medium High Low
1484 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge By comparison, context -dependent vocabulary tests, a format that many educational reading assessments adopt, have certain benefits 18 5 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'By'}, 'pobj': {'comparison'}, 'punct': {','}, 'npadvmod': {'context'}, 'amod': {'many', 'educational', 'certain', '-dependent'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'tests', 'assessments'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'appos': {'format'}, 'advmod': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'adopt'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'benefits'}} Medium High Low
1485 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Specifically, the textual content provided serves to guide respondents’ select ion of a suitable meaning for that particular context (Pearson et al., 2007) 24 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'textual', 'select', 'suitable', 'particular'}, 'nsubj': {'content'}, 'ROOT': {'provided'}, 'dobj': {'serves', 'ion'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'guide'}, 'poss': {'respondents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'context', 'meaning'}, 'appos': {'2007', 'Pearson'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Low
1486 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Nonetheless, such context -dependent measures are limited in their ability to capture subtle differen ces in meaning between the target words and similar words 24 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'similar', 'such', 'subtle'}, 'compound': {'differen', 'target', 'context', '-dependent'}, 'nsubjpass': {'measures'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'limited'}, 'prep': {'between', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'words', 'ability', 'meaning'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'capture'}, 'dobj': {'ces'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'words'}} Long High Low
1487 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The key problem with context -dependent measures is the extent to which items distinguish various levels of vocabulary knowledge is often dependent on the semantic distance between the intended target word and the distractors 35 16 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'semantic', 'intended', 'various', 'key', 'vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'items', 'extent', 'problem'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'between'}, 'npadvmod': {'context'}, 'compound': {'target', '-dependent'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'distance', 'measures', 'knowledge', 'word'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'distinguish'}, 'dobj': {'levels'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'acomp': {'dependent'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'distractors'}} Long High Low
1488 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge If the distractors are semantically distant from the target, the item will not be effective in revealing the nuanced understanding of the target word 24 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'distractors', 'item'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'semantically'}, 'acomp': {'distant', 'effective'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'word', 'target'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'pcomp': {'revealing'}, 'amod': {'nuanced'}, 'dobj': {'understanding'}, 'compound': {'target'}} Long High Medium
1489 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge However, if the distractors are semantically close to the intended target , they may well become viable options 18 10 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'semantically', 'well', 'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'distractors', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'close'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'amod': {'viable', 'intended'}, 'pobj': {'target'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'become'}, 'attr': {'options'}} Medium High Medium
1490 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For example, in the following item, respondents are directed to choose the option closest in meaning to the italicized word 20 9 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'word', 'meaning', 'example', 'item'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'italicized', 'closest', 'following'}, 'nsubjpass': {'respondents'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'directed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'choose'}, 'dobj': {'option'}} Long High Low
1491 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The options attributing and challenging have the closest meaning to the target words establishing and daunting for the given context 20 9 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'options'}, 'acl': {'attributing', 'establishing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'daunting', 'challenging'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'amod': {'closest', 'given'}, 'dobj': {'meaning'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to'}, 'compound': {'target'}, 'pobj': {'words', 'context'}} Long High Low
1492 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge On one hand, other synonyms to establish ing and daunting, such as confirming or determining and difficult or alarming, may also fit the context , making them eligible candidates for the target words 34 16 {'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'as', 'On'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'hand', 'words'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'other', 'eligible', 'such'}, 'nsubj': {'synonyms', 'them'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'establish'}, 'dobj': {'ing', 'context'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'daunting', 'difficult', 'alarming', 'determining'}, 'pcomp': {'confirming'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'fit'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advcl': {'making'}, 'ccomp': {'candidates'}, 'compound': {'target'}} Long High Low
1493 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge However, the meaning of these words subtly differs from the intended target s, and these subtle differences cannot be captured by In a democratic society, we presume that individuals are innocent until and unless proven guilty 36 20 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, CCONJ, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ] {'advmod': {'However', 'subtly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'we', 'meaning'}, 'prep': {'until', 'In', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'s', 'words', 'society'}, 'ccomp': {'differs', 'are'}, 'amod': {'intended', 'subtle', 'democratic'}, 'compound': {'target'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubjpass': {'differences'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'conj': {'captured'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'ROOT': {'presume'}, 'mark': {'that', 'unless'}, 'acomp': {'innocent'}, 'advcl': {'proven'}, 'oprd': {'guilty'}} Long High High
1494 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The major question is whether the prosecution can overcome the presumption of reasonable doubt about whether the suspect committed the alleged crime 22 11 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'alleged', 'major', 'reasonable'}, 'nsubj': {'suspect', 'prosecution', 'question'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'overcome'}, 'dobj': {'crime', 'presumption'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'doubt'}, 'pcomp': {'committed'}} Long High High
1495 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Thus, respondents’ nuanced understanding of the words establishing and daunting are not thoroughly probed 14 6 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'thoroughly'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'respondents'}, 'ccomp': {'nuanced'}, 'dobj': {'understanding'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'words'}, 'acl': {'establishing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'daunting'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'probed'}} Medium High Low
1496 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Yet , the given distractors in the items are quite semantically distant from the target word, making them more readily rejected as plausible answers 24 11 {'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [CCONJ, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'Yet'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'given', 'plausible'}, 'nsubj': {'distractors', 'them'}, 'prep': {'from', 'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'word', 'answers'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'semantically', 'readily', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'distant'}, 'compound': {'target'}, 'advcl': {'making'}, 'ccomp': {'rejected'}} Long High Low
1497 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Therefore, the popular context -dependent approach to assessing vocabulary knowledge does not seem optimal for capturing the subtlety or depth of individuals’ word knowledge 24 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Therefore'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'popular', 'vocabulary'}, 'compound': {'word', 'context', '-dependent'}, 'nsubj': {'approach'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'capturing', 'assessing'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'subtlety'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'oprd': {'optimal'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'depth'}, 'pobj': {'individuals'}} Long High Low
1498 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For the measures that capture aspects of word relations, such as WAT (Read 1993, 1998) , there are also limitations to consider 23 10 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, PART, VERB] {'prep': {'as', 'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'relations', 'measures', 'WAT'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'capture'}, 'dobj': {'aspects'}, 'compound': {'word'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'appos': {'Read'}, 'nummod': {'1993'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'attr': {'limitations'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'consider'}} Long High Low
1499 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge One shortcoming of WAT is that individuals with a cursory understanding of the target word and the various options would likely be able to identify associated terms (e.g., edit - revise) 32 14 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 4} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'options', 'shortcoming'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'word', 'WAT', 'understanding'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'cursory', 'various', 'associated'}, 'compound': {'edit', 'target'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'likely'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'dobj': {'terms'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'revise'}} Long High Medium
1500 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Moreover , these tests usually incorporate only a few types of relations between words , overlooking other informative relations that could exist, such as opposition or contrast 28 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'usually', 'Moreover', 'only'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nsubj': {'tests', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'incorporate'}, 'quantmod': {'a'}, 'nummod': {'few'}, 'dobj': {'relations', 'types'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'opposition', 'relations', 'words'}, 'advcl': {'overlooking'}, 'amod': {'other', 'such', 'informative'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'relcl': {'exist'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'contrast'}} Long High Low
1501 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge By involving more words for comparison and by introducing more complex word relations in the measure, researchers should be able to better ascertain individuals’ understanding of similarities and differences in word meanings 32 14 {'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2} [ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'by', 'of', 'for', 'By'}, 'pcomp': {'involving', 'introducing'}, 'amod': {'complex', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'relations', 'words', 'individuals', 'understanding'}, 'pobj': {'similarities', 'meanings', 'comparison', 'measure'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'better', 'more'}, 'compound': {'word'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'ascertain'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'conj': {'differences'}} Long High Low
1502 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Relational Reasoning in Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In order to address the limitations in vocabulary knowledge assessments , we developed a measure that should: (a) assess nuanced understanding of vocabulary knowledge from a relational perspective; (b) examine word relations among sets of words instead of word pairs allowing sp ace for assessing more complex word relations ; (c) incorporate less typical forms of relations ; and (d) cover a wide range of words that vary in frequency and complexity 78 26 {'PROPN': 4, 'ADP': 12, 'VERB': 9, 'NOUN': 25, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'PUNCT': 13, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'X': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'INTJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, INTJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Relational', 'sp', 'Assessing', 'knowledge', 'Vocabulary', 'word'}, 'nsubj': {'Reasoning', 'we', 'that', 'understanding'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'among', 'of', 'for', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'perspective', 'Knowledge', 'assessments', 'relations', 'frequency', 'sets', 'knowledge', 'words'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'acl': {'address', 'allowing'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'forms', 'ace', 'range', 'relations', 'limitations', 'measure'}, 'amod': {'typical', 'nuanced', 'wide', 'relational', 'complex', 'vocabulary'}, 'punct': {':', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'ccomp': {'developed'}, 'meta': {'a', 'd', 'b', 'c'}, 'npadvmod': {'assess'}, 'conj': {'complexity', 'examine', 'cover'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'instead', 'more'}, 'cc': {'and', 'of'}, 'relcl': {'vary', 'pairs'}, 'pcomp': {'assessing'}, 'ROOT': {'incorporate'}} Long High Low
1503 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Specifically,t he current assessment embedded vocabulary knowledge assessment within a relational reasoning framework 14 3 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'t'}, 'nmod': {'he'}, 'amod': {'vocabulary', 'relational', 'current'}, 'nsubj': {'assessment'}, 'ROOT': {'embedded'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'reasoning'}, 'dobj': {'assessment'}, 'prep': {'within'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'framework'}} Medium High Low
1504 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge This novel measure , the Measure of Vocabulary Knowledge through Relational Reasoning ( MVKR2), was developed for older adolescents and adults 21 7 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'novel', 'older'}, 'nsubjpass': {'measure'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'Measure', 'MVKR2'}, 'prep': {'through', 'for', 'of'}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'Vocabulary'}, 'pobj': {'Knowledge', 'Reasoning', 'adolescents'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'adults'}} Long High Low
1505 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 8 meaningful patterns within a stream of information that a ppears unrelated through the analysis of similarities and dissimilarities (Alexander & DRLRL, 2012a ) 24 9 {'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2} [NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'8'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'unrelated'}, 'nsubj': {'patterns', 'ppears'}, 'prep': {'through', 'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'similarities', 'analysis', 'stream', 'information'}, 'ROOT': {'that'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'dissimilarities', 'DRLRL'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2012a', 'Alexander'}} Long High Medium
1506 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Relational reasoning is regarded as foundational to complex problem -solving in a variety of fields , including medicine (Dumas et al., 2014), engineering (Dumas & Schmi dt, 2015), reading (Hattan, 2019), and mathematics (Zhao et al., 2021) 38 7 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 16, 'PROPN': 12, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Relational', 'Schmi'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reasoning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'regarded'}, 'prep': {'including', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'amod': {'foundational', 'complex'}, 'pobj': {'variety', 'medicine', 'problem', 'fields'}, 'advcl': {'-solving', 'engineering'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2014', '2021', 'Dumas'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019', 'al', '2015', '.', 'Dumas', 'et', 'Zhao'}, 'conj': {'reading', 'al', '.', 'mathematics', 'dt'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'dobj': {'Hattan'}} Long High Low
1507 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Four forms of relational reasoning have been identified in the literature (Alexander & DRLRL , 2012a ): analogy, anomaly, antinomy, and antithesis 22 7 {'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'Four'}, 'nsubjpass': {'forms'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'relational'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'literature'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {'(', '):', ','}, 'appos': {'analogy', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'2012a', 'antinomy', 'DRLRL', 'anomaly', 'antithesis'}} Long High Low
1508 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Specifically, analogical reasoning involves recognizing similarities among seemingly unrelated objects, ideas, or events (Gentner & Maravilla, 2018 ) 18 2 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Specifically', 'seemingly'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'unrelated', 'analogical'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'involves'}, 'xcomp': {'recognizing'}, 'dobj': {'similarities'}, 'prep': {'among'}, 'pobj': {'objects'}, 'conj': {'Maravilla', 'ideas', 'events'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Gentner'}} Medium Low Low
1509 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Anomalous reasoning requires the detection of a deviation from the general pattern shared by an information al set (Chinn & Brewer, 1993) 22 7 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PROPN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Anomalous', 'general'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'detection'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'deviation', 'set', 'pattern'}, 'acl': {'shared'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'al', 'information'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Chinn'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Brewer'}, 'npadvmod': {'1993'}} Long High Low
1510 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Antinomous reasoning entails recognizing the mutual exclusivity of two sets of entities that form ontological categories (Sorsensen, 2003) 18 5 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Antinomous', 'ontological', 'mutual'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'entails'}, 'xcomp': {'recognizing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'exclusivity', 'categories'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pobj': {'entities', 'sets'}, 'relcl': {'form'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Sorsensen'}, 'npadvmod': {'2003'}} Medium High Low
1511 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Antithetical reasoning calls for the discernment of relational opposites along a specified continuum (Alexander & DRLRL , 2012a ) 19 5 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Antithetical', 'specified', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'calls'}, 'prep': {'for', 'along', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'discernment', 'opposites', 'continuum'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'DRLRL'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012a'}} Medium High Low
1512 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Relational reasoning thus provides a framework for assessing fine-grained vocabulary knowledge in accordance with varied associations 16 5 {'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [PROPN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Relational'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'advmod': {'thus', 'fine'}, 'ROOT': {'provides'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'framework', 'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'assessing'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'grained', 'varied', 'vocabulary'}, 'pobj': {'accordance', 'associations'}} Medium High Low
1513 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge By juxtaposing multiple semantically associated words representing different relation al forms , researchers should be better positioned to gauge the depth of respondents’ vocabulary knowledge 25 6 {'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'By', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'juxtaposing'}, 'nmod': {'multiple'}, 'advmod': {'semantically', 'better'}, 'amod': {'different', 'associated'}, 'dobj': {'words', 'depth', 'forms'}, 'acl': {'representing'}, 'compound': {'al', 'relation', 'vocabulary'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'positioned'}, 'advcl': {'gauge'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'respondents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}} Long High Low
1514 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Further , this relational reasoning framework provides an appropriate tool for uncovering the degree to which individuals can determine the level of semantic similarity or dissimilarity for multiple words based on their core features 34 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'semantic', 'multiple', 'appropriate', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'core'}, 'nsubj': {'framework', 'individuals'}, 'ROOT': {'provides'}, 'dobj': {'tool', 'level', 'degree'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'uncovering'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'words', 'similarity', 'features'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'determine'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'dissimilarity'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
1515 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge A written word usually entails rich semantic information that could be broken down into multiple attributes or features 19 7 {'DET': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB] {'det': {'A'}, 'amod': {'semantic', 'written', 'rich', 'multiple'}, 'nsubj': {'word'}, 'advmod': {'usually'}, 'ROOT': {'entails'}, 'dobj': {'information'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'broken'}, 'prt': {'down'}, 'prep': {'into'}, 'pobj': {'attributes'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'features'}} Medium High Low
1516 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For example, the word, peninsula, stands for an area of land almost completely surrounded by water except for an isthmus connecting it with the mainland 25 13 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'except', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'example', 'mainland', 'isthmus', 'water', 'land', 'area'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'word'}, 'appos': {'peninsula'}, 'ROOT': {'stands'}, 'advmod': {'almost', 'completely'}, 'acl': {'connecting', 'surrounded'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'dobj': {'it'}} Long High Medium
1517 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge One way to reveal a deeper understanding of given words is to present multiple semantically related words to individuals and require them to 23 10 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, PART] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'way'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'reveal'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'given', 'multiple', 'related', 'deeper'}, 'dobj': {'words', 'them', 'understanding'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'words', 'individuals'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'xcomp': {'present'}, 'advmod': {'semantically'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'require'}} Long High Low
1518 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge This approach would require respondents to determine the features that words share in common (i.e., semantic similarity) and the features upon which they differ (i.e., semantic dissimilarity) 27 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'X': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'words', 'approach', 'they'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'require'}, 'dobj': {'dissimilarity', 'respondents', 'that', 'features'}, 'xcomp': {'determine'}, 'relcl': {'share', 'differ'}, 'prep': {'upon', 'in'}, 'amod': {'semantic', 'common'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'similarity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'features'}} Long High Medium
1519 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge continent : both are land areas and surrounded by water , but they differ in precisely how they are surrounded by water 23 11 {'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'dep': {'continent'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'both', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'compound': {'land'}, 'attr': {'areas'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'differ', 'surrounded'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'water'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'advmod': {'precisely', 'how'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'surrounded'}} Long High Medium
1520 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Also,w hen individuals try to identify the outlier word that does not fit in a group, they need to recognize the shared feature among most of the words before deciding on the anomalous word that deviates from the others 40 22 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 8, 'PART': 3, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 6} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Also'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'hen', 'w'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'that', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'try'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'recognize', 'identify'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'outlier', 'shared', 'anomalous'}, 'dobj': {'feature', 'word'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'fit'}, 'prep': {'on', 'before', 'from', 'in', 'of', 'among'}, 'pobj': {'group', 'word', 'others', 'most', 'words'}, 'ROOT': {'need'}, 'pcomp': {'deciding'}, 'dep': {'deviates'}} Long High Low
1521 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For example , to identify that omit does not belong to the word group, conflict , omit , oppose , and dispute , individuals need to analyze the meaning features of the four words and realize that conflict , oppose , and dispute are related because they all share the feature of disagreement between two pa rties, whereas omit deviates from them on that feature , meaning to leave out or exclude 73 32 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 19, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PART': 4, 'VERB': 12, 'SCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'from', 'to', 'of', 'For', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'them', 'group', 'example', 'rties', 'feature', 'words', 'conflict', 'disagreement'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'does', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'deviates', 'share', 'identify'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'they', 'omit'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'belong', 'oppose'}, 'compound': {'word', 'pa', 'meaning', 'omit'}, 'conj': {'related', 'realize', 'dispute', 'oppose', 'exclude', 'conflict', 'omit'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'ROOT': {'need'}, 'xcomp': {'leave', 'analyze'}, 'dobj': {'feature', 'features'}, 'nummod': {'two', 'four'}, 'mark': {'whereas', 'that', 'because'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'appos': {'all'}, 'acl': {'meaning'}, 'prt': {'out'}} Long High High
1522 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge As these examples illustrate, individuals’ knowledge of word relations can be analyzed on a finer level involving specific features that constitute the richness of the word meanings examined relationally 30 11 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV] {'mark': {'As'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'examples'}, 'advcl': {'illustrate'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'individuals', 'of'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'compound': {'word'}, 'pobj': {'relations', 'level', 'meanings'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'analyzed'}, 'amod': {'finer', 'specific'}, 'acl': {'involving', 'examined'}, 'dobj': {'richness', 'features'}, 'relcl': {'constitute'}, 'advmod': {'relationally'}} Long High Medium
1523 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge It is reasonable to expect that when engaged in reasoning relationally with multiple words, individuals need to draw upon their semantic network knowledge and constantly analyze the shared meaning features across these words , while at the same time, identifying the distinct feature that makes each word unique 48 21 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'SCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'individuals', 'that', 'It', 'word'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'reasonable'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'expect', 'draw'}, 'mark': {'that', 'while'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'relationally', 'constantly'}, 'advcl': {'engaged', 'at', 'identifying'}, 'prep': {'with', 'across', 'upon', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'reasoning', 'time', 'words'}, 'amod': {'semantic', 'shared', 'distinct', 'same', 'multiple'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ccomp': {'unique', 'need'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'network', 'meaning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'analyze'}, 'det': {'the', 'each', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'feature', 'features'}, 'relcl': {'makes'}} Long High High
1524 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge It is through these deliberate comparisons and contrasts that one ’s understanding of the similarities and differences of a word’s meaning in comparison to multiple other words can be revealed 30 19 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 3} [PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, NUM, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'one', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'prep': {'through', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'deliberate', 'multiple', 'other'}, 'pobj': {'similarities', 'meaning', 'comparison', 'words', 'comparisons'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'contrasts', 'differences'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'’s', 'revealed'}, 'attr': {'understanding'}, 'poss': {'word'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Medium
1525 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge First, we set out to develop and validate a novel measure that focuses on assessing individuals’ vocabulary knowledge from a relational perspective (MVKR2) 23 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'First'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'set'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'develop'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'validate'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'novel', 'relational', 'vocabulary'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'measure', 'individuals'}, 'relcl': {'focuses'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'assessing'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'perspective'}, 'appos': {'MVKR2'}} Long High Low
1526 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 10 relational reasoning ability and vocabulary knowledge to college students’ performance on the novel measure (Figure 1) 18 4 {'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 1} [NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'1', '10'}, 'amod': {'novel', 'vocabulary', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'college'}, 'ROOT': {'ability'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ')'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'measure'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'Figure'}} Medium High Low
1527 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Fluid relational reasoning ability is expected to be a contributing factor to performance on MVKR2, along with respondents’ vocabulary knowledge 20 8 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'contributing', 'Fluid', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'vocabulary'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ability'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'factor'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'along', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'MVKR2', 'knowledge'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'respondents'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
1528 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In effect, individuals’ inability to identify the relevant semantic relations in an item could be either due to limits in their relational reasoning capability to abstract and apply the higher -order relations or their vocabulary 35 17 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'capability', 'effect', 'limits', 'item'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'individuals', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubj': {'inability'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'acl': {'abstract', 'identify'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'semantic', 'relevant', 'higher', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'relations'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'acomp': {'due'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', '-order'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'vocabulary', 'apply'}} Long High Low
1529 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Therefore, we wanted to measure the contributions of both fluid relational reasoning and vocabulary knowledge 15 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Therefore'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'wanted'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'measure'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'contributions'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'fluid', 'vocabulary'}, 'compound': {'relational'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'knowledge'}} Medium High Low
1530 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge To achieve these ends, the study was carried out in three phases: Phase I , measure development; Phase II, psychometric validation; and Phase III , examination of underlying contributors 29 10 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'achieve'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'I', 'ends', 'development'}, 'punct': {',', ';', ':'}, 'nsubjpass': {'study'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'carried'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'pobj': {'contributors', 'phases'}, 'appos': {'II', 'Phase', 'validation', 'measure', 'examination'}, 'compound': {'Phase'}, 'amod': {'psychometric', 'underlying'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'III'}} Long High Low
1531 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Based on analyses of its structure and content at the test, scale, and item levels, to what extent is the Measure of Vocabulary Knowledge through Relational Reasoning or MVKR 2 a psychometrically sound measure for older adolescents and adults 39 17 {'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'through', 'on', 'for', 'Based', 'to', 'of', 'at'}, 'pobj': {'Reasoning', 'Knowledge', 'analyses', 'adolescents', 'structure', 'test'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'content', 'adults', 'levels', 'MVKR', 'scale'}, 'det': {'a', 'what', 'the'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'Vocabulary', 'item'}, 'pcomp': {'extent'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'nsubj': {'Measure'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'advmod': {'psychometrically'}, 'amod': {'sound', 'older'}, 'appos': {'measure'}} Long High Low
1532 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Hypothesis : MVKR2 was conceptualized as an assessment to measure individual differences in subtle vocabulary knowledge 16 5 {'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'dep': {'Hypothesis'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'nsubjpass': {'MVKR2'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'conceptualized'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'assessment'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'measure'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'subtle', 'vocabulary'}, 'dobj': {'differences'}} Medium High Low
1533 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Considering a set of procedures were carefully followed during the development and revision processes of the MVKR 2 (i.e., expert panels, cognitive labs, pilot tests), we hypothesized that the psychometric properties of the MVKR2 would be supported by the empirical data 41 17 {'VERB': 4, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'during', 'of', 'Considering'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'processes', 'panels', 'set', 'data', 'MVKR2', 'procedures'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'were'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'carefully'}, 'ccomp': {'supported', 'followed'}, 'nmod': {'MVKR', 'development'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'revision'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'pilot', 'expert'}, 'amod': {'psychometric', 'empirical', 'cognitive'}, 'appos': {'tests', 'labs'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'hypothesized'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'properties'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
1534 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Specifically, we hypothesized that the difficulty and discrimination index for most of the MVKR2 items should fall under an acceptable range as for other norm- referenced assessments (item difficulty: .30 to .80 [Wainer & Thissen, 2001 ]; item discrimination: equal to or above .10 [University of Washington, 2021]) 48 19 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 4, 'PART': 1, 'X': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PART, PROPN, X, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, NUM, X, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {'.10', ':', ')', '(', ']', ',', ';', '.80'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'difficulty'}, 'ROOT': {'University', 'hypothesized', 'Wainer'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'compound': {'discrimination', 'MVKR2', 'item'}, 'conj': {'discrimination', 'index', 'Thissen'}, 'prep': {'under', 'to', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'range', 'assessments', 'items', 'Washington', 'most'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ccomp': {'fall'}, 'amod': {'other', 'acceptable', 'referenced', 'equal'}, 'preconj': {'norm-'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'difficulty'}, 'quantmod': {'.30', 'to', 'above'}, 'nmod': {'['}, 'npadvmod': {'2001'}} Long High Medium
1535 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Reliability and validity based on relations to other variables (i.e., convergent and concurrent validity) should be a cceptable as well 21 10 {'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'X': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 2} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, ADV, ADV] {'nsubj': {'Reliability'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'convergent', 'validity'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'relations', 'variables'}, 'amod': {'other', 'concurrent'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'well', 'as'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'cceptable'}} Long High Low
1536 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Given MVKR 2 was dev eloped following the same theoretical framework of a nother test of fluid 17 6 {'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2} [VERB, NOUN, NUM, AUX, NOUN, VERB, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'following', 'of', 'Given'}, 'pobj': {'framework', 'fluid', 'test', 'MVKR'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'nsubjpass': {'dev'}, 'ROOT': {'eloped'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'nother', 'theoretical', 'same'}} Medium High Low
1537 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 11 relational reasoning (i.e., Test of Relational Reasoning or TORR [ Alexander & DRLRL, 2012b]), TORR provides an appropriate reference point for predicting the reliability and validity of the MVKR2 30 8 {'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'nummod': {'11'}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'reference', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'TORR'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ']', ',', '['}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'appos': {'Test'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'MVKR2', 'Reasoning'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'validity', 'DRLRL', 'Alexander', 'TORR'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012b'}, 'ROOT': {'provides'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'appropriate'}, 'dobj': {'reliability', 'point'}, 'pcomp': {'predicting'}} Long High Low
1538 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Thus, we hypothesized that the internal consistency reliability of the MVKR2 should be comparable to that of TORR, which was ω = 0.82 23 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, NOUN, SYM, NUM] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'reliability', 'which', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'hypothesized'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'internal'}, 'compound': {'consistency'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'MVKR2', 'that', 'TORR'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'comparable'}, 'relcl': {'was'}, 'attr': {'ω'}, 'npadvmod': {'='}, 'nummod': {'0.82'}} Long High Medium
1539 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The validity of the MVKR2 based on its relations to vocabulary knowledge and math performance should be close to or beyondr = .60 ( for verbal) andr = .36 ( for math ; Alexander et al., 2016) 37 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 11, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'validity'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'andr', 'relations', 'knowledge', 'MVKR2', '.36', '=', 'math'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'amod': {'verbal', 'vocabulary'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'Alexander', 'math', 'et'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'beyondr'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'close'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ',', ';', '='}, 'nummod': {'.60'}, 'npadvmod': {'al'}, 'attr': {'.'}, 'appos': {'2016'}} Long High Low
1540 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge We hypothesized that the validity of the MVKR2 based on its relation to TORR should be comparable to the correlation between TORR and another verbal test of relational reasoning (vTORR ; Alexander, Singer, et al., 2016), which wasr = .52 40 17 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PROPN, NUM] {'nsubj': {'wasr', 'We', 'validity'}, 'ROOT': {'hypothesized'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'which', 'another', 'the'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'TORR', 'relation', 'reasoning', 'correlation', 'MVKR2'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'comparable'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'relational', 'verbal'}, 'conj': {'test'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '.52', 'Singer', '=', 'vTORR', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'Alexander', 'et'}} Long High Medium
1541 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge What are the unique contributions of fluid relational reasoning ability and vocabulary knowledge to college students’ performance on the MVKR2 at the test, scale, and item level , respectively 29 11 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV] {'attr': {'What'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'vocabulary', 'unique', 'fluid', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'contributions'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'item', 'college'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'ability', 'MVKR2', 'test'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'level', 'scale'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'advmod': {'respectively'}} Long High Low
1542 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Hypothesis : As described in the framing of this investigation, the MVKR2 was intended to reveal vocabulary knowledge by requiring individuals to compare the meanings of a set of carefully chosen words through relational reasoning 35 15 {'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'dep': {'Hypothesis'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'described'}, 'prep': {'by', 'through', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'framing', 'set', 'investigation', 'reasoning', 'words'}, 'nsubjpass': {'MVKR2'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'intended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'compare', 'reveal'}, 'amod': {'chosen', 'relational', 'vocabulary'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'individuals', 'meanings'}, 'pcomp': {'requiring'}, 'advmod': {'carefully'}} Long High Medium
1543 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Performance on this novel measure would largely depend on a deep understanding of the meaning for an extensive range of words 21 10 {'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Performance'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'novel', 'extensive'}, 'pobj': {'range', 'understanding', 'measure', 'meaning', 'words'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'advmod': {'largely'}, 'ROOT': {'depend'}} Long High Low
1544 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Att he same time, individuals would need to possess a certain level of fluid relational reasoning ability to navigate through those complex relations among the presented words 27 11 {'INTJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 3} [INTJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'intj': {'Att'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'individuals'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'same', 'presented', 'fluid', 'complex'}, 'npadvmod': {'time'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'need'}, 'xcomp': {'possess'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'dobj': {'level'}, 'prep': {'through', 'among', 'of'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'relations', 'words', 'ability'}, 'acl': {'navigate'}} Long High Low
1545 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Therefore, we hypothesized both vocabulary knowledge and relational reasoning abili ty would significantly contribute to college students’ performance on the MVKR 2 with word knowledge being the driving source of impact 31 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Therefore', 'significantly'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'we', 'ty'}, 'ROOT': {'hypothesized'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'amod': {'driving', 'vocabulary'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'college', 'word', 'relational'}, 'conj': {'abili'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'relcl': {'contribute'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'impact', 'MVKR'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'pcomp': {'being'}, 'attr': {'source'}} Long High Low
1546 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge However, whether this pattern would be observed across all the levels of examination (i.e., test, scale, item) remains unclear. 19 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'i.e.', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '.', ')'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'pattern'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'observed'}, 'prep': {'across', 'of'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'pobj': {'examination', 'levels'}, 'nmod': {'test'}, 'conj': {'scale'}, 'appos': {'item'}, 'advcl': {'remains'}, 'acomp': {'unclear'}} Medium High Medium
1547 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 12 Phase I: Measure Development Overall Structure The Measure of Vocabulary Knowledge through Relational Reasoning (MVKR2) aimed to assess older adolescents’ and adults’ vocabulary knowledge from a relational perspective by inviting them to reason analogically, anomalously, antinomously, and antithetically with words 41 13 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 9, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 4} [NUM, NOUN, PRON, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, NOUN] {'nummod': {'12'}, 'ROOT': {'Phase', 'Measure'}, 'appos': {'I', 'MVKR2'}, 'punct': {'’', ':', ')', 'Structure', '(', ','}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'Measure', 'Overall', 'Development', 'Vocabulary'}, 'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'prep': {'through', 'from', 'by', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Knowledge', 'words', 'perspective', 'Reasoning'}, 'acl': {'aimed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'assess', 'reason'}, 'amod': {'older', 'relational', 'vocabulary'}, 'dobj': {'them', 'adolescents'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'adults'}, 'conj': {'knowledge'}, 'pcomp': {'inviting'}, 'advmod': {'analogically', 'anomalously', 'antinomously', 'antithetically'}} Long High Low
1548 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Despite the novelty of its focus, the structure of this measure was built on the prior measures of relational reasoning in several important ways (Alexander & DRLRL, 2012 b; Alexander et al 32 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'prep': {'on', 'of', 'Despite', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'measures', 'focus', 'novelty', 'measure', 'reasoning'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', 'al'}, 'nsubjpass': {'structure'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'built'}, 'amod': {'important', 'several', 'prior', 'relational'}, 'appos': {'b', 'Alexander', 'et'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'DRLRL'}, 'nummod': {'2012'}, 'compound': {'Alexander'}} Long High Medium
1549 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Specifically, we sought to parallel existing measures of relational reasoning (i.e., Verbal Test of Relational Reasoning [Alexander & DRLRL, 2014] ; Test of Relational Reasoning [Alexander & DRLRL, 2012b] ; Test of Relational Reasoni ng-Junior [Alexander & DRLRL, 2018] ) in terms of the specific numbers of items per scale, reasoning processes, and patterns represented in each scale 58 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 14, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 9, 'ADJ': 2, 'X': 4, 'PROPN': 17, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NUM': 3, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, X, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, X, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, X, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'i.e.', 'Specifically'}, 'punct': {'-', 'Reasoning', ')', '(', ']', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'sought', 'Alexander'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'parallel'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'specific', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'measures'}, 'prep': {'per', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'terms', 'numbers', 'Reasoni', 'items', 'reasoning', 'scale'}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'reasoning', 'ng', 'Verbal'}, 'appos': {'Test', 'Alexander', 'Junior'}, 'nmod': {'['}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'processes', 'patterns', 'DRLRL'}, 'npadvmod': {'2014', '2018', '2012b'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'acl': {'represented'}} Long High Low
1550 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge This decision was predicated on the fact that this overall structure has proven effective across both figural and linguistic measures created for both younger and older populations (Alexander , Singer, et al., 2016; Dumas & Alexander, 2016) 37 13 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'this', 'the', 'This', 'both'}, 'nsubjpass': {'decision'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'predicated'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'across'}, 'pobj': {'measures', 'populations', 'fact'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'overall', 'younger', 'figural'}, 'nsubj': {'structure'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'acl': {'created', 'proven'}, 'oprd': {'effective'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'older', 'linguistic'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Alexander', 'Dumas', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '2016', 'Singer', 'et'}, 'dobj': {'.'}} Long High Medium
1551 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Thus, the final version of the MVKR 2 consisted of 32 selected -response and constructed- response test items organized in four 8- item scales, each mapping onto one identified form of relational reasoning 33 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'X': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, VERB, ADP, NUM, VERB, X, CCONJ, X, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'amod': {'selected', 'identified', 'relational', 'constructed-', 'final'}, 'nsubj': {'version'}, 'prep': {'onto', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'form', 'MVKR', 'scales', 'reasoning', '-response'}, 'nummod': {'four', 'one', '32', '2'}, 'ROOT': {'consisted'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'8-', 'item', 'test', 'response'}, 'conj': {'items', 'mapping'}, 'acl': {'organized'}} Long High Low
1552 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Each scale set began with two sample items that familiarized participants with the specific procedure to be followed for that scale 21 10 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'Each', 'the', 'that'}, 'compound': {'sample', 'scale'}, 'nsubj': {'set', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'began'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'procedure', 'scale'}, 'relcl': {'familiarized', 'followed'}, 'dobj': {'participants'}, 'amod': {'specific'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Low
1553 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge These sample items are not scored, and no explanation or additional feedback was provided beyond the correct answer 18 9 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'no', 'the', 'These'}, 'compound': {'sample'}, 'nsubjpass': {'items', 'explanation'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'scored'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'amod': {'correct', 'additional'}, 'conj': {'provided', 'feedback'}, 'prep': {'beyond'}, 'pobj': {'answer'}} Medium High Low
1554 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Moreover, as we will illustrate , graduated response options (Alexander & Kulikowich, 1991) were generated systematically that reflected gradual deviations from the expected response, so as to assess various levels of understanding of word meaning 35 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADV, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'systematically'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'as', 'so'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'advcl': {'assess', 'meaning', 'illustrate'}, 'amod': {'various', 'gradual', 'expected', 'graduated'}, 'compound': {'response'}, 'nsubjpass': {'options'}, 'appos': {'1991', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Kulikowich'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'generated'}, 'ccomp': {'reflected'}, 'dobj': {'levels', 'deviations'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'word', 'understanding', 'response'}} Long High High
1555 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 13 The construct validity of each scale, or domain description inference under Kane ’s validity framework (Kane, 2013), was determined by the degree to which the item set accurately represented the nature of th at identified relational form 38 15 {'NUM': 2, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'X': 1} [NUM, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, X, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'determined', '13'}, 'det': {'The', 'the', 'each'}, 'amod': {'identified', 'construct'}, 'nsubjpass': {'validity'}, 'prep': {'under', 'at', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'th', 'form', 'framework', 'degree', 'scale'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'domain', 'description', 'relational', 'validity'}, 'conj': {'inference'}, 'poss': {'Kane'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'appos': {'Kane'}, 'npadvmod': {'2013'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nsubj': {'item'}, 'acl': {'set'}, 'advmod': {'accurately'}, 'relcl': {'represented'}, 'dobj': {'nature'}} Long High Low
1556 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In the following sections, we explicate how items and distractors were created for each scale and how each scale assesses subtle vocabulary knowledge uniquely through each form of relational reasoning 30 14 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'through', 'for', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'amod': {'following', 'subtle', 'relational', 'vocabulary'}, 'pobj': {'sections', 'reasoning', 'form', 'scale'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'scale', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'explicate'}, 'advmod': {'uniquely', 'how'}, 'nsubjpass': {'items'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'distractors', 'assesses'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ccomp': {'created'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}} Long High High
1557 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Analogy The analogy items took the form of classic A:B::C:__ problems ( Figure 3 a 15 5 {'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PRON] {'ROOT': {'Analogy', 'took'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'_', 'analogy'}, 'nsubj': {'items'}, 'dobj': {'B::C', 'form', 'problems', '_'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'classic'}, 'pobj': {'A'}, 'punct': {'(', 'a', ':'}, 'appos': {'Figure'}, 'nummod': {'3'}} Medium High Low
1558 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For a scale meant to assess deep vocabulary knowledge by identifying similarities , it is vital to assess respondents’ ability to identify precise attributional similarities across two -word pairing in which the second pairing is incomplete 37 14 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'prep': {'by', 'across', 'For', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'scale', '-word'}, 'acl': {'meant', 'identify'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'assess'}, 'amod': {'precise', 'second', 'deep', 'attributional', 'vocabulary'}, 'dobj': {'similarities', 'knowledge', 'ability'}, 'pcomp': {'identifying'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'pairing', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'incomplete', 'vital'}, 'poss': {'respondents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'advcl': {'pairing'}, 'relcl': {'is'}} Long High Low
1559 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Like a verbal ratio problem, the correct response to theD term would result in a C:D pairing that is as equivalent as possible to what is represented in the A:B relation.T he given pair of words, WHISPER and SHOUT, both entail the action of speaking but at different volume levels 51 24 {'ADP': 9, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 16, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'at', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'Like', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'correct', 'possible', 'different', 'theD', 'verbal'}, 'compound': {'B', 'volume', 'ratio'}, 'pobj': {'problem', 'levels', 'words', 'A', 'C', 'term'}, 'punct': {',', '.', ':D', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'both', 'that', 'response'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'given', 'result'}, 'dobj': {'pairing', 'pair', 'action'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'as'}, 'acomp': {'equivalent'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'represented', 'speaking'}, 'oprd': {'relation'}, 'npadvmod': {'T'}, 'conj': {'SHOUT', 'WHISPER', 'entail'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}} Long High Low
1560 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Thus, the two salient attributes to be considered when searching for the correct term are the nature of the utterance and its loudness 23 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'when'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubj': {'salient', 'attributes'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'considered'}, 'advcl': {'searching'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'correct'}, 'pobj': {'utterance', 'term'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'nature'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'dep': {'loudness'}} Long High Medium
1561 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge A WHIMPER, like WHISPER, is a weak utterance but one associated with pain or discomfort and not communication 18 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'a'}, 'nsubj': {'WHIMPER'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'like', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'WHISPER', 'pain'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'weak'}, 'attr': {'utterance'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'conj': {'one', 'communication', 'discomfort'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Medium High Low
1562 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The correct response, WAIL also expresses pain or discomfort but at greater volume 13 5 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'correct', 'greater'}, 'nsubj': {'WAIL', 'response'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'expresses'}, 'dobj': {'pain'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'at', 'discomfort'}, 'pobj': {'volume'}} Medium High Low
1563 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The distractors were generated that address only one of the targeted attributes (D and A) or neither (C) 18 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, NUM, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'distractors'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'generated'}, 'dobj': {'address'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'npadvmod': {'one'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'targeted'}, 'pobj': {'attributes'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'C', 'D'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'A', 'neither'}} Medium High Low
1564 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge It is essential for the anomaly scale to assess respondents’ ability to extract the core or typical features signified by the given word set (A, B, C, D), and then identify the one word with a meaning that sets it apart from the others in some manner.K ey to the 50 26 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 7, 'PROPN': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'PUNCT': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'nsubj': {'K', 'scale', 'It', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'ey'}, 'acomp': {'essential'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'some'}, 'compound': {'anomaly'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'assess'}, 'poss': {'respondents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'word', 'it', 'ability', 'core'}, 'acl': {'signified', 'set', 'extract'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'amod': {'given', 'typical'}, 'conj': {'features', 'B', 'D', 'identify', 'C'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'manner', 'others', 'meaning', 'word', 'the'}, 'punct': {'(', '.', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'A'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'apart'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'in', 'from'}, 'relcl': {'sets'}} Long High Medium
1565 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 14 anomaly items were groups of words that cohered in some way but that included one term that was aberrant based on an attribute such as direction, magnitude, or intensity 30 15 {'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [NUM, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'one', '14'}, 'compound': {'anomaly'}, 'nsubj': {'items', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'groups'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'based', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'attribute', 'words', 'direction', 'way'}, 'relcl': {'was', 'cohered'}, 'det': {'an', 'some'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'magnitude', 'included', 'intensity'}, 'dobj': {'term'}, 'acomp': {'aberrant'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'punct': {','}} Long High Low
1566 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge However, GRIEVED, REMORSEFUL, and SORROWFUL represent various degrees of sadness, whereas INQUISITIVE conveys a state of being curious , which makes it an outlier in this word group 28 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'it', 'INQUISITIVE', 'GRIEVED'}, 'appos': {'REMORSEFUL'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'SORROWFUL'}, 'ROOT': {'represent'}, 'amod': {'various'}, 'dobj': {'degrees', 'state'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'group', 'sadness'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'advcl': {'conveys'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'this'}, 'pcomp': {'being'}, 'acomp': {'curious'}, 'relcl': {'makes'}, 'ccomp': {'outlier'}, 'compound': {'word'}} Long High Medium
1567 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Antinomy The antinomy items measured individuals’ ability to recognize ontologically distinct clusters of words 15 3 {'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'Antinomy'}, 'det': {'The'}, 'compound': {'antinomy'}, 'nsubj': {'items'}, 'ROOT': {'measured'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'clusters', 'ability'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'recognize'}, 'advmod': {'ontologically'}, 'amod': {'distinct'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'words'}} Medium High Low
1568 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The goal of the antinomy scale is to capture respondents’ ability to discern the semantic similarities of the terms in each set of words 25 12 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'each'}, 'nsubj': {'goal'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'antinomy'}, 'pobj': {'words', 'set', 'scale', 'terms'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'capture'}, 'poss': {'respondents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'similarities', 'ability'}, 'acl': {'discern'}, 'amod': {'semantic'}} Long High Low
1569 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For the sample item , the words in Set 1 are related to birds , whereas words in Set 2 pertain to buildings 24 9 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'sample'}, 'pobj': {'pertain', 'buildings', 'Set', 'birds', 'item'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'words'}, 'nummod': {'1', '2'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'related'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'advcl': {'words'}, 'nmod': {'Set'}} Long High Medium
1570 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge With this understanding, re spondents search the set of given options for a target word that only fits in the bird set 22 11 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'With', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'word', 'set', 'options', 'understanding'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'re'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'spondents'}, 'ROOT': {'search'}, 'dobj': {'set'}, 'amod': {'given'}, 'compound': {'bird', 'target'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'relcl': {'fits'}} Long High Low
1571 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Three distractors that reflected a patterned deviation from the expected response: a) a word that does not belong to either category (C); b) a word that only fits in the building category (A); c) a word with multiple meanings that fits in both categories (D) 45 23 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 12, 'X': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'Three'}, 'ROOT': {'distractors'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'fits', 'belong', 'reflected'}, 'det': {'a', 'both', 'the', 'either'}, 'amod': {'expected', 'multiple', 'patterned'}, 'dobj': {'deviation'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'meanings', 'category', 'categories', 'response'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ':', ')'}, 'meta': {'a', 'b', 'c'}, 'appos': {'A', 'word', 'D', 'C'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'compound': {'building'}, 'conj': {'word'}} Long High Low
1572 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge It is crucial for the antithesis scale to evaluate respondents’ ability to accurately identify the underlying continuum and then find a word that can be appropriately placed on that continuum between the polar terms (Grossnickle et al., 2016) 38 17 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'crucial'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'between'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'compound': {'antithesis'}, 'pobj': {'scale', 'terms', 'continuum'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'evaluate'}, 'poss': {'respondents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'word', 'ability', 'continuum'}, 'advmod': {'appropriately', 'then', 'accurately'}, 'acl': {'identify'}, 'amod': {'underlying', 'polar'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'find'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'placed'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Grossnickle', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Low
1573 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge As illustrated in the sample item, the two given words, DIMINUTIVE and COLOSSAL, represented an opposite relation on the continuum of size 22 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NUM, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'illustrated'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'sample'}, 'pobj': {'continuum', 'size', 'item'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'amod': {'opposite', 'given'}, 'nsubj': {'words'}, 'appos': {'DIMINUTIVE'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'COLOSSAL'}, 'ROOT': {'represented'}, 'dobj': {'relation'}} Long High Medium
1574 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge A scoring key that included all the acceptable answers for this question was determined a priori (Table 1) 18 8 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'A', 'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'scoring'}, 'nsubjpass': {'key'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'included'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'amod': {'acceptable'}, 'dobj': {'answers'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'question'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'determined'}, 'oprd': {'priori'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'Table'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Medium High Low
1575 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 15 authors, and then evaluated, revised , and finalized by the expert panel 13 5 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'15'}, 'ROOT': {'authors'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'conj': {'finalized', 'evaluated', 'revised'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'expert'}, 'pobj': {'panel'}} Medium High Low
1576 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The response options for antithesis items included a correct response and three distractors that reflected a patterned deviation from the expected response: a) a word that is unrelated to the continuum (B); b) a word that falls out of the continuum set by the two polar words (D); c) a word represents a meaning related to the continuum in some way but not accurately reflecting the continuum (C) 68 32 {'DET': 14, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADP': 8, 'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 12, 'X': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'some'}, 'compound': {'antithesis', 'response'}, 'nsubj': {'word', 'that', 'options'}, 'prep': {'out', 'from', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'way', 'response', 'items', 'words', 'continuum'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'amod': {'correct', 'expected', 'patterned', 'polar'}, 'dobj': {'deviation', 'continuum', 'meaning', 'response'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'nummod': {'two', 'three'}, 'conj': {'represents', 'reflecting', 'distractors'}, 'relcl': {'is', 'falls', 'reflected'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ':', ')'}, 'meta': {'a', 'b', 'c'}, 'dep': {'word'}, 'acomp': {'unrelated'}, 'appos': {'B', 'D', 'word', 'C'}, 'acl': {'set', 'related'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'accurately'}} Long High Low
1577 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Scoring Protocol For items in the Analogy, Anomaly, and Antinomy scales, 1 point was awarded for each correct answer 19 7 {'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [VERB, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Scoring', 'Antinomy'}, 'nsubjpass': {'point', 'Protocol'}, 'prep': {'for', 'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'Analogy', 'answer'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'scales', 'Anomaly'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'awarded'}, 'amod': {'correct'}} Medium High Low
1578 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For the Antithesis scale, 0.5 point was awarded if a response provided was identified as an acceptable answer based on the scoring key (Table 1) 25 10 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'as', 'For'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'scoring', 'Antithesis'}, 'pobj': {'scale', 'key', 'answer'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'0.5', '1'}, 'nsubjpass': {'point', 'response'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'awarded'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'acl': {'provided', 'based'}, 'advcl': {'identified'}, 'amod': {'acceptable'}, 'appos': {'Table'}} Long High Medium
1579 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Another 0.5 point was awarded if participant chose the correct answer for the multiple -choice question 16 6 {'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'Another', 'the'}, 'nummod': {'0.5'}, 'nsubjpass': {'point'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'awarded'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubj': {'participant'}, 'advcl': {'chose'}, 'amod': {'correct', 'multiple'}, 'dobj': {'answer'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'compound': {'-choice'}, 'pobj': {'question'}} Medium High Medium
1580 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Four total scores were calculated for the four scales as well as one grand total score was calculated summing them up 22 12 {'NUM': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, NUM, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, PRON, ADP] {'nummod': {'Four', 'four', 'one'}, 'amod': {'grand', 'total'}, 'nsubjpass': {'scores', 'score'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'ROOT': {'calculated'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'scales'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'conj': {'calculated'}, 'xcomp': {'summing'}, 'dobj': {'them'}, 'prt': {'up'}} Long High Low
1581 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Word Selection We followed the three -word -tier model proposed by Beck and McKeown (1985) when selecting the words to include in the MVKR 2 25 10 {'PROPN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM] {'compound': {'Word'}, 'npadvmod': {'Selection'}, 'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'followed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'2', '-tier', 'three', '-word'}, 'dobj': {'words', 'model'}, 'acl': {'proposed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'Beck', 'MVKR'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'McKeown'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'1985'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'selecting'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'include'}, 'prep': {'in'}} Long High Medium
1582 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Tier 1 words represent the most basic words that rarely required instructional attention to their meanings in elementary or middle school, such as clock, baby , happy , and walk 31 10 {'NOUN': 8, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4} [NOUN, NUM, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'nmod': {'Tier'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'nsubj': {'words', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'represent'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'rarely', 'most'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'such', 'basic', 'elementary'}, 'dobj': {'words', 'attention'}, 'relcl': {'required'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'meanings', 'school', 'clock'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'baby', 'walk', 'happy', 'middle'}, 'punct': {','}} Long High Low
1583 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Tier 2 words, in contrast, represent high -frequency words that are widely used across a variety of domains in both oral and written language 24 10 {'NOUN': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [NOUN, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'nmod': {'Tier'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'nsubj': {'words'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'across', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'oral', 'variety', 'contrast', 'domains'}, 'ROOT': {'represent'}, 'amod': {'high'}, 'compound': {'-frequency'}, 'dobj': {'words', 'language'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'widely'}, 'relcl': {'used'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'written'}} Long High Low
1584 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Some typical Tier 2 words include coincidence , absurd, industrious , fortunate , benevolent , and perform 18 2 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'det': {'Some'}, 'amod': {'typical'}, 'nmod': {'Tier'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'nsubj': {'words'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'dobj': {'coincidence'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'perform', 'benevolent', 'industrious', 'absurd', 'fortunate'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium Low Low
1585 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Words at this level play a significant role in readers’ repertoire and have been the primary focus of vocabulary instruction in formal school ing (Beck et al., 2013 ) 29 10 {'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Words'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'instruction', 'level', 'ing', 'repertoire'}, 'ROOT': {'play'}, 'amod': {'primary', 'significant', 'formal', 'vocabulary'}, 'dobj': {'role'}, 'nmod': {'readers'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'conj': {'been'}, 'attr': {'focus'}, 'compound': {'school'}, 'appos': {'2013', 'Beck'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Low
1586 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Finally, Tier 3 words are those that arise within specific domains, but are rarely used or encountered ine very life, such as isotope , lathe , and refinery 28 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, AUX, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'rarely', 'Finally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nmod': {'Tier'}, 'nummod': {'3'}, 'nsubj': {'words', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'those'}, 'relcl': {'arise'}, 'prep': {'as', 'within'}, 'amod': {'very', 'such', 'specific'}, 'pobj': {'isotope', 'domains'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'conj': {'refinery', 'used', 'encountered', 'lathe'}, 'dobj': {'life', 'ine'}} Long High Low
1587 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Words included in the MVKR 2 were mostly Tier 2 words and a few 14 7 {'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, AUX, ADV, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'Words'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'MVKR'}, 'pobj': {'2'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'mostly'}, 'nmod': {'Tier'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'attr': {'words'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'quantmod': {'a'}, 'conj': {'few'}} Medium High Low
1588 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Older adolescents and adults are presumed to have some exposure to Tier 2 words, which makes them suitable for assessing vocabulary knowledge for these populations of English -speaking students 29 12 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'Older', 'vocabulary'}, 'nsubjpass': {'adolescents'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'adults'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'presumed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'have'}, 'det': {'these', 'some'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'exposure'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'nmod': {'Tier'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'words', 'populations'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'them'}, 'relcl': {'makes'}, 'ccomp': {'suitable'}, 'pcomp': {'assessing'}, 'compound': {'English', '-speaking'}} Long High Low
1589 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Test Revision The initial scales for the MVKR2 each consisted of 16 multiple -choice items, which resulted in a total of 64 items for the entire measure 27 11 {'PROPN': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Test', '-choice'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'scales', 'Revision', 'each'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'entire', 'initial', 'multiple'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'measure', 'MVKR2', 'total'}, 'ROOT': {'consisted'}, 'nummod': {'16', '64'}, 'punct': {','}, 'relcl': {'resulted'}} Long High Low
1590 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The number was more than the desired number of items (n=40) for the final version of the MVKR 2 in case some of the initial items do not have proper item properties (i.e., item discrimination and difficulty) when tested in the pilot stage, thus should be removed from the final pool 51 26 {'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 14, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'number', 'some'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'more'}, 'prep': {'than', 'from', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'amod': {'desired', 'final', 'initial', 'proper'}, 'pobj': {'stage', 'MVKR', 'number', 'items', 'version', 'pool', 'case'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'discrimination', 'n=40'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'aux': {'should', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'tested', 'have'}, 'compound': {'pilot', 'item'}, 'dobj': {'properties'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'when', 'thus'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'difficulty'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'removed'}} Long High Medium
1591 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge I tems were initially developed and then revised iteratively based on the feedback from a group of experts ( n=8) in relational reasoning and scale development at a large, mid-Atlantic university 31 13 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 5} [PRON, VERB, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'parataxis': {'tems'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'initially', 'iteratively'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'scale', 'revised'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'in', 'based', 'of', 'at'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'group', 'experts', 'feedback', 'development', 'university'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'n=8'}, 'amod': {'mid', '-', 'Atlantic', 'relational', 'large'}, 'nmod': {'reasoning'}} Long High Low
1592 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The experts provided critique and feedback on the format of the four scales as well as on the item quality in open discussions 23 13 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'experts'}, 'ROOT': {'provided'}, 'dobj': {'critique'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'feedback'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'quality', 'format', 'scales', 'discussions'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'compound': {'item'}, 'amod': {'open'}} Long High Low
1593 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Although no quantitative metric was used in panel -based decisions, the revision plan following each critique was evaluated, openly discussed, and reac hed consensus among all panel members 29 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'det': {'no', 'all', 'the', 'each'}, 'amod': {'-based', 'quantitative'}, 'nsubjpass': {'metric', 'plan'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'used'}, 'prep': {'among', 'in'}, 'npadvmod': {'panel'}, 'pobj': {'critique', 'decisions', 'members'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'revision', 'd', 'panel'}, 'acl': {'following'}, 'ccomp': {'evaluated'}, 'advmod': {'openly'}, 'ROOT': {'discussed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'reac'}, 'appos': {'he'}, 'conj': {'consensus'}} Long High Medium
1594 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Then, the initial items were submitted to cognitive labs (n=6) and two pilot tests to examine their functionality , and necessary revisions were made accordingly 26 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV] {'advmod': {'accordingly', 'Then'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'initial', 'necessary', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubjpass': {'items', 'revisions'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'submitted'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'labs'}, 'appos': {'n=6'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'compound': {'pilot'}, 'conj': {'tests', 'made'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'examine'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'functionality'}} Long High Low
1595 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge We made revision decisions based on the problems that we identified during the expert panels, cognitive labs, and pilot tests 20 9 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'compound': {'revision', 'pilot', 'expert'}, 'dobj': {'decisions', 'that'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'prep': {'on', 'during'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'problems', 'panels'}, 'relcl': {'identified'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'cognitive'}, 'conj': {'tests', 'labs'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
1596 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For example, we identified that the initial format of the Antithesis scale was not appropriate because test takers could rely on the meaning of the option words to find the correct answer without identifying the underlying continuum represented by the two given opposite words 44 21 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'without', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'two', 'example', 'meaning', 'words', 'scale'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'format', 'takers', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'mark': {'that', 'because'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'correct', 'initial', 'underlying', 'opposite'}, 'compound': {'option', 'Antithesis', 'test'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'appropriate'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'rely'}, 'relcl': {'find'}, 'dobj': {'continuum', 'words', 'answer'}, 'pcomp': {'identifying'}, 'acl': {'represented', 'given'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High High
1597 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Fulld etails of the expert panels, cognitive labs, and pilot tests can be found in Supplemental Materials 18 6 {'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'Fulld'}, 'ROOT': {'etails'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'pilot', 'Supplemental', 'expert'}, 'pobj': {'panels', 'Materials'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'cognitive'}, 'conj': {'found', 'labs'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubjpass': {'tests'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Medium High Low
1598 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 17 The recruited participants for the validation phase were 338 undergraduate students from 4 universities 15 5 {'NUM': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'17'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'recruited', 'undergraduate'}, 'nsubj': {'participants'}, 'prep': {'for', 'from'}, 'compound': {'validation'}, 'pobj': {'universities', 'phase'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'nummod': {'338', '4'}, 'attr': {'students'}} Medium High Low
1599 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Participation was voluntary, and participants could withdraw freely from the study at any time.P articipants were offered an opportunity to enter their email addresses into a raffle for one of three $100 Amazon gift cards 35 17 {'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADP, NUM, SYM, NUM, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Participation', 'participants'}, 'ROOT': {'was', 'offered'}, 'acomp': {'voluntary'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'conj': {'withdraw'}, 'advmod': {'freely'}, 'prep': {'from', 'for', 'into', 'of', 'at'}, 'det': {'any', 'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'raffle', 'one', 'time', 'study', 'cards'}, 'compound': {'Amazon', 'P', 'gift', 'email'}, 'nsubjpass': {'articipants'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'dobj': {'opportunity', 'addresses'}, 'acl': {'enter'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nummod': {'100', 'three'}, 'nmod': {'$'}} Long High Low
1600 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Further, at the discretion of the individual course instructor who assisted with advertising this study, students who completed the study might receive 1% -2% of extra credits for research participation in their registered course 34 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'INTJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NUM, NOUN, INTJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'at', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'advertising', 'instructor', 'course', 'participation', 'discretion', 'credits'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'extra', 'registered'}, 'compound': {'course', 'research'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'assisted', 'completed'}, 'dobj': {'%', 'study'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'ROOT': {'receive', '%'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'intj': {'-2'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
1601 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The current study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (ID: 1674423) 14 5 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'current'}, 'nsubjpass': {'study'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'reviewed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'approved'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'Review', 'Institutional'}, 'pobj': {'Board'}, 'punct': {'(', ':', ')'}, 'appos': {'1674423', 'ID'}} Medium High Low
1602 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Among the recruited participants , 246 (72.8%) identified as female, 69 (20.4%) as male, 8 (2.4%) reported gender non- binary/non- conforming/self -describe or “prefer not to answer,” and 15 students did not report gender 34 10 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 12, 'NUM': 7, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'SYM': 2, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, SYM, X, VERB, SYM, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, VERB, PART, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'Among', 'as'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'recruited', 'conforming'}, 'pobj': {'female', 'male', 'participants'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '/', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'students', '246'}, 'nummod': {'72.8', '20.4', '2.4', '69', '15', 'non-'}, 'appos': {'8', '%'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'conj': {'report', 'prefer', 'reported'}, 'nmod': {'binary', 'gender'}, 'dep': {'non-'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'dobj': {'-describe', 'gender'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'aux': {'did', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'answer'}} Long High Low
1603 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Their age ranged from 18 to 55 years (M = 21.90, SD = 4.98) 14 3 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, PART, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'poss': {'Their'}, 'nsubj': {'age'}, 'ROOT': {'ranged'}, 'prep': {'=', 'from'}, 'quantmod': {'18', 'to'}, 'nummod': {'55', '4.98'}, 'pobj': {'years'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '='}, 'npadvmod': {'M'}, 'appos': {'21.90'}, 'conj': {'SD'}} Medium High Low
1604 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In terms of race/ethnicity, 41 (12.1%) identified as African American, 35 (10.4%) as Asian/Asian American, 32 (9.5%) as Hispanic, 180 (53.3%) as White, 4 (1.2%) as Other, and 31 (9.2%) identified as biracial or multiracial 35 11 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 9, 'SYM': 2, 'PUNCT': 18, 'NUM': 12, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'prep': {'as', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'White', 'American', 'ethnicity', 'terms', 'Other'}, 'nmod': {'race'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '/', ')'}, 'conj': {'41', 'multiracial'}, 'nummod': {'12.1', '53.3', '9.5', '10.4', '9.2', '180', '1.2'}, 'appos': {'4', '%', '32', '35'}, 'acl': {'identified'}, 'compound': {'Asian', 'African'}, 'amod': {'Hispanic', 'Asian', 'biracial'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'nsubj': {'31'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}} Long High Low
1605 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Regarding class standing, 59 (17.5%) were freshmen , 69 (20.4%) were sophomores , 97 (28.7%) were juniors , 61 (18.0%) were seniors, and 52 (15.3%) had missing values 28 7 {'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 15, 'NUM': 10, 'AUX': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'Regarding'}, 'compound': {'class'}, 'pobj': {'standing'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'97', '59', 'had', 'were'}, 'nummod': {'17.5', '18.0', '20.4', '61', '28.7', '15.3', '69'}, 'appos': {'%'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'sophomores', 'seniors', 'freshmen'}, 'nsubj': {'52', 'juniors'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'missing'}, 'dobj': {'values'}} Long High Low
1606 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge On the question of whether English is their first language, 282 (83.4%) reported “yes,” 41 (12.2%) reported “ no,” and 15 (4.4%) cases had missing values 26 10 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 13, 'NUM': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'INTJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PROPN, AUX, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, INTJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, INTJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'On', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'question'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'cases', '41', 'English'}, 'pcomp': {'is'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'first', 'missing'}, 'attr': {'language'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'282', '%'}, 'nummod': {'4.4', '12.2', '83.4', '15'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'intj': {'yes', 'no'}, 'ccomp': {'reported'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'had'}, 'dobj': {'values'}} Long High Medium
1607 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Measures Measure of Vocabulary Knowledge through Relational Reasoning The final version of the MVKR 2 consisted of 8 sample items and 32 test items arranged in four scales selected from the initial version 33 11 {'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NUM': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Relational', 'Measures', 'sample', 'Vocabulary', 'test'}, 'ROOT': {'Measure', 'consisted'}, 'prep': {'through', 'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Reasoning', 'Knowledge', 'MVKR', 'items', 'scales', 'version'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'final', 'initial'}, 'nsubj': {'version'}, 'nummod': {'8', 'four', '32', '2'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'items'}, 'acl': {'arranged', 'selected'}} Long High Low
1608 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Following the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Education Research Association et al., 2014), we aimed to gather empirical evidence 21 5 {'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 11, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 1} [VERB, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'Following'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'Educational', 'Standards', 'Association'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'Psychological', 'American', 'Education', 'Research'}, 'conj': {'Testing', '.'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2014'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'aimed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'gather'}, 'amod': {'empirical'}, 'dobj': {'evidence'}} Long High Low
1609 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 18 for the validity of the MVKR2 based on its internal structure and relations to other variables (i.e., convergent and concurrent validity) 23 10 {'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'X': 1} [NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'18'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'structure', 'MVKR2', 'variables', 'validity'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'amod': {'other', 'concurrent', 'internal'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'relations', 'validity'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'appos': {'convergent'}} Long High Low
1610 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge SAT Verbal The final version of the SAT Verbal (SATV) measures vocabulary knowledge, which was used to establish convergent validity of the MVKR2 23 9 {'PROPN': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'compound': {'SAT', 'convergent'}, 'dep': {'Verbal'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'final', 'vocabulary'}, 'appos': {'version', 'SATV'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'nmod': {'Verbal'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'measures'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'validity'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'relcl': {'used'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'establish'}, 'pobj': {'MVKR2'}} Long High Low
1611 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge It consisted of 12 multiple -choice items that were selected from the SAT Verbal – Initial based on the first pilot data 22 9 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'consisted'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'from'}, 'nummod': {'12'}, 'amod': {'first', 'multiple'}, 'compound': {'SAT', 'pilot', '-choice'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'data', 'Verbal'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'selected'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {'–'}, 'appos': {'Initial'}, 'acl': {'based'}} Long High Low
1612 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge SATV was compiled by previously administered and publicly released SAT sentence completion items 13 3 {'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3} [PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'SATV'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'compiled'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'advmod': {'publicly', 'previously'}, 'pcomp': {'administered'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'released'}, 'compound': {'SAT', 'sentence', 'completion'}, 'dobj': {'items'}} Medium High Low
1613 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Only the sentence completion items with one target word were included because they measured participants’ knowledge of contextual use for individual words, which aligned with the definition of vocabulary knowledge in the current study 34 15 {'ADV': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 4} [ADV, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Only'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'completion', 'sentence', 'target'}, 'nsubjpass': {'items'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'definition', 'knowledge', 'use', 'words', 'word', 'study'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'measured'}, 'poss': {'participants'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'contextual', 'current', 'vocabulary'}, 'relcl': {'aligned'}} Long High Medium
1614 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Items with multiple target words were excluded because they usually comprised complex syntactic st ructures and semantic relations, thus participant s’ performance on those items would involve knowledge or skills other than vocabulary knowledge 34 12 {'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Items'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'than'}, 'amod': {'semantic', 'participant', 'syntactic', 'other', 'multiple', 'complex', 'vocabulary'}, 'compound': {'st', 'target'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'knowledge', 'words'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ccomp': {'excluded'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'nsubj': {'performance', 'they'}, 'advmod': {'usually', 'thus'}, 'advcl': {'comprised'}, 'dobj': {'ructures', 'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'relations', 'skills'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'case': {'s'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'involve'}} Long High Medium
1615 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Test of Relational Reasoning Test of Relational Reasoning (TORR), assessing fluid relational reasoning, was used as another measure to establish convergent validity for the MVKR2 25 9 {'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'nsubjpass': {'Test'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of'}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'convergent', 'Reasoning', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'MVKR2', 'measure', 'Test', 'Reasoning'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'TORR'}, 'advcl': {'assessing'}, 'amod': {'fluid'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning', 'validity'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'det': {'another', 'the'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'establish'}} Long High Low
1616 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge TORR is a 32 -item fluid measure that takes a visual -spatial format to assess four distinct forms of relational reasoning ability –analogy, anomaly, antinomy, and antithesis 27 8 {'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, AUX, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'TORR'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'nummod': {'four', '32'}, 'nmod': {'-item'}, 'amod': {'visual', 'distinct', 'relational', 'fluid', '-spatial'}, 'attr': {'measure'}, 'relcl': {'takes'}, 'dobj': {'format', 'forms'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'assess'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'pobj': {'ability'}, 'punct': {',', '–'}, 'appos': {'analogy'}, 'conj': {'antinomy', 'anomaly', 'antithesis'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
1617 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Each scale begins with two sample items intended to familiarize participants with the specific directions and procedures of the eight test items in that scale 25 12 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'Each', 'the', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'scale'}, 'ROOT': {'begins'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'two', 'eight'}, 'compound': {'sample', 'test'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'directions', 'scale'}, 'acl': {'intended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'familiarize'}, 'dobj': {'participants'}, 'amod': {'specific'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'procedures'}} Long High Low
1618 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For each item, the writtend irections were presented at the top followed by a figure problem with four response options displayed below 22 12 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP] {'prep': {'at', 'For', 'with', 'below'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'pobj': {'options', 'top', 'problem', 'item'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'writtend', 'figure', 'response'}, 'nsubjpass': {'irections'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'presented'}, 'acl': {'displayed', 'followed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'four'}} Long High Low
1619 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The sample items were not scored, and participants were provided with the 12 7 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'det': {'The'}, 'compound': {'sample'}, 'nsubjpass': {'items', 'participants'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'scored'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'provided'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'the'}} Medium High Low
1620 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge No additional feedback or explanation was presented for any sample or test item beyond the correct answer option 18 8 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'No', 'any', 'the'}, 'amod': {'correct', 'additional'}, 'nsubjpass': {'feedback'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'explanation', 'test'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'presented'}, 'prep': {'for', 'beyond'}, 'nmod': {'sample'}, 'pobj': {'option', 'item'}, 'compound': {'answer'}} Medium High Low
1621 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The reliability and validity of the TORR were established in Alexander et al 13 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reliability'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'validity'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Alexander', 'TORR'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'established'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'punct': {'al'}} Medium High Low
1622 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The internal consistency reliability of TORR as measured by Cronbach’s alpha was .84 and .82 at two times 18 9 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, AUX, NUM, CCONJ, NUM, ADP, NUM, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'internal'}, 'compound': {'consistency'}, 'nsubj': {'reliability'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'alpha', 'times', 'TORR'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'acl': {'measured'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'Cronbach'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'.84'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'.82'}, 'nummod': {'two'}} Medium High Medium
1623 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Moreover, TORR was found to be significantly and moderately correlated with Raven’s Progressive Matrices (Raven, 1941;r = .49,p < .001), confirming its convergent validity 24 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PART, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, X, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'significantly'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ',', '.001', '.49,p'}, 'nsubjpass': {'TORR'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'moderately'}, 'acomp': {'correlated'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'poss': {'its', 'Raven'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'convergent', 'Progressive'}, 'pobj': {'Matrices'}, 'appos': {'<', 'Raven'}, 'npadvmod': {'1941;r'}, 'nmod': {'='}, 'advcl': {'confirming'}, 'dobj': {'validity'}} Long High Low
1624 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The low -moderate correlation of TORR and Shapebuilder (Sprenger et al., 2013), a measure of working memory, atr = .31 (p = .02), supported its discriminant validity 27 6 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SYM': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, SYM, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'amod': {'discriminant', 'atr', 'low'}, 'compound': {'-moderate', 'working'}, 'nsubj': {'correlation'}, 'prep': {'of', '='}, 'pobj': {'memory', 'TORR'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Shapebuilder'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2013', '.02', 'Sprenger', 'measure', '.31'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}, 'nmod': {'p', '='}, 'ROOT': {'supported'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'dobj': {'validity'}} Long High Low
1625 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Further, TORR was found to significantly predict college students’ performance on both the verbal and math SAT items (r = .60 for verbal andr = .36 for math; Alexander et al., 2016), which confirmed its predictive validity 37 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SYM, NUM, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further', 'significantly'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';', '='}, 'nsubjpass': {'TORR'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'predict'}, 'compound': {'SAT', 'et', 'Alexander', 'college'}, 'poss': {'students', 'its'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'validity'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'amod': {'predictive', 'verbal'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'math'}, 'pobj': {'andr', 'items', '.36', '=', 'math'}, 'nmod': {'r'}, 'appos': {'.60', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.'}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'relcl': {'confirmed'}} Long High Low
1626 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge SAT Math The final version of the SAT Math (SATM) measuring mathematical performance was used to establish concurrent validity for the MVKR2 22 8 {'PROPN': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'compound': {'SAT'}, 'npadvmod': {'Math'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'mathematical', 'final', 'concurrent'}, 'nsubjpass': {'version'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'MVKR2', 'Math'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'SATM'}, 'acl': {'measuring'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'validity'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'establish'}} Long High Low
1627 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Previous studies found that math performance was closely related with fluid relational reasoning (Zhao et al., 2021) and vocabulary knowledge ( Carlson et al., 2011; Dunston & Tyminski, 2013) 30 4 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 10, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Previous', 'fluid', 'vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'studies'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'math', 'relational'}, 'nsubjpass': {'performance'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'closely'}, 'ccomp': {'related'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'Zhao', '2013'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et', 'Carlson', 'Dunston'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'al', '.', 'Tyminski'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'nummod': {'2011'}} Long Low Medium
1628 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Thus, it is reasonable to speculate that performance on the MVKR 2, which depend on both fluid relational reasoning and vocabulary knowledge, should be predictive of mathematical performance as assessed by SATM 32 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'performance', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'reasonable', 'predictive'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'speculate'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'reasoning', 'SATM', 'MVKR'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'relcl': {'depend'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'amod': {'mathematical', 'fluid', 'vocabulary'}, 'compound': {'relational'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'knowledge'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'assessed'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High High
1629 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge SATM consisted of 12 selected- response items that were selected from the SAT Math – Initial based on the first pilot data 23 8 {'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'SATM'}, 'ROOT': {'consisted'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'from'}, 'nummod': {'12'}, 'amod': {'selected-', 'first'}, 'compound': {'SAT', 'pilot', 'response'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'data', 'Math'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'selected'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {'–'}, 'appos': {'Initial'}, 'acl': {'based'}} Long High Low
1630 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge SATM was compiled by previously administered and publicly released SAT math items 12 3 {'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2} [PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'SATM'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'compiled'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'advmod': {'publicly', 'previously'}, 'pcomp': {'administered'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'released'}, 'compound': {'SAT', 'math'}, 'dobj': {'items'}} Medium High Low
1631 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Participants were instructed to work through the given math problems and choose one answer from the five given options 19 9 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Participants'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'instructed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'work'}, 'prep': {'through', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'given'}, 'compound': {'math'}, 'pobj': {'problems', 'options'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'choose'}, 'nummod': {'one', 'five'}, 'dobj': {'answer'}} Medium High Low
1632 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 20 Procedures Participants completed all the measures for the validation phase online via Qualtrics in two sessions 17 7 {'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, DET, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, PROPN, ADP, NUM, NOUN] {'nummod': {'two', '20'}, 'compound': {'validation', 'Procedures'}, 'nsubj': {'Participants'}, 'ROOT': {'completed'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'measures'}, 'prep': {'via', 'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'phase', 'sessions', 'Qualtrics'}, 'advmod': {'online'}} Medium High Low
1633 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In the first session, they were asked to complete the consent form, demographic measure, the MVKR2, and the SAT Verbal 21 10 {'ADP': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN] {'prep': {'In'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'first', 'demographic'}, 'pobj': {'session'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'complete'}, 'compound': {'SAT', 'consent'}, 'dobj': {'form'}, 'conj': {'measure', 'MVKR2', 'Verbal'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
1634 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In the second session, they were asked to complete the TORR and SAT Ma th 15 7 {'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, X] {'prep': {'In'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'second'}, 'pobj': {'session'}, 'punct': {',', 'th'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'complete'}, 'dobj': {'TORR'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'SAT'}, 'conj': {'Ma'}} Medium High Low
1635 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The procedures followed for this validation phase were the same as those described in the section of Pilot Tests in Supplemental Materials 23 12 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'procedures'}, 'ROOT': {'followed'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'as', 'in'}, 'compound': {'validation', 'Pilot', 'Supplemental'}, 'pobj': {'section', 'phase', 'those', 'Tests', 'Materials'}, 'conj': {'were'}, 'attr': {'same'}, 'acl': {'described'}} Long High Low
1636 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Results Descriptive Statistics The descriptive statistics , including the means, standard deviations, and data distribution for all the administered measures , are presented in Table 2.T he data could be considered normally distributed for the total and scale scores of all the administered measures, given that all their skewness and kurtosis estimates fell within the - 2 to 2 range (George & Mallery, 2010) 64 24 {'NOUN': 16, 'PROPN': 4, 'DET': 9, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'VERB': 8, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'NUM': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NUM, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NUM, PART, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'considered', 'Results'}, 'compound': {'kurtosis', 'Descriptive', 'data', 'Table'}, 'appos': {'George', 'Statistics'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'descriptive', 'administered', 'total', 'standard'}, 'nsubjpass': {'statistics', 'data'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'given', 'including', 'within', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'measures', 'means', 'range', 'scores', '2.T'}, 'conj': {'estimates', 'deviations', 'distribution', 'scale', 'Mallery'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'ccomp': {'presented'}, 'nmod': {'he'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'advmod': {'normally'}, 'oprd': {'distributed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'skewness'}, 'pcomp': {'fell'}, 'quantmod': {'to', '2'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'npadvmod': {'2010'}} Long High Medium
1637 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge We followed the argument -based approach to validation (Kane, 2013) when evaluating the validity of the MVKR 2 18 7 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NUM] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'followed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'argument', '2013'}, 'amod': {'-based'}, 'dobj': {'approach', 'validity'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'validation', 'MVKR'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Kane'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'relcl': {'evaluating'}, 'nummod': {'2'}} Medium High Medium
1638 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Specifically, our analyses focused on scoring , generalization , and extrapo lation inferences in Kane ’s framework 18 5 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'our', 'Kane'}, 'nsubj': {'analyses'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'scoring', 'framework'}, 'conj': {'inferences', 'generalization'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'extrapo', 'lation'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Medium High Low
1639 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The scoring inference included item analyses (i.e., item difficulty and discrimination) and analyses of the factor structure, which provided backing support for interpreting the scores of MVKR2 as intended 29 10 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, SCONJ, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'scoring', 'factor', 'item'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'inference'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'scores', 'analyses', 'support'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'appos': {'difficulty'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'discrimination', 'analyses'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'structure', 'MVKR2'}, 'relcl': {'provided'}, 'xcomp': {'backing'}, 'pcomp': {'interpreting'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'intended'}} Long High Medium
1640 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The generalization inference here referred to the internal consistency reliability that provided warrants for generalizing the interpretations of the MVKR2 scores over conditions of observation 25 11 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'MVKR2', 'consistency', 'generalization'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'inference'}, 'advmod': {'here'}, 'ROOT': {'referred'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'over'}, 'amod': {'internal'}, 'pobj': {'reliability', 'scores', 'conditions', 'observation'}, 'relcl': {'provided'}, 'dobj': {'warrants', 'interpretations'}, 'pcomp': {'generalizing'}} Long High Low
1641 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The extrapolation inference aimed to exam ine the relations between the scores of the MVKR2 and scores based on “ criterion ” assessments, which could also be considered as convergent and concurrent validity assessments 34 15 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'extrapolation', 'validity'}, 'ROOT': {'inference'}, 'acl': {'based', 'aimed'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'scores', 'exam', 'assessments', 'MVKR2', 'convergent'}, 'xcomp': {'ine'}, 'dobj': {'relations'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of', 'between'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'scores', 'assessments'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nmod': {'criterion'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'considered'}, 'amod': {'concurrent'}} Long High Low
1642 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The difficulty and discrimination for each item in the MVKR2 were examined under the classical test theory (Table 3) 20 9 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'each'}, 'nsubjpass': {'difficulty'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'discrimination'}, 'prep': {'under', 'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'theory', 'MVKR2', 'item'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'amod': {'classical'}, 'compound': {'test'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'Table'}, 'nummod': {'3'}} Long High Low
1643 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge All items on the MVKR2 except Antinomy i tem 4 (.83) fell within the ideal difficulty range of .30 to .80 (Wainer & Thissen, 2001) 25 9 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, SCONJ, PROPN, PRON, VERB, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'All', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'items', 'fell'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to', 'except', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'range', 'Wainer', 'MVKR2', '.30', '.80', 'Antinomy'}, 'nsubj': {'i'}, 'parataxis': {'tem'}, 'dobj': {'4'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'.83'}, 'amod': {'ideal'}, 'compound': {'difficulty'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Thissen'}, 'npadvmod': {'2001'}} Long High Medium
1644 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The most difficult item was Antithesis 4 with a difficulty index of .31 13 6 {'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 2} [DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PROPN, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'advmod': {'most'}, 'amod': {'difficult'}, 'nsubj': {'item'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'Antithesis'}, 'nummod': {'4'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'compound': {'difficulty'}, 'pobj': {'index', '.31'}} Medium High Low
1645 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Further , the MVKR2 items revealed a relatively balanced distribution in terms of difficulty level 15 5 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'relatively', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'MVKR2', 'difficulty'}, 'nsubj': {'items'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'amod': {'balanced'}, 'dobj': {'distribution'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'level', 'terms'}} Medium High Low
1646 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Ten items were judged as difficult ( .30-.50), 12 as moderately difficult (.50- .70), and 10 as easy items (.70-.83) 20 6 {'NUM': 4, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'Ten'}, 'nsubjpass': {'items'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'judged'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'amod': {'difficult', 'easy'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'.30-.50', '.70', '12', '.70-.83'}, 'advmod': {'moderately'}, 'cc': {'and', '.50-'}, 'conj': {'10'}, 'pobj': {'items'}} Long High Low
1647 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge This index represents the correlation between respondents’ performance on a given item and the scale score 16 7 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'index'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'dobj': {'correlation'}, 'prep': {'on', 'between'}, 'poss': {'respondents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'item'}, 'amod': {'given'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'scale'}, 'conj': {'score'}} Medium High Low
1648 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge A high value indicates that respondents’ performance on that item well reflects their overall ability as represented by their performance on the entire scale 24 11 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'entire', 'high', 'overall'}, 'nsubj': {'performance', 'value'}, 'ROOT': {'indicates'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'poss': {'respondents', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'scale', 'item'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'ccomp': {'reflects'}, 'dobj': {'ability'}, 'acl': {'represented'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High High
1649 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The discrimination values of the 32 MVKR2 items ranged from .26 to .58 with a median of .42 18 8 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'discrimination', 'MVKR2'}, 'nsubj': {'values'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'nummod': {'32'}, 'pobj': {'.58', '.42', 'items', 'median', '.26'}, 'ROOT': {'ranged'}} Medium High Low
1650 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In practice, items with values of .10 or above could be classified as acceptable, .10 -.30 as fair, and above .30 as good, in discriminating between high- ability and low -ability test takers (University of Washington, 2021) 37 16 {'ADP': 10, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NUM, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'In', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'.10', 'ability', 'values', 'Washington', '.30', 'practice'}, 'punct': {',', ')', '(', '-.30'}, 'nsubjpass': {'items'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'takers', 'above'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'classified'}, 'amod': {'good', 'acceptable', 'fair', 'low'}, 'nummod': {'.10'}, 'pcomp': {'discriminating'}, 'compound': {'test', 'high-', '-ability'}, 'appos': {'University', '2021'}} Long High Low
1651 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge All items on the MVKR2 had discrimination values over .10, with 27 items over .30, which means that most MVKR2 items could well differentiate between those respondents with deeper and shallower vocabulary knowledge 33 16 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'All', 'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'items', 'which'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'between', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'.10', 'items', 'knowledge', 'MVKR2', '.30', 'respondents'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'compound': {'discrimination', 'MVKR2'}, 'dobj': {'values'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'27'}, 'relcl': {'means'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'most', 'deeper', 'vocabulary'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'ccomp': {'differentiate'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'shallower'}} Long High Medium
1652 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Factor Structure.T he overall factor structure of the MVKR2 was examined by a series of confirmatory item factor analyses 19 7 {'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'compound': {'Factor', 'factor', 'item'}, 'ROOT': {'Structure', 'examined'}, 'punct': {'.'}, 'npadvmod': {'T'}, 'nmod': {'he'}, 'amod': {'overall', 'confirmatory'}, 'nsubjpass': {'structure'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'series', 'MVKR2', 'factor'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'conj': {'analyses'}} Medium High Low
1653 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The overarching goal of the factor analyses was to examine the dimensionality of word relational knowledge assessed by the MVKR2 20 9 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'word', 'overarching', 'relational', 'factor'}, 'nsubj': {'goal'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'analyses', 'MVKR2'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'examine'}, 'dobj': {'dimensionality'}, 'acl': {'assessed'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
1654 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In other words, the factor analyses would provide evidence to support whether word relational knowledge, as assessed by the MVKR2, should be better considered as a unidimensional construct or a multidimensional construct.C onsistent with the previous psychometric works on relational 40 18 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'as', 'In', 'with'}, 'amod': {'psychometric', 'multidimensional', 'other', 'unidimensional', 'previous'}, 'pobj': {'construct', 'works', 'MVKR2', 'relational', 'words'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'det': {'whether', 'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'word', 'factor', 'C', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'analyses'}, 'aux': {'would', 'should', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'onsistent', 'provide'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'evidence'}, 'advcl': {'assessed', 'support'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'better'}, 'conj': {'considered', 'construct'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High High
1655 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 22 reasoning (Alexander , Dumas, et al., 2016; Alexander, Singer, et al., 2016; Dumas & Alexander, 2016; Zhao et al., 2021 ), we tested a unidimensional model (Model A) and a multidimensional model (Model B) 35 5 {'NUM': 5, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 18, 'PROPN': 20, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'22'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'we'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'al', '.', 'B', 'Dumas', 'et', 'A', 'Alexander', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'Dumas', 'et', 'Zhao', '2016'}, 'conj': {'model', 'Singer', '.', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'ROOT': {'tested'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'unidimensional', 'multidimensional'}, 'dobj': {'model'}, 'compound': {'Model'}} Long Low Low
1656 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Model A was a one- factor, unidimensional model in which a general latent factor, word relational knowledge , explained the relations among all the 32 items 26 10 {'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, NUM, NOUN] {'compound': {'Model', 'latent', 'word', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'A', 'factor'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'one-', 'unidimensional', 'general'}, 'attr': {'factor'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'knowledge', 'model'}, 'prep': {'among', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'items'}, 'relcl': {'explained'}, 'dobj': {'relations'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'nummod': {'32'}} Long High Low
1657 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge We further tested a higher -order model (Model B) in which we modeled four latent factors each representing word relational knowledge of a specific higher -order relation as well as an overarching higher - order factor to account for any resulting association among them 44 19 {'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON] {'nsubj': {'We', 'we'}, 'advmod': {'further', 'as', 'well'}, 'ROOT': {'tested'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'each', 'any'}, 'amod': {'overarching', 'specific', 'representing', 'resulting', 'relational', 'higher'}, 'compound': {'order', 'latent', '-order', 'word', 'Model'}, 'dobj': {'model', 'factors'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'appos': {'knowledge', 'B'}, 'prep': {'for', 'among', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'association', 'them', 'relation'}, 'relcl': {'account', 'modeled'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'conj': {'factor'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Low
1658 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge If ModelB was found to fit the data better than Model A, it would provide one piece of evidence supporting the multidimensional hypothesis 23 11 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ModelB'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'found'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'fit'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'hypothesis', 'data', 'piece'}, 'advmod': {'better'}, 'prep': {'than', 'of'}, 'compound': {'Model'}, 'pobj': {'A', 'evidence'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'provide'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'acl': {'supporting'}, 'amod': {'multidimensional'}} Long High Medium
1659 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge We further included a bifactor model (Model C) as a source of triangulation to gain validity of the findings 19 9 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'advmod': {'further'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'bifactor', 'Model'}, 'dobj': {'model', 'validity'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'C'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'findings', 'source', 'triangulation'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'gain'}} Medium High Low
1660 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Bifactor models usually include a general factor explaining the shared variances among all the individual items as in unidimensional models (i.e., word relational knowledge ) 25 7 {'NOUN': 8, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'X': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Bifactor', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'models'}, 'advmod': {'usually', 'i.e.'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'shared', 'unidimensional', 'general'}, 'dobj': {'variances', 'factor'}, 'acl': {'explaining'}, 'prep': {'as', 'among', 'in'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'models'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nmod': {'word'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}} Long High Low
1661 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge They also include specific grouping factors (i.e., MVKR2 Analogy, MVKR2 Anomaly, MVKR2 Antinomy, MVKR2 Antithesis ), which are usually set to be orthogonal to each other as well as to the general factor, to explain the shared variances among subsets of items over and above the ge neral factor 49 22 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 8, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They'}, 'advmod': {'usually', 'also', 'i.e.', 'well', 'as'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'grouping', 'specific', 'general'}, 'dobj': {'variances', 'factors'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'neral', 'MVKR2', 'ge'}, 'appos': {'Analogy', 'Antithesis'}, 'conj': {'Anomaly', 'above', 'Antinomy'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'set', 'explain'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'orthogonal'}, 'prep': {'of', 'to', 'among', 'over'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'pobj': {'other', 'factor', 'items', 'subsets'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}} Long High Low
1662 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Bifactor models are commonly used as dimensionality tests in psychometric analys es (Rodriguez et al., 2016 ; Zhao et al., 2022) 22 4 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, X, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Rodriguez', 'dimensionality', 'Bifactor', 'et'}, 'nsubjpass': {'models'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'commonly'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'tests', 'analys'}, 'amod': {'psychometric'}, 'dep': {'es'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Zhao', 'al', '.'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', 'et', '2022', '2016'}} Long High Low
1663 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge If the shared variance explained by the general factor is found to be large enough, the scale can be considered unidimensional (Hoffmann et al., 2021; Rodriguez et al., 2016), even if the bifactor model or other multidimensional models yield accept able model fit 43 16 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 7, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, X, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ] {'mark': {'if', 'If'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'multidimensional', 'other', 'able', 'general'}, 'nsubj': {'Rodriguez', 'model', 'variance'}, 'advcl': {'yield', 'explained'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'factor'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'ccomp': {'considered', 'found'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'large'}, 'advmod': {'even', 'enough'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'scale'}, 'oprd': {'unidimensional', '.', 'al'}, 'compound': {'bifactor', 'Hoffmann', 'model', 'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'al', '.', '2016'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'models'}, 'ROOT': {'accept'}, 'dobj': {'fit'}} Long High High
1664 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The confirmatory item factor analyses were conducted in Mplus 8.0 ( Muthén & Muthén , 2017) , with each item score declared as binary categorical variable 26 6 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'each'}, 'amod': {'binary', 'categorical', 'confirmatory'}, 'compound': {'factor', 'item'}, 'nsubjpass': {'analyses'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'conducted'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'variable', 'Mplus'}, 'nummod': {'8.0'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2017', 'Muthén'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Muthén'}, 'mark': {'with'}, 'nsubj': {'score'}, 'advcl': {'declared'}} Long High Medium
1665 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge We fit the three models with the weighted least squares mean and variance adjusted estimator (WLSMV), which is a robust 20 10 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'which', 'squares', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'fit'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'dobj': {'models'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'poss': {'weighted'}, 'advmod': {'least'}, 'case': {'mean'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'variance'}, 'amod': {'adjusted'}, 'pobj': {'estimator'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'WLSMV'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'robust'}} Long High Low
1666 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 23 estimator for modeling categorical or ordered data (Brown, 2006; Proitsi et al., 20 11) 15 2 {'NUM': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 5} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'20', '23'}, 'ROOT': {'estimator'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'amod': {'modeling', 'categorical'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'ordered'}, 'pobj': {'data'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '11', 'Proitsi', 'Brown'}, 'npadvmod': {'et', '2006'}} Medium Low Low
1667 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In selecting the best -fitting model, we considered comparative fit index ( CFI) ≥ .90, Tucker –Lewis index TLI ≥ .90, root -mean -square error of approximation ( RMSEA ) ≤ .08, and standardized root-mean -square residual ( SRMR) ≤ .10 as acceptable model fit (Hau et al., 2004) 49 6 {'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 15, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 12, 'NUM': 5, 'X': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, X, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, X, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'as', 'In', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'selecting'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'standardized', 'best', '-square', 'fit', 'residual', 'comparative', 'acceptable'}, 'compound': {'-fitting', '-mean', 'index', 'model', 'Lewis'}, 'dobj': {'model'}, 'punct': {'–', '-', ')', '(', 'et', ','}, 'nsubj': {'error', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'oprd': {'index'}, 'nmod': {'root', '-square', 'SRMR', 'Tucker', 'mean', 'CFI'}, 'appos': {'RMSEA', '2004', '≥', 'Hau'}, 'nummod': {'.90'}, 'conj': {'≤', 'TLI', 'al', '.'}, 'pobj': {'fit', 'approximation'}, 'ccomp': {'≤'}, 'attr': {'.08'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'.10'}} Long Low Low
1668 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The results suggest that Model A fit the data poorly, yet ModelB andC both had acceptable fit 17 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADJ, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'A', 'results', 'both'}, 'ROOT': {'suggest', 'had'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'Model'}, 'ccomp': {'fit'}, 'dobj': {'fit', 'data'}, 'advmod': {'poorly', 'andC'}, 'punct': {',', 'ModelB'}, 'cc': {'yet'}, 'amod': {'acceptable'}} Medium High Medium
1669 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Moreover, the explained common variance (ECV) of the general factor in ModelC did not exceed the criterion value (0.7), suggesting that the one general factor could not explain enough shared variance among all the MVKR2 items 36 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, PROPN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'common', 'enough', 'explained', 'general'}, 'nsubj': {'factor', 'variance'}, 'appos': {'ECV', '0.7'}, 'prep': {'among', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'ModelC', 'factor'}, 'aux': {'did', 'could'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'exceed'}, 'compound': {'MVKR2', 'criterion'}, 'dobj': {'value', 'variance'}, 'advcl': {'suggesting'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'ccomp': {'explain'}, 'predet': {'all'}} Long High Medium
1670 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Taken together, these results suggest that word knowledge as measured by MVKR2 should not be considered simply as a unidimensional construct, but better as a multidimensional construct with four dimensions capturing the knowledge of specific word relations and one overarching dimension of word knowledge accounting for the association among these dimensions, which aligns with the higher- order model (Model B) 61 27 {'VERB': 7, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 17, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 9, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 3, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Taken'}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'together'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'results'}, 'ROOT': {'suggest'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'compound': {'order', 'overarching', 'word', 'knowledge', 'Model'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'acl': {'capturing', 'measured'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'dimensions', 'relations', 'accounting', 'construct', 'MVKR2', 'model', 'association'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'considered'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'among', 'for', 'as'}, 'amod': {'unidimensional', 'specific', 'multidimensional'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'dimension', 'better'}, 'nummod': {'four', 'one', 'higher-'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'relcl': {'aligns'}, 'appos': {'B'}} Long High High
1671 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Details of model specification and comparisons can be found in Supplemental Materials 13 5 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN] {'nsubjpass': {'Details'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'Supplemental', 'model'}, 'pobj': {'specification', 'Materials'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'comparisons'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}} Medium High Low
1672 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge An examination of dimensionality based on the tested bifactor model was also included in Supplemental Materials (i.e., calculation of thee xplained common variance ) 24 8 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'An', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'examination'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'thee', 'model', 'dimensionality', 'Materials'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'amod': {'tested', 'xplained', 'common'}, 'compound': {'bifactor', 'Supplemental'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'calculation'}, 'appos': {'variance'}} Long High Low
1673 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Generalization Inference The internal consistency reliability of the four scale factors of the MVKR 2 were represented by the McDonald’s ω ( McDonald, 1985, 1999) 26 10 {'PROPN': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 4} [PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PART, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Generalization', 'consistency', 'scale', 'MVKR'}, 'ROOT': {'represented', 'Inference'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'internal'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reliability'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'nummod': {'four', '1999'}, 'pobj': {'McDonald', '2', 'factors'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nmod': {'McDonald', 'ω'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1985'}} Long High Low
1674 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The higher -order model (Model B) was selected as the measurement model for calculating omega for the four scale factors 20 8 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'higher'}, 'compound': {'Model', 'scale', '-order', 'measurement'}, 'nsubjpass': {'model'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'B'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'selected'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'model', 'factors'}, 'pcomp': {'calculating'}, 'dobj': {'omega'}, 'nummod': {'four'}} Long High Low
1675 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The omega coefficients for the Analogy, Anomaly, Antinomy, and Antithesis scales were ω=.91, .92, .94, and .93, respectively 18 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, PUNCT, ADV] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'omega', 'Antithesis'}, 'nsubj': {'coefficients'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'Analogy'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'scales', '.93', 'Anomaly', 'Antinomy'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'ω=.91'}, 'appos': {'.92', '.94'}, 'advmod': {'respectively'}} Medium High Low
1676 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge We also calculated the internal consistent reliability for the entire test based on the bifactor model (Model C) 18 7 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'calculated'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'entire', 'consistent', 'internal'}, 'dobj': {'reliability'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'model', 'test'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'compound': {'bifactor', 'Model'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'C'}} Medium High Low
1677 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 24 which can parse out the variability attributable to subfactors and calculates reliability for a general factor that applies to all items, and is thus recommended for bifactor models ( Cho, 2022; McNeish, 201 8) 35 15 {'NUM': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [NUM, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NUM] {'dep': {'24'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'applies', 'parse'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'reliability', 'variability'}, 'amod': {'attributable', 'general'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'factor', 'models', 'subfactors'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'recommended', 'calculates'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '('}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'thus'}, 'compound': {'bifactor'}, 'appos': {'201', 'Cho', '8)'}, 'npadvmod': {'2022'}, 'ROOT': {'McNeish'}} Long High Low
1678 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Extrapolation Inference Convergent and concurrent validity of MVKR2 were examined through correlations 13 4 {'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'Extrapolation', 'Inference'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Convergent'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'concurrent'}, 'conj': {'validity'}, 'prep': {'through', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'MVKR2', 'correlations'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}} Medium High Low
1679 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Correlations indicated that MVKR2 had moderate to strong correlations with all the other three measures ( .42≤r≤.70, ps <.001; Table 4) 21 8 {'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'X': 1} [NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PROPN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, X, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'MVKR2', 'Correlations'}, 'ROOT': {'indicated'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'ccomp': {'moderate'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to'}, 'amod': {'other', 'strong'}, 'pobj': {'measures', 'correlations'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'4', 'three'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ',', ';', '.001'}, 'appos': {'.42≤r≤.70', 'Table'}, 'npadvmod': {'ps'}, 'dep': {'<'}} Long High Medium
1680 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Thus, performance on the MVKR2 converged with performance on assessments of fluid relational reasoning (i.e., TORR) and vocabulary knowledge (i.e., SATV) , and also predicted performance on a distal yet important academic domain (i.e., math performance ) 37 12 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 11, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'X': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'i.e.', 'also'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'performance'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'assessments', 'reasoning', 'MVKR2', 'domain', 'performance'}, 'ROOT': {'converged'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'important', 'fluid', 'vocabulary'}, 'compound': {'math', 'relational'}, 'appos': {'performance', 'SATV', 'TORR'}, 'cc': {'and', 'yet'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'predicted'}, 'dobj': {'performance'}, 'nmod': {'distal'}} Long High Low
1681 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Take together, these results provided empirical evidence to the criterion -based validity of the MVKR2 15 7 {'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [VERB, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'advcl': {'Take'}, 'advmod': {'together'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'results'}, 'ROOT': {'provided'}, 'amod': {'-based', 'empirical'}, 'dobj': {'evidence'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'npadvmod': {'criterion'}, 'pobj': {'MVKR2', 'validity'}} Medium High Low
1682 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Phase III: Unique Contributions of Fluid Relational Reasoning and Vocabulary Knowledge The second research question guiding this study asked about the unique contributions of fluid relational reasoning ability and vocabulary knowledge to participants’ performance on the MVKR2 37 11 {'PROPN': 10, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'compound': {'Relational', 'Unique', 'Phase', 'reasoning', 'Vocabulary', 'Fluid', 'research'}, 'ROOT': {'asked', 'III'}, 'punct': {'’', ':'}, 'appos': {'Contributions'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Reasoning', 'ability', 'MVKR2', 'contributions', 'performance'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Knowledge', 'knowledge'}, 'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'second', 'relational', 'unique', 'fluid', 'vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'question'}, 'acl': {'guiding'}, 'dobj': {'study'}, 'nmod': {'participants'}} Long High Low
1683 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge To address this question, we examined those contributions of vocabulary knowledge and fluid relational reasoning ability at the test, scale, and item levels 24 9 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'address'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'levels', 'contributions', 'question'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'amod': {'fluid', 'vocabulary'}, 'nmod': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'scale', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'item'}, 'pobj': {'ability', 'test'}} Long High Low
1684 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Test-Level Examination An SEM analysis using Mplus 8.0 indicated an acceptable fit for the model that examin ed the contributions of fluid relational reasoning ability and vocabulary knowledge to word relational knowledge on the test level (Figure 6 ; 𝜒𝜒2 = 2140.44, df = 2005,p = .018; RMSEA = .01, RMSEA 90%C.I 52 12 {'NOUN': 21, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 6, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SYM': 3} [NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, DET, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, NUM, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN] {'compound': {'RMSEA', 'SEM', 'examin', 'reasoning', 'Level', 'Test', 'test'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', ',', ';', '.018', '='}, 'npadvmod': {'df', 'Examination'}, 'det': {'An', 'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'analysis', 'that', 'contributions'}, 'acl': {'using'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'fit', 'Mplus'}, 'nummod': {'6', '8.0'}, 'ROOT': {'indicated'}, 'amod': {'vocabulary', 'acceptable', 'fluid', 'relational'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', '=', 'for', 'ed'}, 'pobj': {'level', 'model', 'ability'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'knowledge'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'word'}, 'appos': {'Figure', '90%C.I', '2005,p', '.01', '𝜒𝜒2', '2140.44'}, 'dep': {'RMSEA', '='}} Long High Low
1685 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge = [.007, .019 ]; CFI = .96; TLI = .95; SRMR = .09) 14 0 {'PRON': 1, 'X': 2, 'NUM': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 5} [PRON, X, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, X, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'punct': {'.007', ')', ']', ',', '.019', ';', '='}, 'dep': {'['}, 'nsubj': {'CFI'}, 'appos': {'.09', '.95', '=', 'TLI', '.96'}, 'ROOT': {'SRMR'}} Medium Low Low
1686 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Latent word relational knowledge was modeled by the MVKR2 items following the higher -order factor structure (Model B) 19 4 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Latent', 'higher'}, 'nmod': {'word'}, 'compound': {'-order', 'MVKR2', 'factor', 'relational', 'Model'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'modeled'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'structure'}, 'acl': {'following'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'B'}} Medium High Low
1687 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 25 items following a higher- order factor structure (Alexander, Dumas, et al., 2016) 13 1 {'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 5} [NUM, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'25', 'higher-'}, 'ROOT': {'items'}, 'acl': {'following'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'order', 'factor'}, 'pobj': {'structure'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Alexander', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'Dumas', 'et'}} Medium Low Low
1688 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The word relational knowledge factor was further regressed on fluid relational reasoning and SAT Verbal total score 17 5 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nmod': {'word'}, 'compound': {'SAT', 'knowledge', 'relational'}, 'nsubjpass': {'factor'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'further'}, 'ROOT': {'regressed'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'amod': {'total', 'Verbal', 'fluid', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'score'}} Medium High Low
1689 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Vocabulary knowledge and fluid relational reasoning uniquely and significantly contributed to word relational knowledge (path coefficients = .61, .36, ps<.001) 20 3 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PART, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'amod': {'relational', 'Vocabulary'}, 'nmod': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'fluid', 'contributed', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'advmod': {'significantly', 'uniquely'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'word'}, 'appos': {'knowledge', '.36', 'ps<.001'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '='}, 'compound': {'path'}, 'ROOT': {'coefficients'}, 'dep': {'.61'}} Long High Low
1690 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge This implies that 37.21% and 12.96% of the variance in word relational knowledge is explained by vocabulary knowledge and fluid relational reasoning ability, respectively 24 9 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV] {'nsubj': {'This'}, 'ROOT': {'implies'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nummod': {'37.21', '12.96'}, 'nsubjpass': {'%'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'%', 'fluid'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'ability', 'variance'}, 'nmod': {'knowledge', 'word'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'relational'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'explained'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'vocabulary'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'respectively'}} Long High Medium
1691 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The test -level exam ination confirmed that performance on the MVKR2 depends on vocabulary knowledge and fluid relational reasoning with vocabulary knowledge emerging as the stronger predictor for college students 30 10 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'-level', 'exam', 'test', 'college'}, 'nsubj': {'performance', 'ination'}, 'ROOT': {'confirmed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'knowledge', 'MVKR2', 'predictor'}, 'ccomp': {'depends'}, 'amod': {'stronger', 'fluid', 'vocabulary'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reasoning', 'relational'}, 'advcl': {'emerging'}} Long High Medium
1692 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Scale -Level Examination The scale -level examination aimed to assess the unique contributions of latent fluid relational reasoning and latent vocabulary knowledge to each scale of MVKR2 27 8 {'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN] {'compound': {'-Level', 'relational', '-level', 'scale', 'Scale'}, 'ROOT': {'examination', 'Examination'}, 'det': {'The', 'the', 'each'}, 'acl': {'aimed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'assess'}, 'amod': {'unique', 'fluid', 'vocabulary'}, 'dobj': {'contributions'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'nmod': {'reasoning', 'latent'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'latent'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'scale', 'MVKR2'}} Long High Low
1693 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge A structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis in Mplus 8.0 with maximum likelihood estimation was performed , loading TORR scale scores on the relational reasoning factor only, SAT verbal total score on the vocabulary knowledge factor only, and MVKR2 scale scores on both factors (Figure 7) 45 13 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 16, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'A', 'both', 'the'}, 'amod': {'total', 'maximum', 'structural', 'relational', 'vocabulary', 'verbal'}, 'compound': {'TORR', 'equation', 'knowledge', 'reasoning', 'MVKR2', 'likelihood', 'scale'}, 'nmod': {'SAT', 'modeling', 'SEM'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'analysis'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'factors', 'estimation', 'Mplus', 'factor'}, 'nummod': {'8.0', '7'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'performed'}, 'advcl': {'loading'}, 'dobj': {'scores'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'appos': {'Figure', 'score'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'scores'}} Long High Low
1694 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Model fit indices ( 𝜒𝜒2 = 51.65, df = 24,p = .001; RMSEA = .06, RMSEA 90%C.I 17 0 {'PROPN': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SYM': 3, 'NUM': 3} [PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN] {'nmod': {'Model'}, 'amod': {'fit'}, 'nsubj': {'indices'}, 'punct': {'(', '24,p', ',', ';', '.001', '='}, 'appos': {'RMSEA', '90%C.I', '.06', '51.65', '𝜒𝜒2'}, 'npadvmod': {'df'}, 'ROOT': {'='}, 'dobj': {'='}, 'compound': {'RMSEA'}} Medium Low Low
1695 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge = [.0 36, .080] ; CFI = .97, TLI = .95, SRMR = .06) indicated an acceptable fit 18 1 {'PRON': 2, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 1} [PRON, X, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PRON, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'dep': {'='}, 'punct': {')', ']', ',', ';', '=', '['}, 'pobj': {'.0'}, 'nummod': {'36'}, 'npadvmod': {'.080'}, 'nsubj': {'CFI'}, 'appos': {'.95', '.06', '.97', 'SRMR', 'TLI'}, 'ROOT': {'indicated'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'acceptable'}, 'dobj': {'fit'}} Medium Low Low
1696 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge All TORR scales loaded significantly on the relational reasoning factor, as did the SAT Verbal total score on the vocabulary knowledge factor 22 8 {'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'All', 'the'}, 'compound': {'SAT', 'knowledge', 'reasoning', 'TORR'}, 'nsubj': {'scales', 'score'}, 'acl': {'loaded'}, 'advmod': {'significantly'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'amod': {'total', 'vocabulary', 'Verbal', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'factor'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'ROOT': {'did'}} Long High Medium
1697 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge MVKR2 scales showed significant loadings on the vocabulary knowledge factor, with Analogy and Antinomy also loading on the relational reasoning factor 21 7 {'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'knowledge', 'reasoning', 'MVKR2'}, 'nsubj': {'Analogy', 'scales'}, 'ROOT': {'showed'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'relational', 'vocabulary'}, 'dobj': {'loadings'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'factor'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Antinomy'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'pcomp': {'loading'}} Long High Low
1698 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Variances explained by relational reasoning for the Analogy, Anomaly, Antinomy, Antithesis scales of the MVKR 2 were 1.74%, 0.48%, 6.40%, and 1.66% , whereasv ocabulary knowledge explained 36.70%, 48.70%, 19.98%, and 33.99% of variances 34 9 {'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NUM': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, AUX, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'Variances'}, 'ccomp': {'explained', 'were'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'whereasv', 'ocabulary', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'scales', 'variances', 'reasoning', 'MVKR'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'Analogy'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'%', 'Anomaly', 'Antinomy'}, 'compound': {'Antithesis'}, 'nummod': {'36.70', '48.70', '2', '1.74', '6.40', '19.98', '1.66', '33.99', '0.48'}, 'attr': {'%'}, 'appos': {'%'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'explained'}, 'dobj': {'%'}} Long High Low
1699 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 26 relational reasoning and vocabulary knowledge factors was moderate (r = .44,p < .001) 14 2 {'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'X': 2} [NUM, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, X, NOUN, X, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'26'}, 'amod': {'vocabulary', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'conj': {'factors'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'moderate'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '.44,p', '.001', '='}, 'dep': {'r', '<'}} Medium Low Low
1700 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The results suggest that individual differences in vocabulary knowledge were still the driving force in explaining the variability of performance on the MVKR2 compared to fluid relational reasoning , yet relational reasoning did not contribute to the performance on the Anomaly and Antithesis scales MVKR2 to the same extent as the Analogy and Antinomy scales 56 26 {'DET': 8, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'results', 'reasoning', 'differences'}, 'ROOT': {'suggest'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'same', 'relational', 'driving', 'fluid', 'vocabulary'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'compared', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Anomaly', 'knowledge', 'reasoning', 'extent', 'MVKR2', 'performance'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'still'}, 'attr': {'force'}, 'pcomp': {'explaining'}, 'dobj': {'MVKR2', 'variability'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and', 'yet'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'scales', 'contribute', 'Antithesis', 'Antinomy'}, 'nmod': {'Analogy'}, 'advcl': {'scales'}} Long High High
1701 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Item -Level Examination The item- level examination aimed to discern the contributions of fluid relational reasoning and vocabulary knowledge on MVKR2 item performance 23 6 {'NOUN': 10, 'PROPN': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'Item', 'item', 'MVKR2', 'relational', 'level', 'item-'}, 'ROOT': {'-Level'}, 'appos': {'examination', 'Examination'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'acl': {'aimed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'discern'}, 'dobj': {'contributions'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'amod': {'fluid', 'vocabulary'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'reasoning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'knowledge'}} Long High Low
1702 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Using four two -dimensional IRT models, each representing a form of relational reasoning, data were analyzed with the WLSMV estimator in Mplus 8.0 23 10 {'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, NUM, NUM, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM] {'advcl': {'Using'}, 'nummod': {'two', 'four', '8.0'}, 'amod': {'-dimensional', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'WLSMV', 'IRT'}, 'dobj': {'models', 'form'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'each'}, 'acl': {'representing'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Mplus', 'reasoning', 'estimator'}, 'nsubjpass': {'data'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'analyzed'}} Long High Low
1703 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Items from Analogy, Anomaly, and Antithesis scales were loaded on correlated relational reasoning and vocabulary knowledge factors, while for the Antinomy scale , the correlation between these two factors were fixed at a value of 0.5 due to convergence issues 40 18 {'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Items', 'correlation'}, 'prep': {'on', 'due', 'from', 'for', 'of', 'at', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'0.5', 'value', 'issues', 'factors', 'Analogy', 'scale'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'scales', 'Anomaly', 'vocabulary'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'convergence', 'Antithesis', 'Antinomy'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'loaded'}, 'amod': {'correlated', 'relational'}, 'nmod': {'reasoning'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'advcl': {'fixed'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}} Long High Medium
1704 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Most TORR and all SAT Verbal items loaded exclusively on fluid relational reasoning and vocabulary knowledge factors, respectively 18 5 {'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADJ, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV] {'amod': {'Most', 'fluid', 'relational', 'Verbal'}, 'ROOT': {'TORR'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'all'}, 'compound': {'SAT', 'knowledge'}, 'conj': {'items', 'vocabulary'}, 'acl': {'loaded'}, 'advmod': {'respectively', 'exclusively'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'nmod': {'reasoning'}, 'pobj': {'factors'}, 'punct': {','}} Medium High Low
1705 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The standardized item -factor loadings indicated that vocabulary knowledge predominantly contributed to MVKR2 performance, with all items in Analogy, Anomaly, and Antinomy scales significantly loaded on the vocabulary knowledge factor 30 9 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PROPN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'all', 'The', 'the', 'that'}, 'amod': {'standardized', 'vocabulary'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'MVKR2', 'item', '-factor', 'Antinomy'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'loadings'}, 'ROOT': {'indicated'}, 'advmod': {'predominantly', 'significantly'}, 'ccomp': {'contributed'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'performance', 'factor', 'Analogy'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'scales', 'Anomaly'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'acl': {'loaded'}} Long High Medium
1706 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge In contrast, fluid relational reasoning only significantly contributed to the Antithesis scale 12 4 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'contrast', 'scale'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'fluid'}, 'compound': {'Antithesis', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'significantly'}, 'ROOT': {'contributed'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
1707 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge See details of model specification and factor loading details in Supplemental Materials 13 4 {'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN] {'ROOT': {'See'}, 'dobj': {'details'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'loading', 'Supplemental', 'model'}, 'pobj': {'specification', 'Materials'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'details', 'factor'}} Medium High Low
1708 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Despite earli er findings at test- and scale -levels supporting the importance of relational reasoning, the item -level examination revealed that relational reasoning played a significant role only in the Antithesis scale, potentially influenced by its distinct configuration in that it is the only scale that explicitly asked participants first to identify the continuum represented by two opposite words presented 60 24 {'SCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'INTJ': 1, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 8, 'DET': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, INTJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADV, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'at', 'of', 'Despite', 'in'}, 'amod': {'only', 'opposite', 'significant', 'distinct', 'relational', 'earli'}, 'intj': {'er'}, 'pobj': {'-levels', 'configuration', 'findings', 'reasoning', 'words', 'scale'}, 'nummod': {'two', 'test-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'scale'}, 'acl': {'represented', 'supporting'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'continuum', 'importance', 'participants'}, 'compound': {'-level', 'item', 'Antithesis', 'relational'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'examination', 'reasoning', 'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'mark': {'that', 'in'}, 'ccomp': {'played', 'presented'}, 'advmod': {'potentially', 'only', 'explicitly', 'first'}, 'advcl': {'influenced', 'is'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'attr': {'scale'}, 'relcl': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}} Long High High
1709 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge It is possible that the added construction component to the antithesis items increased the amount of relational reasoning required for this set of items over those in the other scales 30 17 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 6} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'component', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'possible'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'other', 'added', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'construction', 'antithesis'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'set', 'those', 'items', 'reasoning', 'scales'}, 'ccomp': {'increased'}, 'dobj': {'amount'}, 'acl': {'required'}} Long High Medium
1710 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Conclusions and Implications Before revisiting the findings of the current study, there are particular limitations to the present investigation that must be acknowledged 23 12 {'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'dep': {'Conclusions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Implications'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'Before'}, 'pcomp': {'revisiting'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'findings'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'present', 'current'}, 'pobj': {'investigation', 'study'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'limitations'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'acknowledged'}} Long High Low
1711 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Limitations Restricted by available resources in recruiting thousands of participants, this study collected a sample of 338 participants 18 6 {'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN] {'dep': {'Limitations'}, 'acl': {'Restricted'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'available'}, 'pobj': {'resources', 'participants'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'recruiting'}, 'dobj': {'sample', 'thousands'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'study'}, 'ROOT': {'collected'}, 'nummod': {'338'}} Medium High Low
1712 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Although this sample size allowed for valid statistical inferences for most of the analyses reported in this manuscript, the relati vely small sample size could have affected analyses and findings in two ways 33 15 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'sample'}, 'nsubj': {'relati', 'size'}, 'advcl': {'allowed'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'valid', 'statistical', 'small'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'analyses', 'most', 'inferences', 'manuscript'}, 'acl': {'reported'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'vely'}, 'appos': {'size'}, 'aux': {'could', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'affected'}, 'dobj': {'analyses'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'findings'}, 'nummod': {'two'}} Long High Medium
1713 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge For one, we were not able to calibrate the items in the MVKR 2 with accurate estimates for item discrimination, difficulty, and guessing parameters under a multidimensional IRT (MIRT) model 30 14 {'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'under', 'in', 'with', 'for', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'estimates', 'IRT', 'MVKR', 'discrimination', 'one'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'calibrate'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'items', 'parameters'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'amod': {'accurate', 'multidimensional'}, 'compound': {'item'}, 'conj': {'guessing', 'difficulty'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'model', 'MIRT'}} Long High Low
1714 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Although confirmatory item factor analyses were conducted, they should be considered as assessing the overall factor structure of the MVKR 2 rather than obtaining accurate item parameter estimations for calibration purpose 31 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NUM, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'amod': {'overall', 'accurate', 'confirmatory'}, 'compound': {'parameter', 'calibration', 'factor', 'item'}, 'nsubjpass': {'analyses', 'they'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'were'}, 'advcl': {'conducted'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'assessing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'structure', 'estimations'}, 'pobj': {'purpose', 'MVKR'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'conj': {'obtaining'}} Long High Medium
1715 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Contributions and Implications In their influential work, Nagy and Scott (2000) emphasized the interrelated nature of vocabulary, highlighting the limitations of existing assessments in capturing the nuances of individuals' knowledge of word relations 33 12 {'NOUN': 12, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'dep': {'Contributions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Implications', 'Scott'}, 'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'individuals', 'their'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'influential', 'interrelated'}, 'pobj': {'assessments', 'relations', 'knowledge', 'work', 'vocabulary'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Nagy'}, 'appos': {'2000'}, 'ROOT': {'emphasized'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'nuances', 'nature', 'limitations'}, 'advcl': {'highlighting'}, 'pcomp': {'capturing'}, 'case': {'''}, 'compound': {'word'}} Long High Low
1716 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge This study introduces a novel perspective by assessing vocabulary knowledge through relational reasoning, moving beyond isolated or context - dependent evaluations 21 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'study'}, 'ROOT': {'introduces'}, 'amod': {'isolated', 'novel', 'relational', 'vocabulary'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'perspective'}, 'prep': {'by', 'through', 'beyond'}, 'pcomp': {'assessing'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'evaluations'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advcl': {'moving'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'npadvmod': {'context'}, 'conj': {'dependent'}} Long High Low
1717 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 28 DRLRL, 2012b),t he Measure of Vocabulary Knowledge through Relational Reasoning (MVKR2) explores semantic relations among words within four higher -order relations 22 6 {'NUM': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [NUM, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'four', '28'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'DRLRL'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '2012b),t'}, 'appos': {'Measure', 'MVKR2'}, 'prep': {'through', 'within', 'among', 'of'}, 'compound': {'Relational', '-order', 'Vocabulary'}, 'pobj': {'Knowledge', 'relations', 'words', 'Reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'explores'}, 'amod': {'semantic', 'higher'}, 'dobj': {'relations'}} Long High Low
1718 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge A key innovation lies in the application of the relational reasoning framework to assess ing nuanced word meanings 18 6 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'amod': {'ing', 'nuanced', 'key', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'innovation'}, 'ROOT': {'lies'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'framework', 'application'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'word'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'assess'}, 'dobj': {'meanings'}} Medium High Low
1719 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Unlike traditional assessments, MVKR2 evaluates participants' understanding of semantic relations among words within complex networks 15 3 {'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'among', 'of', 'Unlike'}, 'amod': {'semantic', 'traditional', 'complex'}, 'pobj': {'assessments', 'relations', 'networks', 'words'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'MVKR2'}, 'ROOT': {'evaluates'}, 'poss': {'participants'}, 'case': {'''}, 'dobj': {'understanding'}} Medium High Low
1720 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge This unique approach uncovers in- depth knowledge by requiring individuals to compare meanings and analyze semantic relationships, reflecting the integration of their semantic network 24 7 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 5, 'X': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, X, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'semantic', 'unique', 'depth'}, 'nsubj': {'approach'}, 'ROOT': {'uncovers'}, 'dep': {'in-'}, 'dobj': {'relationships', 'integration', 'knowledge', 'meanings', 'individuals'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'requiring'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'compare'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'analyze'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'reflecting'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'network'}} Long High Low
1721 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Difficulty and discrimination analyses confirmed appropriate item difficulty and discrimination, enhancing the measure's robustness 14 4 {'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Difficulty'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'discrimination', 'item'}, 'conj': {'discrimination', 'analyses'}, 'ROOT': {'confirmed'}, 'amod': {'appropriate'}, 'dobj': {'robustness', 'difficulty'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'enhancing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'measure'}, 'case': {''s'}} Medium High Low
1722 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Examining the relative contributions of fluid relational reasoning and vocabulary knowledge to MVKR 2 performance, the study found that both factors operated in concert, but vocabulary knowledge generally played a more significant role 33 11 {'VERB': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2} [VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Examining'}, 'det': {'a', 'both', 'the'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'vocabulary', 'fluid', 'relative'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'contributions'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'relational'}, 'pobj': {'concert', 'performance', 'reasoning'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'played'}, 'nmod': {'MVKR'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'study', 'factors'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'operated'}, 'advmod': {'generally', 'more'}} Long High Medium
1723 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Scale - and item -level examinations revealed variations in the contribution of relational reasoning across scales 16 5 {'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nmod': {'Scale'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'item'}, 'conj': {'-level'}, 'nsubj': {'examinations'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'dobj': {'variations'}, 'prep': {'across', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'scales', 'contribution', 'reasoning'}, 'amod': {'relational'}} Medium High Low
1724 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The study's efforts to parse out the contributions of fluid relational reasoning and vocabulary knowledge at the item level offer a modeling approach with potential implications for scoring comprehensive measures like MVKR 2 that assess more than one construct 40 16 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NUM, VERB] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'poss': {'study'}, 'case': {''s'}, 'nsubj': {'efforts', 'that'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'parse'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'dobj': {'measures', 'approach', 'contributions', 'construct'}, 'prep': {'at', 'like', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'amod': {'comprehensive', 'potential', 'fluid', 'more', 'vocabulary'}, 'compound': {'modeling', 'item', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'level', 'implications', 'MVKR'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'knowledge'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'pcomp': {'scoring'}, 'nummod': {'one', '2'}, 'relcl': {'assess'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}} Long High Low
1725 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge This approach could provide researchers with two sets of scores reflecting students' fluid relational reasoning ab ility and vocabulary knowledge on the latent level through one administration of MVKR2, provided that item parameter estimates are obtained from calibration efforts based on the item -level model as forwarded by the current study. 51 19 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 20, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'approach'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ROOT': {'provide'}, 'dobj': {'ility', 'researchers'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'from', 'with', 'of', 'provided'}, 'nummod': {'two', 'one'}, 'pobj': {'administration', 'scores', 'sets', 'efforts', 'MVKR2', 'model', 'level', 'study'}, 'acl': {'based', 'reflecting'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'''}, 'amod': {'current', 'latent', 'fluid', 'vocabulary'}, 'nmod': {'relational'}, 'compound': {'ab', 'parameter', 'reasoning', 'calibration', 'item', '-level'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'knowledge'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'estimates'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'pcomp': {'obtained'}, 'advcl': {'forwarded'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
1726 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge 29 Looking ahead, future studies should investigate MVKR2’s predictive effect for linguistic tasks (e.g., reading comprehension) or for achievement in language -rich domains (e.g., reading, writing, literary studies, or history) 30 7 {'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [NUM, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PROPN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'meta': {'29'}, 'advcl': {'reading', 'Looking'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'ahead'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'future', 'literary', 'linguistic', 'predictive'}, 'nsubj': {'studies'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'investigate'}, 'poss': {'MVKR2'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'dobj': {'effect', 'comprehension'}, 'prep': {'for', 'e.g.', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'achievement', 'tasks', 'domains'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'studies', 'reading', 'history', 'writing', 'for'}, 'compound': {'-rich', 'language'}} Long High Low
1727 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge It is also critical toe xplore its effectiveness across diverse demographic groups and assess its equity through measurement invariance analyses 20 8 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'amod': {'diverse', 'demographic', 'critical'}, 'compound': {'toe', 'invariance', 'measurement'}, 'attr': {'effectiveness', 'xplore'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'prep': {'through', 'across'}, 'pobj': {'analyses', 'groups'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'assess'}, 'dobj': {'equity'}} Long High Low
1728 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Lastly, it seems worthwhile to explore whether the relational reasoning framework would also be effective in teaching new words to adolescents 21 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Lastly', 'also'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'framework', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'seems'}, 'oprd': {'worthwhile'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'explore'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'new', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'effective'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'teaching'}, 'dobj': {'words'}, 'pobj': {'adolescents'}} Long High Medium
1729 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge If the relational reasoning framework is as effective in vocabulary instruction as in the vocabulary assessment, teachers would observe an increase in students’ vocabulary learning outcome by juxtaposing the target word with some familiar words and highlightingt he similarity and difference in the word meanings based on the four forms of relational reasoning 53 24 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 20, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'some'}, 'amod': {'vocabulary', 'familiar', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'reasoning', 'target', 'word', 'vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'framework', 'he', 'teachers'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'as'}, 'acomp': {'effective'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'by', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'meanings', 'assessment', 'reasoning', 'words', 'outcome', 'instruction'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'observe'}, 'dobj': {'word', 'increase'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'pcomp': {'juxtaposing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'difference', 'highlightingt'}, 'relcl': {'similarity'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'nummod': {'four'}} Long High Medium
1730 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge The current investigation represents an initial endeavor to apply the relational reasoning framework to the vocabulary knowledge domain 18 6 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'vocabulary', 'initial', 'relational', 'current'}, 'nsubj': {'investigation'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'dobj': {'framework', 'endeavor'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'apply'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'reasoning'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'domain'}} Medium High Low
1731 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Consistent with previous research on relational reasoning, the theoretical framework of relational reasoning possesses great potential in guiding and contributing to learning in various domains 25 9 {'ADJ': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Consistent'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'various', 'relational', 'great', 'previous'}, 'pobj': {'guiding', 'reasoning', 'domains', 'research'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'framework'}, 'ROOT': {'possesses'}, 'dobj': {'potential'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'contributing'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
1732 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Future research should continue harnessing its potential and applying it more broadly to further our knowledge of human learning 19 9 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADV, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'human', 'Future'}, 'nsubj': {'research'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'continue'}, 'xcomp': {'harnessing'}, 'poss': {'its', 'our'}, 'dobj': {'potential', 'knowledge', 'it'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'applying'}, 'advmod': {'broadly', 'more'}, 'advcl': {'further'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning'}} Medium High Low
1733 Investing a Novel Approach to Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge Disclosure Statement The authors report there are no competing interests to declare. 12 5 {'PROPN': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Disclosure'}, 'ROOT': {'report', 'Statement'}, 'det': {'no', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'amod': {'competing'}, 'attr': {'interests'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'declare'}, 'punct': {'.'}} Medium High Low
1734 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 74As has been documented in theory (e.g., Anderson et al., 1977; Ausubel, 1968; Kintsch, 1998) and in the empirical research for decades (Baldwin et al., 1985; Bransford & Johnson, 1972; Pearson et al., 1979), prior knowledge guides read-ers’ comprehension of written language 42 8 {'NUM': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 18, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 16, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [NUM, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'74As'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ccomp': {'documented'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'language', 'research', 'decades', 'theory'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'Anderson', 'et'}, 'appos': {'1979', 'al', '1998', '1972', 'Pearson', '.', 'Baldwin', '1985', 'et', 'knowledge', 'Ausubel', '1968', '1977'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'Kintsch', 'in', 'Johnson'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'written', 'prior', 'empirical'}, 'nsubj': {'Bransford'}, 'ROOT': {'guides'}, 'compound': {'read'}, 'nmod': {'ers'}, 'dobj': {'comprehension'}} Long High Low
1735 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In fact, Anderson and Pearson (1984) stated that reading comprehension entails “the interaction of new information with old knowledge” (p 20 6 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'prep': {'with', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'fact', 'information'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'Anderson', 'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Pearson'}, 'appos': {'1984'}, 'ROOT': {'stated'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'reading'}, 'ccomp': {'entails'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'interaction'}, 'amod': {'old', 'new'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High Medium
1736 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 255), suggesting a bidirectional and continuous interac-tion between text content and individuals’ existing knowledge 14 4 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'255'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')', '’'}, 'ROOT': {'suggesting'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'bidirectional', 'existing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'individuals', 'continuous'}, 'compound': {'interac', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'tion'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'pobj': {'content'}} Medium High Low
1737 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Essentially, what readers know shapes their processing of written language and facilitates their memory for whatever new understandings they construct (McCarthy & McNamara, 2021) 24 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, VERB, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Essentially'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'dobj': {'processing', 'what', 'McCarthy', 'understandings', 'memory'}, 'nsubj': {'readers', 'they'}, 'csubj': {'know'}, 'ROOT': {'shapes'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'written', 'new'}, 'pobj': {'language'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'McNamara', 'facilitates'}, 'det': {'whatever'}, 'pcomp': {'construct'}, 'appos': {'2021'}} Long High Low
1738 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Particularly with the rise of cognitive orientations to learning and the articulation of schema theory and information-processing models in the 1970s and early 1980s (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Miller, 1956), there was an intense focus on prior knowledge and its effects on what students perceive, com-prehend, interpret, and remember from what they read 53 23 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 17, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 5} [ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'Particularly'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'theory', 'orientations', '1970s', 'knowledge', 'rise'}, 'amod': {'intense', 'early', 'prior', 'cognitive'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'perceive', 'read'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'remember', 'models', 'Shiffrin', 'articulation', 'interpret', 'effects', '1980s'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'com', 'schema', 'information'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'Atkinson', '1968', '1956'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'Miller'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'focus'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'dep': {'prehend'}} Long High Low
1739 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In essence, for these cognitively oriented theories, individuals’ existing knowl- edge serves as a base for subsequent learning and performance 20 7 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'In', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'base', 'essence', 'learning', 'theories'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'advmod': {'cognitively'}, 'amod': {'knowl-', 'existing', 'oriented', 'subsequent'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'nsubj': {'edge'}, 'ROOT': {'serves'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance'}} Long High Low
1740 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Alexander and Murphy (1998) summarized this perspective in their review of research related to the American Psychological Association’s Learner-Centered Psychological Principles: One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning by guiding organization and representations, by serving as a basis of association with new information, and by coloring and filtering all new experiences 55 25 {'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 10, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 11, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, VERB, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'One', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'by', 'filtering', 'Murphy', 'representations'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'1998'}, 'ccomp': {'summarized'}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'experiences', 'perspective'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'by', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'poss': {'Association', 'their'}, 'pobj': {'organization', 'basis', 'foundation', 'information', 'learning', 'association', 'Principles', 'research', 'review'}, 'acl': {'related'}, 'compound': {'Psychological', 'American'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'npadvmod': {'Learner'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'Centered', 'new', 'future', 'guiding'}, 'dep': {'’s'}, 'ROOT': {'serves'}, 'pcomp': {'serving', 'coloring'}} Long High Low
1741 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 26) This very principle is core to Ausubel’s subsumption theory (1968), which holds that meaningful learning occurs when individuals incorporate new informa- tion into existing cognitive structures, a view that was in stark contrast to rote learning 37 14 {'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4} [NUM, PUNCT, DET, ADV, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'is', '26'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'This'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'stark', 'very', 'new', 'meaningful', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'learning', 'principle', 'individuals', 'that'}, 'attr': {'core'}, 'prep': {'into', 'to', 'in'}, 'poss': {'Ausubel'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'informa-', 'subsumption'}, 'pobj': {'contrast', 'structures', 'theory'}, 'appos': {'1968', 'view'}, 'relcl': {'holds', 'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'occurs'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'incorporate', 'rote'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'tion'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High High
1742 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Similarly, schema theory (Anderson et al., 1977) emphasizes the organi-zation and access of knowledge in the mind of the learner 20 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Similarly'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'schema', 'organi'}, 'nsubj': {'Anderson', 'theory'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}, 'conj': {'access', '.'}, 'appos': {'1977'}, 'ROOT': {'emphasizes'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'zation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'mind', 'learner'}} Long High Low
1743 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The role of readers’ background knowledge is likewise pivotal to Kintsch’s Construction Integration Model of Text Comprehension (1998), which focuses explicitly on the process of understanding texts and the essential and recurring interaction between the text content and the knowledge and experiences of the reader 45 20 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 7, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 4} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, PART, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'role'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'Comprehension', 'knowledge', 'process', 'reader', 'readers', 'Model'}, 'case': {'’', '’s'}, 'compound': {'Construction', 'Text', 'background', 'Integration', 'text'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly', 'likewise'}, 'acomp': {'pivotal'}, 'poss': {'Kintsch'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1998'}, 'relcl': {'focuses'}, 'pcomp': {'understanding'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'essential'}, 'conj': {'interaction', 'recurring', 'experiences', 'knowledge'}} Long High Low
1744 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This reciprocal relation-ship between readers’ extant knowledge and text information is influenced by authors’ abilities to communicate effectively with readers, as well as the readers’ recognition of authors’ arguments and messages 31 13 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 3} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'extant', 'reciprocal'}, 'compound': {'relation', 'text'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ','}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge', 'ship'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'arguments', 'abilities'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'messages', 'information'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'influenced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nmod': {'authors'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'communicate'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'effectively'}, 'poss': {'readers'}, 'dobj': {'recognition'}} Long High Low
1745 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Even texts that are well crafted will require readers to infer, filling in gaps in the text to support comprehension (Kintsch, 1998) 22 10 {'ADV': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'well', 'Even'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'texts'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'crafted'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'ROOT': {'require'}, 'dobj': {'readers', 'gaps', 'comprehension'}, 'xcomp': {'infer'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advcl': {'filling', 'support'}, 'prt': {'in'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'text'}, 'appos': {'Kintsch'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998'}} Long High Low
1746 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation After the early 1980s, alternative perspectives on learning and development became popular, such as sociocultural and social-constructivist theories (e.g., Lave, 1988; Rogoff, 1990; Vygotsky, 1991) 25 8 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'NUM': 4, 'PUNCT': 11, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'as', 'After'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'sociocultural', 'social', 'such', 'alternative', 'early'}, 'pobj': {'learning', '1980s', 'theories'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'perspectives'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Rogoff', 'constructivist', 'Vygotsky', 'development'}, 'ROOT': {'became'}, 'acomp': {'popular'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'Lave'}, 'appos': {'1990', '1991', '1988'}} Long High Low
1747 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation With this shift in perspective, there was waning interest in individuals’ knowledge among literacy researchers—a trend that persisted for several decades (Alexander & Fox, 2019) 25 11 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'With', 'among', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'perspective', 'decades', 'knowledge', 'researchers', 'shift'}, 'punct': {',', ')', '(', '—'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'was'}, 'amod': {'several', 'waning'}, 'ROOT': {'interest'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}, 'appos': {'trend', 'Alexander'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'persisted'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Fox'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}} Long High Low
1748 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Nonetheless, during that particular period, there were those who continued to study the effects of students’ knowledge base on their learning, especially learning from text (e.g., Alvermann et al., 1985; Carr & Ogle, 1987; Pearson & Dole, 1987) 38 12 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'especially', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'on', 'during', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'particular'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'period', 'base', 'text'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'Carr', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'continued'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'study'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'al', '.'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'et'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'nmod': {'Alvermann'}, 'appos': {'1987', '1985'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Ogle', 'Dole', 'Pearson'}} Long High Low
1749 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation From this body of research, there emerged evidence that being able to draw on prior 15 8 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, ADV] {'prep': {'From', 'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'body', 'research'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'emerged'}, 'dobj': {'evidence'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'acl': {'being'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'draw'}, 'advmod': {'prior'}} Medium High Medium
1750 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts 75understandings and experiences generally aids students in remembering what they read (Pressley et al., 1989), forming appropriate inferences (Graesser et al., 1994; Kintsch, 2000), and seeing the relevance or significance of what was read (Jetton & Alexander, 1997) 47 14 {'VERB': 9, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 12, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 13, 'NUM': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'csubj': {'Leveraging'}, 'dobj': {'75understandings', 'what', 'students', 'inferences', 'Pressley', 'Sense', 'What', 'relevance'}, 'nsubj': {'Students', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'read', 'Know'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'Make'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Texts'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'.', 'significance', 'experiences', 'seeing', 'Alexander'}, 'advmod': {'generally'}, 'ROOT': {'aids'}, 'pcomp': {'remembering', 'read'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', '1997', 'Jetton', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2000', '1989', 'Graesser', '1994'}, 'advcl': {'forming'}, 'amod': {'appropriate'}, 'dep': {'Kintsch'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}} Long High Low
1751 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The recognition of the power of prior knowledge can also be found in contem- porary programs of text-based research including studies of content area reading (Hwang et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2021), reading development (Alexander, 2005, 2020a), multiple source use (Bråten & Strømsø, 2004; List & Alexander, 2019), refutational texts and knowledge revision (Kendeou et al., 2014), and the process-ing of multiple-medium or multimodal texts (Singer & Alexander, 2017; Van Meter et al., 2020) 75 15 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 20, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 29, 'PROPN': 24, 'NUM': 9, 'CCONJ': 6} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ...] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'recognition'}, 'prep': {'including', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'reading', 'texts', 'power', 'programs', 'knowledge', 'research'}, 'amod': {'porary', 'based', 'contem-', 'refutational', 'multiple', 'prior'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'npadvmod': {'et', '.', '2005', 'text'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'compound': {'content', 'Kim', 'et', 'knowledge', 'process', 'source', 'Meter', 'Van', 'Hwang', 'area'}, 'appos': {'2004', '2021', '2019', 'al', '2014', 'Kendeou', '2017', 'Singer', '2020a', '2020', 'Alexander', 'Bråten'}, 'conj': {'Strømsø', 'al', '.', 'List', 'texts', 'multimodal', 'revision', 'ing', 'use', 'Alexander'}, 'dep': {'al'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'development'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'nmod': {'medium'}} Long High Low
1752 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In recent years, the role that prior knowledge plays in reading comprehension has gained substantial traction among curriculum developers (Hirsch, 2006), literacy scholars (Knowledge Matters Campaign, 2022), and school leaders (Mathewson, 2019) who advocate for building content-specific knowledge deemed core to academic domains (Spelke & Kinzler, 2007) 47 10 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 16, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'among', 'for', 'In'}, 'amod': {'specific', 'recent', 'substantial', 'prior', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'years', 'developers', 'domains', 'comprehension'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'role', 'scholars', 'who'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'that', 'core', 'traction'}, 'relcl': {'advocate', 'plays'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'school', 'Knowledge', 'Matters', 'literacy', 'curriculum'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'gained'}, 'appos': {'2019', 'Hirsch', 'Mathewson', 'Campaign', 'Spelke'}, 'npadvmod': {'content', '2007', '2022', '2006'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Kinzler', 'deemed', 'leaders'}, 'pcomp': {'building'}} Long High Low
1753 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, propelled by declining reading performance in countries such as Australia, Finland, Iceland, Korea, the Netherlands, and New Zealand (Organisation for Economic Co-operation & Development, 2019) and by stagnant or lower reading scores in the United States (Ji et al., 2021), the development of students’ relevant knowledge base and their ability to utilize that knowledge effectively have become growing concerns (Willingham, 2017) 62 21 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 17, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 19, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, X, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, AUX, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'effectively', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'ROOT': {'propelled'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'stagnant', 'growing', 'declining', 'relevant', 'such'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'New', 'knowledge', 'Economic', 'United'}, 'pobj': {'States', 'countries', '-', '.', 'Co', 'scores', 'students', 'operation', 'performance', 'Australia'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'conj': {'reading', 'lower', 'ability', 'Development', 'by', 'Iceland', 'Korea', 'Zealand', 'Finland', 'Netherlands'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'Ji', 'development', 'Willingham', 'Organisation', 'base'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019', 'al', '2017', 'et'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'acl': {'utilize'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge'}, 'ccomp': {'become'}, 'attr': {'concerns'}} Long High Medium
1754 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Even though the influence of readers’ background knowledge comes with sub- stantial theoretical, empirical, and public support, there is far less attention paid to the activation and utilization of that knowledge (Hattan et al., 2015; Hattan & Lupo, 2020) 39 14 {'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'far', 'Even'}, 'mark': {'though'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'influence'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'knowledge', 'activation', 'support'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'background'}, 'advcl': {'comes'}, 'amod': {'stantial', 'theoretical', 'sub-', 'less', 'public'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Lupo', 'Hattan', 'empirical', 'utilization'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'attention', '.', 'al'}, 'acl': {'paid'}, 'appos': {'2015', 'Hattan', '2020'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Medium
1755 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation It is certainly one thing to know that students’ existing knowledge base matters significantly to what they can comprehend and remember from writ-ten text, but quite another to provide students with strategies for drawing on that knowledge when needed 39 21 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, NUM, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, PRON, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB] {'nsubj': {'students', 'base', 'It', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'certainly', 'when', 'significantly'}, 'nummod': {'one', 'ten'}, 'attr': {'thing'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'know'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ','}, 'amod': {'existing'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'writ'}, 'ccomp': {'matters'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'to', 'with', 'for'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'what'}, 'pcomp': {'drawing', 'comprehend'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'another', 'remember'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'strategies', 'text'}, 'predet': {'quite'}, 'xcomp': {'provide'}, 'det': {'that'}, 'advcl': {'needed'}} Long High High
1756 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation As such, it is imperative to examine techniques that serve to unearth students’ relevant knowledge during reading 17 8 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 3} [ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'such'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'imperative'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'examine'}, 'dobj': {'techniques'}, 'relcl': {'serve'}, 'prep': {'during', 'to'}, 'amod': {'unearth', 'relevant'}, 'pobj': {'students'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Medium High Low
1757 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For instance, although some readers may routinely activate prior knowledge while reading, many students need external guidance and support to make their existing knowl-edge accessible and connected to the textual content (Carr & Thompson, 1996; Hattan & Alexander, 2021; Hattan & Dinsmore, 2019; Lupo et al., 2019) 47 13 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 12, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 10, 'NUM': 4} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'instance'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'mark': {'although', 'while'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'nsubj': {'readers', 'edge', 'students'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'routinely'}, 'advcl': {'make', 'activate', 'reading'}, 'amod': {'external', 'existing', 'many', 'textual', 'prior'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'guidance'}, 'ROOT': {'Lupo', 'need'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Thompson', 'Hattan', 'Dinsmore', 'connected', 'support', 'Alexander'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'knowl'}, 'ccomp': {'accessible'}, 'appos': {'2021', '2019', 'al', '.', 'et', '1996', 'Carr'}} Long High High
1758 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, it has also been shown that even when students have relevant knowledge, they may not know how or when to use it during reading (Cain et al., 2004; Cain & Oakhill, 1999) 33 18 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 4, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, X, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'when', 'also', 'Further', 'even', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to', 'may'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'shown'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'have'}, 'amod': {'relevant'}, 'dobj': {'al', '.', 'Cain', 'knowledge', 'it'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'know'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Oakhill', 'when'}, 'xcomp': {'use'}, 'prep': {'during'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'npadvmod': {'1999', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2004', 'Cain'}} Long High High
1759 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Thus, the necessity and importance of prior knowledge activation and its role in text comprehension raise important questions that have not been adequately investigated 24 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'adequately'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'necessity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'role', 'importance'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'important', 'prior'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'comprehension'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'ROOT': {'raise'}, 'dobj': {'questions'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'investigated'}} Long High Low
1760 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, is there evidence that researchers referring to prior knowledge conceive of that concept similarly, or are there differences based on the correctness or specificity of that knowledge 29 15 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'example', 'knowledge', 'concept', 'correctness', 'conceive'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'attr': {'evidence', 'differences'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'acl': {'based', 'referring'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'similarly'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'are', 'specificity'}} Long High Medium
1761 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Correspondingly, is there consis-tency in what researchers mean when they refer to knowledge activation, or does that concept vary in accordance with the nature of readers’ knowledge of interest to researchers 31 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'Correspondingly'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'consis'}, 'attr': {'tency'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'concept', 'they'}, 'pcomp': {'mean'}, 'ccomp': {'refer'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'interest', 'knowledge', 'accordance', 'activation', 'nature', 'researchers'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'conj': {'vary'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Medium
1762 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Moreover, what activation techniques have been studied, and how do those techniques reflect the complexity of knowledge 17 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'what', 'the', 'those'}, 'compound': {'activation'}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques'}, 'aux': {'have', 'do'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'studied'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'techniques'}, 'conj': {'reflect'}, 'dobj': {'complexity'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}} Medium High Medium
1763 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation What techniques appear more or less effective when text comprehension is the desired outcome 14 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'What', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'techniques', 'comprehension'}, 'ROOT': {'appear'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'more'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'less'}, 'oprd': {'effective'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'amod': {'desired'}, 'attr': {'outcome'}} Medium High Medium
1764 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Does the need for or the nature of knowledge activation change as learners progress in their 16 9 {'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON] {'ROOT': {'Does'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'learners', 'need'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'nature'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'their'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'progress'}} Medium High Medium
1765 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation That is, are activa- tion techniques more important with younger or less skilled readers, or with stu-dents who have less relevant knowledge upon which to rely 26 15 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PART, VERB] {'advmod': {'That', 'is', 'less', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'activa-'}, 'compound': {'stu', 'tion'}, 'attr': {'techniques'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'important', 'younger'}, 'prep': {'with', 'upon'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'skilled'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'which', 'dents'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'have', 'rely'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Medium
1766 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, what can be done when students’ topic or domain knowledge is limited, ill matched to the reading content, or simply inaccurate 22 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'simply', 'when', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'done'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nmod': {'topic'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'inaccurate'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'ill'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'amod': {'limited'}, 'acomp': {'matched'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'reading'}, 'pobj': {'content'}} Long High Medium
1767 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The question of how prior knowledge and its activation are defined matters if one is to judge the effectiveness of techniques meant to activate readers’ existing knowledge (Dochy & Alexander, 1995; Simonsmeier et al., 2022) 35 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'question'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'prior'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'techniques'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'poss': {'its', 'readers'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'Alexander'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'dobj': {'effectiveness', 'matters', 'knowledge'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubj': {'one'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'activate', 'judge'}, 'acl': {'meant'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'Dochy', '2022'}, 'npadvmod': {'.', '1995', 'et'}, 'compound': {'Simonsmeier'}, 'dep': {'al'}} Long High High
1768 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In an effort to clarify the definition of prior knowledge, McCarthy and McNamara (2021) intro-duced the Multidimensional Knowledge in Text Comprehension framework, which posits that researchers should consider the amount, accuracy, specificity, and coherence of readers’ academic knowledge, including topic and domain knowledge, before reading 45 17 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 15, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB] {'prep': {'before', 'including', 'in', 'of', 'In'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'knowledge', 'effort', 'framework'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'acl': {'clarify'}, 'dobj': {'Knowledge', 'definition', 'amount'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'academic'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'conj': {'accuracy', 'McCarthy', 'specificity', 'domain', 'coherence', 'McNamara'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'knowledge'}, 'npadvmod': {'intro'}, 'ROOT': {'duced'}, 'compound': {'Multidimensional', 'Text', 'Comprehension'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'researchers'}, 'relcl': {'posits'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'consider'}, 'nmod': {'topic'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
1769 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation To understand the importance of academic knowledge in reading, imagine a middle school teacher preparing their students to read Making Our Way Home: The Great Migration and the Black American Dream (Imani, 2020) 33 11 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'understand'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'importance', 'teacher', 'Way'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'middle'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'reading'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'imagine'}, 'compound': {'Black', 'Great', 'American', 'school'}, 'acl': {'preparing'}, 'poss': {'Our', 'their'}, 'xcomp': {'Making', 'read'}, 'advmod': {'Home'}, 'appos': {'Imani', 'Migration', '2020'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Dream'}} Long High Low
1770 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation As an aid to their comprehension, these students would benefit from first reflecting on relevant content they learned in their social studies classes about this historical period, ranging from the Civil War to the Great Depression, World War II to the Women’s Liberation Movement 44 21 {'ADP': 9, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 10, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PART, PROPN, PROPN] {'prep': {'on', 'from', 'As', 'to', 'in', 'about'}, 'det': {'the', 'an', 'these', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'content', 'aid', 'Depression', 'comprehension', 'War', 'period', 'classes', 'Movement'}, 'poss': {'Women', 'their'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'benefit'}, 'advmod': {'first'}, 'pcomp': {'reflecting'}, 'amod': {'social', 'historical', 'relevant'}, 'parataxis': {'learned'}, 'advcl': {'ranging'}, 'compound': {'War', 'Civil', 'Liberation', 'World', 'Great'}, 'appos': {'II'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High Low
1771 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, students could also benefit from calling to mind what they learned in language arts about expository text struc-tures (compare/contrast, problem/solution) to understand how the text is orga-nized (Bogaerds-Hazenberg et al., 2020) or about reading strategies they might use to support their comprehension (Alexander et al., 2018; Palinscar & Brown, 1984) 51 19 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 15, 'NOUN': 15, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'SYM': 2, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 11, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'also', 'However', 'how'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';', '/'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'text'}, 'aux': {'could', 'might', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'benefit'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'in', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'calling', 'reading'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'arts', 'tures'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'strategies', 'comprehension'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'learned'}, 'compound': {'expository', 'language', 'et', 'struc', 'text', 'Alexander', 'Bogaerds'}, 'nmod': {'compare', 'contrast', 'problem', 'Hazenberg'}, 'appos': {'solution', '2018', 'al', '2020'}, 'advcl': {'understand'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'orga', '.', '1984', 'et'}, 'amod': {'nized'}, 'attr': {'al', '.'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'use', 'Palinscar', 'Brown'}, 'xcomp': {'support'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
1772 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Yet some researchers contend that activating only academic knowledge under - values other forms of background knowledge and experiences that could scaffold students’ learning from texts, especially those whose subject-specific knowledge may be limited, or who are from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (Hattan & Lupo, 2020; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Lee, 2007) 51 20 {'CCONJ': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 13, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 3} [CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADP, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'cc': {'and', 'Yet', '&', 'or'}, 'det': {'some'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'researchers', 'that', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'contend'}, 'ccomp': {'activating'}, 'advmod': {'linguistically', 'only', 'especially', 'culturally'}, 'amod': {'other', 'diverse', 'specific', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'knowledge', 'forms'}, 'nmod': {'values', 'under'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'compound': {'Ladson', 'background'}, 'pobj': {'backgrounds', 'knowledge', 'texts'}, 'conj': {'Billings', 'Lupo', 'are', 'experiences', 'Lee'}, 'aux': {'could', 'may'}, 'relcl': {'limited', 'scaffold'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}, 'appos': {'2000', '2007', 'Hattan', 'those'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'npadvmod': {'subject', '2020'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Medium
1773 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In those instances, it may be necessary to focus on additional forms of knowledge during activation that draw from students’ life experiences and sociocultural resources—what Moll (2019) labels as funds of knowledge or what McCarthy and McNamara (2021) called personal knowledge 41 18 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'from', 'during', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'funds', 'instances', 'knowledge', 'experiences', 'activation'}, 'punct': {',', ')', '(', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that', 'McCarthy'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'necessary'}, 'xcomp': {'focus'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'additional', 'sociocultural'}, 'relcl': {'draw'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'life'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'resources', 'called', 'McNamara'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nmod': {'Moll'}, 'appos': {'2021', '2019'}, 'dep': {'labels'}, 'oprd': {'knowledge'}} Long High Low
1774 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, when reading the Imani (2020) book, a teacher might consider other entry points to support students in comprehending the text 22 9 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'example'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'reading', 'support'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nmod': {'Imani'}, 'appos': {'2020'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'book', 'points', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'teacher'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'compound': {'entry'}, 'pcomp': {'comprehending'}} Long High Medium
1775 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation A student whose family members are involved in community organizing could apply that personal knowledge to grasp the concept of organized labor that Imani discusses 25 10 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, VERB] {'det': {'A', 'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'Imani', 'student'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'compound': {'family', 'community'}, 'nsubjpass': {'members'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'discusses', 'involved'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'labor', 'organizing'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'apply'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'organized'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'concept', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'grasp'}} Long High Low
1776 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Students who have knowledge of music and pop culture can activate that knowledge to understand the importance of the Harlem Renaissance and how it led to the eventual emergence of soul music and hip-hop, as Imani described (2020) 38 18 {'NOUN': 12, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, VERB, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Imani', 'Students', 'who', 'it'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'importance'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'nmod': {'music'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'led', 'pop', 'hop'}, 'pobj': {'emergence', 'music', 'Renaissance', 'culture'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'activate'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'advcl': {'understand', 'described'}, 'compound': {'Harlem', 'soul', 'hip'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'amod': {'eventual'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'npadvmod': {'2020'}} Long High High
1777 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation As these examples illustrate, it was crucial to investigate how researchers represented in this systematic review conceptualized prior knowledge and prior knowledge activation in their studies 26 11 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'det': {'these', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'it', 'examples'}, 'advcl': {'illustrate'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'crucial'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'investigate'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'ccomp': {'represented'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'prior'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'review'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'conceptualized'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
1778 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In addition to examining definitions of prior knowledge in the literature, there is also a concern regarding the depth and accuracy of students’ existing knowledge and the potential effects on comprehension and performance 33 17 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'regarding', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'comprehension', 'students', 'literature', 'knowledge', 'addition', 'depth'}, 'pcomp': {'examining'}, 'dobj': {'definitions'}, 'amod': {'potential', 'existing', 'prior'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'attr': {'concern'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'effects', 'performance', 'accuracy'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}} Long High Low
1779 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts 77(McCarthy & McNamara, 2021) 13 4 {'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'Leveraging'}, 'dobj': {'Sense', 'What'}, 'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'ccomp': {'Know'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'Make'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'Texts'}, 'pobj': {'77(McCarthy'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'McNamara'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2021'}} Medium High Low
1780 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This has been a long-standing issue among knowledge activation researchers (Alvermann & Hynd, 1989), those investigat-ing students’ ability to discern credible from noncredible sources (Breakstone et al., 2018), and researchers analyzing pretest to posttest knowledge gains (Simonsmeier et al., 2022) 40 10 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 13, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 3} [PRON, AUX, AUX, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'This'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'det': {'a', 'those'}, 'advmod': {'pretest', 'long'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'amod': {'standing', 'ing', 'noncredible'}, 'attr': {'issue'}, 'prep': {'among', 'from'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'researchers'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Simonsmeier', 'ability', 'Alvermann', 'Breakstone', '2022'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'researchers', '.', 'Hynd', 'al'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'investigat', '1989', 'et'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'acl': {'discern', 'analyzing'}, 'acomp': {'credible'}, 'advcl': {'posttest'}, 'dobj': {'gains'}} Long High Low
1781 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Thus, the current literature review considers the potential influence of activating inaccurate knowledge on students’ reading comprehension and activation techniques that specifically address students’ erroneous understandings 26 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'potential', 'inaccurate', 'erroneous', 'current'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'literature'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'review'}, 'ROOT': {'considers'}, 'dobj': {'influence', 'knowledge', 'understandings', 'comprehension'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'activating'}, 'pobj': {'students'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'techniques'}, 'relcl': {'address'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
1782 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation It is the goal of this systematic review to investigate the aforementioned ques- tions about prior knowledge and its activation for all phases of learning from text: prior to, during, and after reading 33 18 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'all', 'the', 'this'}, 'attr': {'goal'}, 'prep': {'from', 'during', 'to', 'of', 'about', 'for'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'aforementioned', 'prior'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'phases', 'review', 'text'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'investigate'}, 'compound': {'ques-'}, 'dobj': {'tions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'after'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'reading'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'advmod': {'prior'}} Long High Low
1783 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Although other reviews of knowledge have been conducted, these works either focused on forms of knowledge (Alexander et al., 1991; de Jong & Ferguson-Hessler, 1996) or on learning in general rather than on text-based learning specifically (Dochy et al., 1999) 40 15 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 11, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 11, 'NUM': 3, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 2} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, X, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'amod': {'other', 'based', 'general'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reviews'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'knowledge', 'forms'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advcl': {'conducted'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nsubj': {'works'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'compound': {'Alexander', 'Ferguson', 'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '1999', '1996', '1991', 'Dochy'}, 'conj': {'on', '.', 'Hessler'}, 'nmod': {'de'}, 'dep': {'Jong'}, 'cc': {'or', 'than', '&'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'advmod': {'specifically', 'rather'}, 'npadvmod': {'et', 'al', 'text'}} Long High Medium
1784 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation There has been no systematic review of prior knowledge since 1999 and no reviews that have expressly focused on prior knowledge and its activation in relation to reading comprehension 29 15 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2} [PRON, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NUM, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'aux': {'has', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'det': {'no'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'prior'}, 'attr': {'review'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'since', 'in', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'relation', '1999'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'reviews'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'expressly'}, 'relcl': {'focused'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'comprehension'}} Long High Medium
1785 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Therefore, to address this significant gap in current understand-ings, the following questions were pursued: 1 15 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, NUM] {'advmod': {'Therefore'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ':', '1'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'address'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'following', 'current'}, 'dobj': {'gap'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'compound': {'understand'}, 'pobj': {'ings'}, 'nsubjpass': {'questions'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'pursued'}} Medium High Low
1786 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation How are prior knowledge and prior knowledge activation defined and described in the literature 14 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [SCONJ, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'How'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'described'}, 'acl': {'defined'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'literature'}} Medium High Medium
1787 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation What specific activation techniques have been empirically examined, and what are the key characteristics of those techniques 17 9 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'What', 'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'specific', 'key'}, 'compound': {'activation'}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advmod': {'empirically'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'attr': {'what'}, 'conj': {'are'}, 'nsubj': {'characteristics'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'techniques'}} Medium High Low
1788 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation How can the specific activation techniques be consolidated into categories based on their key characteristics 15 7 {'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'How'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'specific', 'key'}, 'compound': {'activation'}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'consolidated'}, 'prep': {'into', 'on'}, 'pobj': {'categories', 'characteristics'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Medium High Medium
1789 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation To what extent are these categories of activation techniques associated with more positive, neutral, mixed, or negative comprehension outcomes 19 8 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'To', 'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'what', 'these'}, 'pcomp': {'extent'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'nsubj': {'categories'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'comprehension'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'outcomes'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'amod': {'neutral', 'positive', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'mixed', 'negative'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Medium High Low
1790 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Method Search Criteria Systematic reviews entail a thorough search of the literature on the basis of clearly articulated parameters and the establishment of criteria to determine the inclusion or exclusion of identified works (Alexander, 2020b) 35 13 {'PROPN': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Method', 'Search', 'Systematic', 'Criteria'}, 'nsubj': {'reviews'}, 'ROOT': {'entail'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'identified', 'thorough', 'articulated'}, 'dobj': {'search', 'inclusion'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'basis', 'criteria', 'literature', 'works', 'parameters'}, 'advmod': {'clearly'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'exclusion', 'establishment'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'determine'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2020b'}} Long High Low
1791 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For the current review, publications were limited to peer-reviewed empirical articles written in English 14 5 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'reviewed', 'empirical', 'current'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'English', 'review'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'publications'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'limited'}, 'npadvmod': {'peer'}, 'acl': {'written'}} Medium High Low
1792 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Several other inclusion criteria were established: ••participants were students in Grades K–16; ••an academic learning task requiring the processing of connected text (i.e., more than one sentence) was included; ••the study needed to incorporate an explicit, intended activation of students’ prior knowledge (i.e., a prior knowledge activation technique); and ••the knowledge activation technique implemented in the study and the resulting data were described in a manner that permitted us to analyze the results. 73 27 {'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 23, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 11, 'PUNCT': 13, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'DET': 9, 'X': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'amod': {'intended', 'prior', 'connected', 'other', 'Several', 'resulting', 'explicit', 'academic', 'more'}, 'compound': {'Grades', 'learning', 'knowledge', 'activation', 'inclusion'}, 'nsubjpass': {'technique', '••an', 'criteria'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'ccomp': {'included', 'established', 'were'}, 'punct': {'’', ':', '.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'study', 'that', '••participants'}, 'attr': {'students'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'K–16', 'students', 'manner', 'text', 'study'}, 'appos': {'task', 'knowledge', 'technique', 'sentence'}, 'acl': {'implemented', 'requiring'}, 'det': {'••the', 'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'processing', 'results', 'us', 'activation'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'incorporate', 'analyze'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'described', 'data'}, 'relcl': {'permitted'}} Long High Low
1793 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 78Search Procedure For this systematic review, searches were conducted in the PsycINFO and ERIC databases using a title and abstract search 21 9 {'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [NOUN, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'78Search'}, 'dep': {'search', 'Procedure'}, 'prep': {'For', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'abstract'}, 'pobj': {'PsycINFO', 'review'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'searches'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'conducted'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'databases', 'ERIC'}, 'xcomp': {'using'}, 'dobj': {'title'}} Long High Low
1794 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The following specific search terms were used: “activate prior knowledge,” “activate background knowledge,” “prior knowledge activation,” “background knowledge activation,” “access prior knowledge,” “access background knowledge,” “knowledge activation strategies,” and “knowledge activation.” These searches were not limited by year and resulted in an initial pool of 2,639 publications as of September 30, 2020 52 14 {'DET': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 23, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 26, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM] {'det': {'an', 'The', 'These'}, 'amod': {'initial', 'following', 'specific', 'prior'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'background', 'search'}, 'nsubjpass': {'searches', 'terms'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'limited', 'used'}, 'punct': {'.', ':', '”', ',', '“'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'access'}, 'conj': {'activate', 'access', 'resulted', 'activation', 'strategies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'prep': {'by', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'pool', 'year', 'September', 'publications'}, 'nummod': {'2,639', '30', '2020'}} Long High Low
1795 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Once the initial pool was constituted, the titles and abstracts of these articles were examined to determine their suitability for addressing the research ques-tions 24 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'mark': {'Once'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'initial'}, 'nsubjpass': {'pool', 'titles'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'advcl': {'constituted', 'determine'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'abstracts'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'articles'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'suitability', 'tions'}, 'pcomp': {'addressing'}, 'compound': {'research', 'ques'}} Long High Medium
1796 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation A total of 2,404 articles were excluded based on the aforementioned criteria, retaining 235 articles for more detailed evaluation 19 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'total'}, 'prep': {'based', 'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'nummod': {'2,404', '235'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'criteria', 'evaluation'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'excluded'}, 'amod': {'aforementioned', 'detailed'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'retaining'}, 'dobj': {'articles'}, 'advmod': {'more'}} Medium High Low
1797 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation It should be noted that this large exclusion rate is primarily due to the exclusion of articles that examined the activation of neural networks, which was not the focus of this review 32 19 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'It'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'noted'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'large', 'neural'}, 'compound': {'exclusion'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'that', 'rate'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'primarily'}, 'prep': {'of', 'due'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'networks', 'exclusion', 'review'}, 'relcl': {'examined', 'was'}, 'dobj': {'activation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'focus'}} Long High Medium
1798 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Next, the vitae of authors who wrote three or more of the identified articles were also examined (no additional articles were identified), as well as a journal hand search over the past 5 years for journals where four or more identified articles were published (two additional articles were identified) 49 27 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NUM, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NUM, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'also', 'where', 'well', 'as', 'Next'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'articles', 'three', 'vitae'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'years', 'authors', 'journals'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'wrote', 'published'}, 'cc': {'or', 'as'}, 'conj': {'identified', 'more'}, 'amod': {'additional', 'identified', 'past'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'parataxis': {'identified'}, 'compound': {'hand', 'journal'}, 'dobj': {'search'}, 'nummod': {'5', 'two', 'four'}} Long High Medium
1799 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Additionally, a reference search of all included studies led to the identification of four articles 15 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Additionally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'the'}, 'compound': {'reference'}, 'ROOT': {'search'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'included'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'articles', 'identification'}, 'acl': {'led'}, 'nummod': {'four'}} Medium High Low
1800 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation A total of 54 articles were included in this system-atic literature review (see Figure 1) 15 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'A', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'total'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'1', '54'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'review'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'compound': {'system', 'literature'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'amod': {'atic'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'Figure'}} Medium High Low
1801 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Of these 54 articles, 14 included two studies, for a total of 68 examined studies 15 6 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'Of', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'two', '68', '54'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'total', 'studies'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'14'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'studies'}, 'amod': {'examined'}} Medium High Low
1802 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Articles were excluded from the review if participants were in pre-Kindergar - ten (e.g., Roberts, 2013) or were adults who were not in college (e.g., Rogers & Patterson, 2007) 29 13 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADV': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Articles'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'excluded'}, 'prep': {'in', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'pre', '-', 'college', 'ten', 'review'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubj': {'who', 'participants'}, 'advcl': {'were'}, 'compound': {'Kindergar'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'Rogers', 'Roberts', '2007'}, 'appos': {'2013'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Patterson', 'were'}, 'attr': {'adults'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Medium
1803 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This decision was driven by the need to ensure that participants were engaged in text-based learning 16 8 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'decision', 'participants'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'ROOT': {'driven'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'need'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'ensure'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'engaged'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'based'}} Medium High Medium
1804 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Additionally, the focus of the articles needed to be on student learning, rather than teacher learning 16 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'Additionally', 'rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'focus'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'learning'}, 'acl': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'compound': {'student'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'nsubj': {'teacher'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Low
1805 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2011) investigated the influence of teachers watching videos of themselves on the teachers’ pedagogical learning 15 6 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2011'}, 'ROOT': {'investigated'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'influence', 'videos'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'themselves', 'teachers'}, 'acl': {'watching'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'pedagogical'}} Medium High Low
1806 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The researchers did not examine whether those teacher outcomes translated into student learning, however 14 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV] {'det': {'The', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'outcomes'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'examine'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'compound': {'teacher', 'student'}, 'ccomp': {'translated'}, 'prep': {'into'}, 'pobj': {'learning'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'however'}} Medium High Medium
1807 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, the primary emphasis of this literature review was on the activation of students’ prior knowledge when reading expository or narrative connected texts, or texts that include more than one sentence 31 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'primary', 'connected', 'narrative', 'prior', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'emphasis'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'compound': {'literature'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'students', 'review'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'knowledge'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'sentence', 'expository'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'texts'}, 'relcl': {'include'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'nummod': {'one'}} Long High Medium
1808 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Therefore, studies were excluded if participants were asked to read a single sentence (e.g., Wood et al., 1994) or if they focused on a learning task that did not include text processing (e.g., Kaminski et al., 2013; Rietzschel et al., 2007; Wetzels, Kester, van Merriënboer, & Broers, 2011) 48 14 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 16, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 17, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'studies', 'participants'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'excluded'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'advcl': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'did', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'learning', 'single'}, 'dobj': {'processing', 'Kaminski', 'sentence'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'Wood', 'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '2013', '1994', 'et', '2007', '2011'}, 'conj': {'Kester', 'Broers', 'al', '.', 'Wetzels', 'Merriënboer', 'Rietzschel', 'focused'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'they'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'task'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'include'}, 'compound': {'van', 'text'}} Long High High
1809 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2011) investigated the influence of tutor guid-ance on students’ learning of statistical concepts 13 4 {'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ')', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'2011'}, 'ROOT': {'investigated'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'influence'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'compound': {'guid', 'tutor'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'ance', 'concepts'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'amod': {'statistical'}} Medium High Low
1810 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Even though the intervention included the explicit activation of students’ knowledge during group discussions, participants were not required to read a text during the study 25 12 {'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2} [ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Even'}, 'mark': {'though'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'intervention'}, 'advcl': {'included'}, 'amod': {'explicit'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'text'}, 'prep': {'during', 'of'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'discussions', 'knowledge', 'study'}, 'compound': {'group'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'participants'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}} Long High Medium
1811 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Articles were excluded from this review if they measured prior knowledge but did not include a technique meant to activate students’ previous knowledge 23 10 {'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Articles'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'excluded'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'review'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'advcl': {'measured'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'previous'}, 'dobj': {'technique', 'knowledge', 'students'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'aux': {'did', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'include'}, 'acl': {'meant'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}} Long High Medium
1812 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (1985) examined the influence of topic interest and prior knowledge on text comprehension, without explicitly activating prior knowledge at any point during the reading process 25 9 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'1985'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'influence', 'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'on', 'without', 'during', 'of', 'at'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'topic', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'interest', 'point', 'process', 'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'conj': {'knowledge'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly'}, 'pcomp': {'activating'}} Long High Low
1813 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 79the means of prior knowledge activation was not sufficiently explained since it would not be possible to characterize or categorize the activation technique 23 11 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [PROPN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'79the', 'it'}, 'nsubjpass': {'means'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge'}, 'pobj': {'activation'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'sufficiently'}, 'ROOT': {'explained'}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'possible'}, 'xcomp': {'characterize'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'categorize'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'technique'}} Long High Medium
1814 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In other words, if the authors stated that they activated learners’ prior knowledge but did not describe how that knowledge was activated, the article was excluded 26 14 {'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'In'}, 'amod': {'other', 'prior'}, 'pobj': {'words'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'stated'}, 'ccomp': {'activated'}, 'dobj': {'learners'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'describe'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge', 'article'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'excluded'}} Long High High
1815 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 80Coding and Analysis Definitions The first research question considered the definitions and descriptions of prior knowledge and prior knowledge activation present in the literature 24 9 {'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'80Coding'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'research', 'Analysis'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'descriptions', 'Definitions'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'first', 'prior'}, 'dobj': {'question'}, 'acl': {'considered'}, 'nsubj': {'definitions'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'literature'}, 'ccomp': {'present'}} Long High Low
1816 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The procedure used for coding followed a system employed by Murphy and Alexander (2000) and Dinsmore et al 18 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'procedure'}, 'acl': {'used', 'employed'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'Murphy', 'coding'}, 'ROOT': {'followed'}, 'dobj': {'system'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Dinsmore', 'Alexander'}, 'punct': {'(', 'al', ')'}, 'appos': {'2000', 'et'}} Medium High Low
1817 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2008) where definitions are first coded based on whether they are (a) explicit, (b) implicit, or (c) no definition was offered 21 11 {'PUNCT': 10, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2008'}, 'advmod': {'first', 'where'}, 'nsubjpass': {'definitions', 'definition'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'was'}, 'relcl': {'coded'}, 'prep': {'based', 'on'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'pcomp': {'are'}, 'meta': {'a'}, 'acomp': {'explicit'}, 'dep': {'b'}, 'conj': {'implicit', 'c'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'det': {'no'}, 'ROOT': {'offered'}} Long High High
1818 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For explicit defi-nitions, the authors explained the meaning of the terms directly 12 5 {'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'amod': {'explicit'}, 'compound': {'defi'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'nitions', 'terms'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'explained'}, 'dobj': {'meaning'}, 'advmod': {'directly'}} Medium High Low
1819 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Explicit defini-tions were often signaled by authors using phrases such as “prior knowledge is conceptualized as 16 8 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP] {'amod': {'Explicit', 'such', 'prior'}, 'compound': {'defini'}, 'punct': {'-', '“'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge', 'tions'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'were'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'ccomp': {'signaled'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'authors'}, 'acl': {'using'}, 'dobj': {'phrases'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'ROOT': {'conceptualized'}} Medium High Low
1820 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The explicit definitions of prior knowledge were further ana-lyzed to ascertain whether they matched the type of prior knowledge authors sought to activate 23 10 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'explicit', 'prior'}, 'nsubj': {'definitions', 'they'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'further'}, 'npadvmod': {'ana'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'acomp': {'lyzed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'activate', 'ascertain'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'ccomp': {'matched'}, 'dobj': {'type'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'advcl': {'sought'}} Long High Medium
1821 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In contrast, implicit definitions could not be directly extracted from the reviewed studies but had to be inferred from text 20 11 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'contrast', 'text'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'implicit', 'reviewed'}, 'nsubjpass': {'definitions'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'directly'}, 'ROOT': {'extracted'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'had'}, 'xcomp': {'inferred'}} Long High Low
1822 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For this analysis, implicit defi-nitions were broken down according to whether they were (a) conceptual, which occurred when “words or phrases alluded to meaning” of the key terms (Dinsmore et al., 2008,p 32 15 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'of', 'For', 'to', 'according'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'analysis', 'terms', 'meaning'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'amod': {'implicit', 'key'}, 'compound': {'defi'}, 'nsubjpass': {'nitions'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'broken'}, 'prt': {'down'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'words', 'they'}, 'pcomp': {'were'}, 'attr': {'conceptual'}, 'advcl': {'occurred', 'alluded'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'phrases'}, 'appos': {'Dinsmore'}, 'npadvmod': {'2008,p', 'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High High
1823 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 397); (b) referential, when authors cited another article; or (c) operational, which included either a measure of prior knowledge or a technique that supported prior knowledge activation 27 10 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'punct': {')', '(', '397', ',', ';'}, 'meta': {'b', 'c'}, 'ROOT': {'referential'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'authors', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'cited'}, 'det': {'another', 'a'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'measure', 'article'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'technique', 'operational'}, 'relcl': {'supported', 'included'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}} Long High Medium
1824 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Conceptual definitions differed from explicit definitions in that the authors did not directly signal that they were defin-ing a term, but instead included descriptors or associated words that alluded to the characteristics of prior knowledge or prior knowledge activation 39 17 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'explicit', 'associated', 'Conceptual', 'prior'}, 'nsubj': {'definitions', 'authors', 'that', 'they'}, 'acl': {'differed'}, 'prep': {'of', 'to', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'definitions', 'characteristics', 'knowledge'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'directly', 'defin', 'instead'}, 'ROOT': {'signal'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'acomp': {'ing'}, 'npadvmod': {'term'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'words', 'included'}, 'dobj': {'descriptors'}, 'relcl': {'alluded'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}} Long High High
1825 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, researchers may have referred to content or topic knowledge somewhere in the manuscript, but did not state that those types of knowledge were how they defined prior knowledge 30 17 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'manuscript', 'content', 'knowledge', 'example'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'researchers', 'types'}, 'aux': {'did', 'may', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'referred'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'compound': {'topic'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'state'}, 'advmod': {'somewhere', 'how'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'defined', 'were'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}} Long High High
1826 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, articles could be coded as having both conceptual and operational definitions 13 6 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'example'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'articles'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'coded'}, 'pcomp': {'having'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'amod': {'conceptual'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'operational'}, 'dobj': {'definitions'}} Medium High Low
1827 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Prior Knowledge Activation Techniques Next, knowledge activation techniques, which represented formalized proce- dures intended to stimulate the unearthing of preexisting understandings, beliefs, or experiences, were examined 26 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, NUM, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Prior'}, 'compound': {'Techniques', 'Knowledge', 'knowledge', 'Activation', 'activation', 'proce-'}, 'npadvmod': {'Next'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques'}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'relcl': {'represented'}, 'amod': {'formalized', 'preexisting'}, 'dobj': {'unearthing', 'dures'}, 'acl': {'intended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'stimulate'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'understandings'}, 'conj': {'experiences', 'beliefs'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}} Long High Low
1828 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These techniques were coded in six ways: (a) the domain in which the reading took place (e.g., science), (b) the grade levels of the participants (e.g., middle school students), (c) whether inaccurate knowledge or misconceptions were addressed, (d) when the techniques were initiated (i.e., before, during, or after reading), (e) whether the techniques were undertaken inde-pendently or collaboratively, and (f) the category of the technique (e.g., open-ended prompts, visual representation) 70 30 {'DET': 9, 'NOUN': 22, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 35, 'X': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 4} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, ...] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques', 'knowledge'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'coded'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'six'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'which', 'reading', 'participants', 'technique'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'prompts', 'students', 'd', 'a', 'c', 'domain'}, 'nsubj': {'reading'}, 'relcl': {'initiated', 'took', 'addressed'}, 'dobj': {'place', 'levels'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'before', 'pendently', 'during', 'i.e.', 'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'e', 'inde', 'science'}, 'meta': {'b', 'f'}, 'compound': {'grade', 'school'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'amod': {'ended', 'inaccurate', 'visual', 'open', 'middle'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'after', 'misconceptions', 'collaboratively', 'category', 'representation'}, 'ccomp': {'undertaken'}} Long High High
1829 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Some articles included multiple studies (e.g., Beker et al., 2016) or investigated more than one activation technique (e.g., Wetzels, Kester, & van Merriënboer, 2011) 24 5 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'Some'}, 'nsubj': {'articles'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'studies', 'technique', '.'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'compound': {'Beker', 'van', 'activation', 'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'al'}, 'appos': {'Wetzels', '2011', '2016'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Kester', 'investigated', 'Merriënboer'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'nummod': {'one'}} Long High Low
1830 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In such cases, each activation tech-nique within the study was coded separately 12 6 {'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV] {'prep': {'within', 'In'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'tech'}, 'nsubjpass': {'nique'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'coded'}, 'advmod': {'separately'}} Medium High Low
1831 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The first two codes were used to identify whether prior knowledge activation techniques have been empirically studied across domains and grade levels, or whether most of the techniques took place with undergraduate psychology stu-dents, for example 36 18 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'first', 'undergraduate', 'prior'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques', 'codes'}, 'auxpass': {'been', 'were'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'stu', 'grade'}, 'advmod': {'empirically'}, 'ccomp': {'studied'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'across', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'domains', 'dents', 'example'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'levels', 'took'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'most'}, 'dobj': {'place'}, 'nmod': {'psychology'}} Long High High
1832 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts 81social studies or history; psychology, statistics, or economics; and technology or media 21 8 {'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 4} [VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Leveraging'}, 'dobj': {'studies', 'Sense', 'What'}, 'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'ccomp': {'Know'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'Make'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'Texts'}, 'compound': {'81social'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'history', 'media', 'psychology', 'statistics', 'technology', 'economics'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}} Long High Low
1833 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Grade level bands included lower elementary (K through 2nd grade), upper elementary (3rd through 5th grade), middle school (6th through 8th grade), high school (9th through 12th grade), and college 30 5 {'PROPN': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 8, 'PUNCT': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'level', 'Grade'}, 'nsubj': {'bands'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'amod': {'upper', '5th', 'lower', '12th', 'high', '8th', '2nd', 'middle'}, 'dobj': {'elementary'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'6th', 'K', '9th', '3rd'}, 'prep': {'through'}, 'pobj': {'grade'}, 'dep': {'elementary'}, 'conj': {'school', 'college'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
1834 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Some studies asked partici-pants to engage with texts across multiple domains or included participants from more than one grade level 20 9 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'Some'}, 'nsubj': {'studies'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'compound': {'partici', 'grade'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'dobj': {'pants', 'participants'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'with', 'across', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'level', 'domains', 'texts'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'more'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'included'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'nummod': {'one'}} Long High Low
1835 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In those cases, more than one code was given to the corresponding technique 13 8 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'In'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'technique'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'corresponding', 'more'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'nsubjpass': {'code'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'given'}, 'dative': {'to'}} Medium High Low
1836 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Given the complexity of knowledge, techniques were also coded according to whether they addressed misconceptions 15 7 {'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'according', 'of', 'Given'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'complexity', 'knowledge'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'coded'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'pcomp': {'addressed'}, 'dobj': {'misconceptions'}} Medium High Medium
1837 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The fourth and fifth codes were used to identify the nature of the activation techniques and were developed a priori based on theories of text comprehension 26 13 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3} [DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'fourth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'developed', 'fifth'}, 'nsubjpass': {'codes'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'dobj': {'nature', 'priori'}, 'prep': {'based', 'on', 'of'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'comprehension', 'theories'}} Long High Low
1838 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Kintsch’s (1998) Construction Integration Model emphasizes the importance of continuous interaction between the reader and text, not simply before reading, but also during and after 27 14 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'PART': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, ADV, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, CCONJ, ADP] {'prep': {'before', 'For', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'interaction', 'example', 'reader'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Kintsch', 'Model'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'appos': {'1998'}, 'compound': {'Construction', 'Integration'}, 'ROOT': {'emphasizes'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'importance'}, 'amod': {'continuous'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'after', 'during', 'text'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'also'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High Low
1839 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Therefore, the techniques were coded as to whether they instigated knowledge activation before, during, or after reading, or at multiple times throughout the reading process 25 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'during', 'before', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'coded'}, 'prep': {'throughout', 'as', 'to'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'pcomp': {'instigated'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'reading'}, 'dobj': {'activation'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'after', 'at'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'times', 'process'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}} Long High Medium
1840 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, although cognitivists (e.g., Kintsch) typically focus on activating individual knowledge, reading can also be a social practice (Street, 1984) 20 7 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'also', 'e.g.', 'typically', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'nsubj': {'reading', 'cognitivists'}, 'appos': {'Kintsch', 'Street'}, 'advcl': {'focus'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pcomp': {'activating'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'social'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'practice'}, 'npadvmod': {'1984'}} Long High Medium
1841 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In these collaborative reading environ-ments, shared knowledge activation and meaning construction can take place (e.g., Allen, 2003; Andreassen & Bråten, 2011) via class discussions of texts, book groups, or even analysis of a common text within the work environment 39 13 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 16, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 10, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'via', 'within', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'texts', 'discussions', 'text', 'collaborative', 'environment'}, 'csubj': {'reading'}, 'compound': {'book', 'environ', 'class', 'knowledge', 'work'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nmod': {'ments'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'common'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'construction', 'place'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'analysis', 'Andreassen', 'meaning', 'Bråten', 'groups'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'take'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'even'}, 'appos': {'Allen', '2003', '2011'}} Long High Low
1842 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Therefore, techniques were coded by whether students were asked to activate their prior knowledge individually, in pairs, or in a group environment 22 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'individually', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'students', 'techniques'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'coded'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'pcomp': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'environment', 'pairs'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'group'}} Long High Medium
1843 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Once the individual techniques had been charted, an inductive, data-driven approach was taken to group them into broader categories based on salient attri-butes, such as the mode of activation (e.g., questioning, altering the text) 34 15 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'mark': {'Once'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'attri', 'broader', 'driven', 'individual', 'such', 'inductive', 'salient'}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques', 'approach'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'been'}, 'advcl': {'group', 'charted', 'questioning', 'altering'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'data'}, 'ROOT': {'taken'}, 'dobj': {'them', 'text'}, 'prep': {'into', 'as', 'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'mode', 'categories', 'butes'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}} Long High Medium
1844 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Ultimately, eight categories emerged from the data and several techniques were identified as belonging to more than one category 19 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Ultimately'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'one', 'eight'}, 'nsubj': {'categories'}, 'ROOT': {'emerged'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'category', 'data'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'several', 'more'}, 'conj': {'techniques', 'identified'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'pcomp': {'belonging'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}} Medium High Low
1845 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Prior Knowledge Activation and Comprehension Outcomes In addition to the aforementioned codes, each activation technique was coded according to whether knowledge activation had a positive, negative, neutral, or mixed effect on students’ comprehension in comparison to the other conditions in the study 42 18 {'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Prior'}, 'compound': {'Knowledge', 'knowledge', 'activation'}, 'nmod': {'Activation'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Comprehension', 'mixed', 'neutral'}, 'ROOT': {'Outcomes', 'coded'}, 'prep': {'on', 'according', 'to', 'in', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'comprehension', 'codes', 'conditions', 'addition', 'comparison', 'study'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'amod': {'other', 'aforementioned', 'positive', 'negative'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'technique'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'activation'}, 'pcomp': {'had'}, 'dobj': {'effect'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Medium
1846 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Techniques were coded as positive if they were associated with a sig-nificant outcome for comprehension, whereas techniques were coded as negative if students performed significantly worse on comprehension outcomes or if there was a decrement in learning 37 19 {'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 7, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADP, VERB] {'nsubjpass': {'techniques', 'Techniques', 'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'coded'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'with', 'for', 'as'}, 'amod': {'positive', '-', 'negative', 'sig', 'nificant'}, 'mark': {'if', 'whereas'}, 'advcl': {'performed', 'associated', 'coded'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'outcomes', 'outcome', 'comprehension'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'advmod': {'significantly'}, 'oprd': {'worse'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'conj': {'was'}, 'attr': {'decrement'}} Long High High
1847 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Techniques were coded as neutral if there were no significant differences found between conditions, and they were coded as mixed if the technique led to different results across multiple outcome measures (e.g., one measure had positive results and another neutral or negative results) 43 20 {'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 8, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Techniques', 'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'coded'}, 'prep': {'as', 'across', 'to', 'between'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'significant', 'neutral', 'different', 'multiple'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'led', 'mixed', 'had', 'were'}, 'det': {'another', 'no', 'the'}, 'attr': {'differences'}, 'acl': {'found'}, 'pobj': {'conditions', 'results', 'measures'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'coded', 'results', 'negative'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'e.g.'}, 'nsubj': {'technique', 'measure'}, 'compound': {'outcome'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'dobj': {'results'}} Long High High
1848 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation After this initial coding process, an inductive, data-driven approach was used to identify patterns between techniques that belong to the same category 22 11 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'After', 'between'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'initial', 'driven', 'same', 'coding', 'inductive'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'category', 'process'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'npadvmod': {'data'}, 'nsubjpass': {'approach'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'dobj': {'patterns'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'belong'}} Long High Low
1849 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Within each cate-gory, contributory factors were considered that may have led to these outcomes 14 8 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'Within', 'to'}, 'det': {'these', 'each'}, 'compound': {'contributory', 'cate'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'outcomes', 'gory'}, 'nsubjpass': {'factors'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'ccomp': {'led'}} Medium High Low
1850 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Interrater Agreement To analyze the results, the first author developed the coding scheme and coded each study 17 7 {'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'compound': {'Interrater'}, 'nsubj': {'author', 'Agreement'}, 'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'analyze'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'dobj': {'scheme', 'results', 'study'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'first', 'coding'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'coded'}} Medium High Low
1851 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The additional raters coded 13 (24%) of the articles for an interrater agreement of 14 6 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 3} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP] {'det': {'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'additional'}, 'nsubj': {'raters'}, 'ROOT': {'coded'}, 'dobj': {'13'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'24'}, 'appos': {'%'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'agreement'}, 'compound': {'interrater'}} Medium High Low
1852 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Codes that were included in interrater agreement were identification of domain; grade level band; whether misconceptions were considered; before, dur - ing, or after reading; individual, pair, or group activation; and positive, negative, neutral, or mixed outcomes 37 13 {'NOUN': 16, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 13, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 5} [NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Codes'}, 'nsubjpass': {'misconceptions', 'that'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'included'}, 'prep': {'before', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'interrater', 'group', 'grade', 'level', 'dur'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'ing', 'agreement', 'reading'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'identification'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ';'}, 'appos': {'band'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'advcl': {'considered'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'after', 'mixed', 'pair', 'neutral', 'individual', 'outcomes', 'activation'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'negative'}} Long High Medium
1853 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation After coding each study, data were analyzed using a first-cycle, magnitude-coding procedure (Miles et al., 2014) to consider the fre-quency with which each code occurred in the data 28 13 {'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'After', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'coding'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'dobj': {'quency', 'procedure', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'data'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'analyzed'}, 'advcl': {'using'}, 'amod': {'first', 'fre', 'coding'}, 'nmod': {'cycle'}, 'npadvmod': {'magnitude', 'al', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'Miles'}, 'conj': {'.'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'data'}, 'nsubj': {'code'}, 'relcl': {'occurred'}} Long High Low
1854 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The data-driven codes, which were utilized to establish categories of knowledge activation, were not included in the interrater agreement 19 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 2} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'data'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'driven'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which', 'codes'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'utilized'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'establish'}, 'dobj': {'categories'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'interrater'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'agreement'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}} Medium High Low
1855 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Instead, the first and third authors collaboratively identi-fied these categories for all included studies using a second-cycle, pattern-coding procedure (Miles et al., 2014) 23 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Instead', 'collaboratively'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'first', 'second', 'included', 'coding'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'.', 'third'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'npadvmod': {'et', 'identi', 'al', 'pattern'}, 'ROOT': {'fied'}, 'dobj': {'procedure', 'categories'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'studies'}, 'acl': {'using'}, 'nmod': {'cycle'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'Miles'}} Long High Low
1856 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Results and Discussion How Are Prior Knowledge and Prior Knowledge Activation Defined and Described in the Literature 17 7 {'NOUN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, SCONJ, AUX, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Results'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Discussion', 'Are', 'Defined', 'Described'}, 'advmod': {'How'}, 'compound': {'Knowledge', 'Prior', 'Activation'}, 'attr': {'Knowledge'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'Literature'}} Medium High Medium
1857 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The first research question guiding this investigation centered on the manner in which researchers defined prior knowledge or explicated what they meant by the activation of that knowledge 28 14 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'that', 'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'first', 'prior'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'ROOT': {'question'}, 'acl': {'guiding', 'centered'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'investigation', 'what'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'knowledge', 'manner', 'activation'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'defined'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'explicated'}, 'ccomp': {'meant'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
1858 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation A summary of those results is presented first for prior knowledge before considering knowledge activation 15 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'those'}, 'nsubjpass': {'summary'}, 'prep': {'for', 'before', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'results'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'presented'}, 'advmod': {'first'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'pcomp': {'considering'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'dobj': {'activation'}} Medium High Low
1859 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Prior Knowledge Defined Explicit Definitions As displayed in Table 1, analysis of prior knowledge definitions revealed that only 10 of the 54 articles explicitly defined this term 27 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'NUM': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PROPN, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, NUM, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Prior', 'explicitly', 'only'}, 'compound': {'Knowledge', 'knowledge', 'Defined', 'Explicit'}, 'nsubj': {'analysis', 'Definitions', '10'}, 'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'displayed'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'definitions', 'Table'}, 'nummod': {'54', '1'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'ccomp': {'defined'}, 'dobj': {'term'}} Long High High
1860 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (More details can be found in the Supplemental Materials Table S1 in the online version of the journal.) Of the 10 explicit definitions, 4 expressly defined knowledge as domain or topic-specific knowledge 32 13 {'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'amod': {'specific', 'More', 'defined', 'online', 'explicit'}, 'nsubjpass': {'details'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'found', 'Of'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'Supplemental', 'Materials', 'Table'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'definitions', 'journal', 'knowledge', 'version', 'S1'}, 'nummod': {'4', '10'}, 'advmod': {'expressly'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'npadvmod': {'topic'}, 'conj': {'knowledge'}} Long High Low
1861 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For those four articles, the explicit definitions posited by the researchers aligned with the type of knowledge they expressly sought to activate 22 11 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB] {'prep': {'with', 'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'knowledge', 'researchers', 'type'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'explicit'}, 'ROOT': {'definitions'}, 'acl': {'posited', 'aligned'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'advmod': {'expressly'}, 'relcl': {'sought'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}} Long High Low
1862 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Gurlitt and Renkl (2008, 2010) defined prior knowledge as content knowledge related to a domain 17 5 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'For', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'knowledge', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Gurlitt'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Renkl'}, 'appos': {'2008', '2010'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'compound': {'content'}, 'acl': {'related'}, 'det': {'a'}} Medium High Low
1863 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Consistent with that definition, these researchers asked participants to develop domain-specific concept maps for economics or sci-ence as a way to bring their relevant knowledge into awareness 27 11 {'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Consistent'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'into', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'way', 'awareness', 'definition', 'economics'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'maps', 'participants'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'develop'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'specific'}, 'compound': {'sci', 'concept'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'ence'}, 'relcl': {'bring'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
1864 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2012) defined prior knowledge as including domain-specific knowledge as well as other types of knowledge, such as general world, metacognitive, and sociocultural knowledge (Table S1) 25 9 {'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT] {'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2012'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'amod': {'specific', 'sociocultural', 'other', 'such', 'prior', 'general'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'including'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'pobj': {'world', 'knowledge'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'metacognitive', 'knowledge', 'types'}, 'compound': {'Table'}, 'appos': {'S1'}} Long High Low
1865 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The researchers explained that advanced organizers could be structured in ways that help activate students’ concrete, domain-specific knowledge, as well as their more abstract, general world knowledge 27 11 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADV': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'explained'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'specific', 'advanced', 'abstract', 'concrete', 'general'}, 'nsubjpass': {'organizers'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'structured'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'ways'}, 'relcl': {'help'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'more'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'compound': {'world'}} Long High Medium
1866 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Spires and Donley (1998) emphasized the importance of both domain and personal knowledge, stating that students should be encour - aged to make personal connections to informational texts 28 11 {'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'students', 'Spires'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Donley', 'knowledge'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1998'}, 'ROOT': {'emphasized'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'importance', 'connections'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'texts'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'informational'}, 'advcl': {'stating'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'npadvmod': {'encour'}, 'acomp': {'aged'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}} Long High Medium
1867 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These two forms of prior knowledge were considered in the activation technique the researchers used in their study, which involved elaborating on the text by directly relating the tex-tual information to their own experiences 34 18 {'DET': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubjpass': {'forms'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'by', 'of'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'own'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'experiences', 'text', 'technique', 'study'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'tex', 'tual'}, 'dobj': {'researchers', 'information'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'relcl': {'involved'}, 'xcomp': {'elaborating'}, 'advmod': {'directly'}, 'pcomp': {'relating'}} Long High Low
1868 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Biemans and Simons (1996) defined prior knowledge as “all knowledge learners have” (p 15 5 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'For'}, 'pobj': {'example'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'Biemans', 'learners'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Simons'}, 'appos': {'1996'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'det': {'all'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Medium High Medium
1869 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Hattan (2020) similarly forwarded a broad definition of prior knowledge as the “sum of what an individual knows” (p 19 7 {'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'individual', 'Hattan'}, 'punct': {'(', '”', ')', '“'}, 'appos': {'p', '2020'}, 'advmod': {'similarly'}, 'ROOT': {'forwarded'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'broad'}, 'dobj': {'definition', 'what'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'sum'}, 'pcomp': {'knows'}} Medium High Low
1870 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 83These broader definitions may have allowed for the consideration of readers’ lived experiences and acknowledged the many forms of knowledge that students bring to the act of reading 28 13 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'amod': {'many', 'broader', '83These', 'lived'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'definitions'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'allowed'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'consideration', 'knowledge', 'act', 'readers'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'forms', 'experiences', 'that'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'acknowledged'}, 'relcl': {'bring'}} Long High Low
1871 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Hattan and Alexander (2021) used rela-tional reasoning prompts as a mechanism for knowledge activation 16 6 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'as', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'mechanism', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Hattan'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'2021'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'npadvmod': {'rela'}, 'amod': {'tional'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'reasoning'}, 'dobj': {'prompts'}, 'det': {'a'}} Medium High Low
1872 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These prompts guided students to consider how the information in the text was similar, dissimilar, or completely distinct from what they thought they already knew or had experienced 28 15 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'prompts', 'they', 'information'}, 'ROOT': {'guided'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'what'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'advmod': {'already', 'completely', 'how'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'text'}, 'ccomp': {'knew', 'was'}, 'acomp': {'similar'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'experienced', 'dissimilar', 'distinct'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'pcomp': {'thought'}} Long High Medium
1873 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In that study, the purpose was to encourage students to draw on their real-life experiences as they read highly unfamiliar texts about ancient Greece and Rome 26 12 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN] {'prep': {'on', 'about', 'In'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'Greece', 'experiences', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'purpose'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'draw', 'encourage'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'texts'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'real', 'unfamiliar', 'ancient'}, 'compound': {'life'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'read'}, 'advmod': {'highly'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Rome'}} Long High Medium
1874 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For instance, students contrasted their own monotheistic beliefs with what they learned about Greek gods, thus leveraging their personal experiences to comprehend and remember the new information better 28 12 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV] {'prep': {'about', 'with', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'gods'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'contrasted'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'monotheistic', 'own', 'new', 'Greek'}, 'dobj': {'experiences', 'what', 'beliefs', 'information'}, 'pcomp': {'learned'}, 'advmod': {'thus', 'better'}, 'advcl': {'leveraging'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'comprehend'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'remember'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Low
1875 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Certain definitions of prior knowledge offered by researchers were so broad that they were not beneficial 16 8 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ] {'amod': {'prior', 'Certain'}, 'nsubj': {'definitions', 'they'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'researchers'}, 'acl': {'offered'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'so'}, 'acomp': {'beneficial', 'broad'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Medium High Medium
1876 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Khataee (2019) defined prior knowl- edge as “background knowledge,” which did not provide any clearer picture of the type of knowledge being studied 25 10 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'as', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'type', 'example'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'Khataee'}, 'appos': {'2019'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'amod': {'clearer', 'knowl-', 'prior'}, 'dobj': {'picture', 'edge'}, 'compound': {'background'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'provide'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'studied'}} Long High Low
1877 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Additionally, this broad definition was mis-leading, since the researcher narrowly focused on activating topic knowledge related to the text 19 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Additionally', 'narrowly'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'broad'}, 'nsubj': {'researcher', 'definition'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'compound': {'mis', 'topic'}, 'acomp': {'leading'}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'advcl': {'focused'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to'}, 'pcomp': {'activating'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'acl': {'related'}, 'pobj': {'text'}} Medium High Medium
1878 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Thus, there was misalignment in the conceptualization and operationalization of prior knowledge in that investigation 15 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'misalignment'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'conceptualization', 'investigation', 'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'operationalization'}, 'amod': {'prior'}} Medium High Low
1879 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Implicit Definitions As shown in Table 1, most articles included in this review forwarded implicit definitions of prior knowledge, which were further categorized as conceptual, referential, or operational 28 11 {'PROPN': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ] {'compound': {'Implicit'}, 'nsubj': {'articles', 'Definitions'}, 'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'shown'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'review', 'Table'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'implicit', 'conceptual', 'prior', 'most'}, 'acl': {'included'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'ROOT': {'forwarded'}, 'dobj': {'definitions'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'further'}, 'relcl': {'categorized'}, 'conj': {'referential', 'operational'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Medium
1880 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (See Table 2 for examples of implicit definitions.) Conceptual Definitions Most articles (n = 43) reviewed relied on implicit conceptual definitions, where the intended meaning is inferred from the words or phrases researchers use throughout the document to talk about prior knowledge 42 15 {'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SYM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NUM, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '.', ',', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'See', 'reviewed'}, 'dobj': {'Table'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'throughout', 'of', 'about', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'document', 'definitions', 'knowledge', 'examples', 'words'}, 'amod': {'intended', 'Most', 'Conceptual', 'conceptual', 'implicit', 'prior'}, 'nmod': {'Definitions', '='}, 'nsubj': {'articles', 'researchers'}, 'appos': {'n'}, 'conj': {'43', 'phrases'}, 'advcl': {'relied'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'meaning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'inferred', 'use'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'talk'}} Long High Medium
1881 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These implied meanings largely focused on words such as content (e.g., Pressley et al., 1990), domain (e.g., Amadieu et al., 2015), or topic (e.g., Dole et al., 1991) to mark the type of knowledge considered 35 8 {'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 14, 'PROPN': 12, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'amod': {'implied', 'such'}, 'nsubj': {'meanings'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'largely'}, 'acl': {'focused'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'words', 'knowledge'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nmod': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'1990', '2015', 'Pressley', 'domain', '1991'}, 'npadvmod': {'Amadieu', 'al', '.', 'et'}, 'conj': {'topic', 'al', '.'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'Dole', 'et'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'mark'}, 'dobj': {'type'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}} Long High Low
1882 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Although rare, other forms of knowledge were mentioned in researchers’ inferred conceptual definitions, such as prior metacognitive knowledge (Bannert et al., 2009; Bouffard-Bouchard, 1994); procedural and con-ditional knowledge (Andreassen & Bråten, 2011); genre knowledge (Stahl, 2008); TAbLe 1 Frequency of explicit and implicit definitions by construct Definitional CategoryConstruct Prior Knowledge Prior Knowledge Activation Explicit 10 9 Implicit – Conceptual 43 23 Implicit – Referential 2 15 Implicit – Operational 20 54 71 11 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 11, 'PUNCT': 22, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 23, 'NUM': 13, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, NUM, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, NUM, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, NUM, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, NUM] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'advcl': {'rare'}, 'punct': {'’', '–', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'explicit', 'procedural', 'Prior', 'conceptual', 'other', 'metacognitive', 'such', 'con', 'prior'}, 'nsubjpass': {'forms'}, 'prep': {'by', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'definitions', 'knowledge', 'researchers'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'Explicit', 'inferred', 'mentioned'}, 'dobj': {'definitions'}, 'appos': {'2009', 'Referential', 'Conceptual', 'Operational', 'CategoryConstruct', 'Implicit', '54', '15', 'Bannert', 'Stahl', '2011'}, 'npadvmod': {'2008', '1994', 'et'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'Frequency', 'Bouchard', 'Andreassen', 'knowledge', 'ditional', 'implicit', 'Bråten'}, 'compound': {'Bouffard', 'Knowledge', 'genre', 'Prior', 'Definitional', '10', 'Activation'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'nmod': {'TAbLe'}, 'nummod': {'1', '2', '23', '20', '9', '43'}, 'pcomp': {'construct'}} Long High Medium
1883 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 84knowledge learned from a previous text (Beker et al., 2016); or personal and experiential knowledge (Hattan & Dinsmore, 2019) 19 4 {'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3} [NUM, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'84knowledge'}, 'ROOT': {'learned'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'previous'}, 'pobj': {'al', 'text'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Beker', 'Hattan', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019', 'et'}, 'conj': {'experiential', 'Dinsmore', '.', 'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}} Medium High Low
1884 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (1989) referenced explanatory knowledge, world knowl-edge, content-specific knowledge, and knowledge held by novices and experts 15 3 {'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'1989'}, 'ROOT': {'referenced'}, 'amod': {'explanatory', 'specific'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'compound': {'world', 'knowl'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'experts', 'edge'}, 'npadvmod': {'content'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'acl': {'held'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'novices'}} Medium High Low
1885 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Similarly, Andreassen and Bråten (2011) mentioned content, topic, procedural, strategic, conditional, and relevant as types of knowledge that students may have 21 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Similarly'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'Andreassen'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'topic', 'strategic', 'relevant', 'Bråten', 'conditional'}, 'appos': {'2011'}, 'ROOT': {'mentioned'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'that'}, 'amod': {'procedural'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'types'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}} Long High Low
1886 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Researchers who mentioned multiple forms of prior knowledge often activated multiple types of knowledge in their studies as well 19 8 {'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 3} [NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADV, ADV] {'nsubj': {'Researchers', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'mentioned'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'prior'}, 'dobj': {'forms', 'types'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'knowledge'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'well', 'as'}, 'ROOT': {'activated'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Medium High Low
1887 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In some cases, the different knowledge types that were activated were directly compared to one another 16 9 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NUM, DET] {'prep': {'to', 'In'}, 'det': {'another', 'the', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'one'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'different'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that', 'types'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'activated'}, 'advmod': {'directly'}, 'ROOT': {'compared'}} Medium High Low
1888 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Kostons and van der Werf (2015) considered the relative benefits of mobilizing students’ metacognitive knowledge or their topic-specific knowledge on comprehension 23 7 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'example', 'comprehension'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'Kostons'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'der', 'van'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'Werf'}, 'appos': {'knowledge', '2015'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'metacognitive', 'specific', 'relative'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'benefits'}, 'pcomp': {'mobilizing'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'npadvmod': {'topic'}} Long High Low
1889 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation They found that the activation of metacognitive knowledge led to positive comprehension results for students, whereas topic-specific knowl-edge had no appreciable effects on comprehension 24 10 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 3} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They', 'edge', 'activation'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'whereas', 'that'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'metacognitive', 'positive', 'specific', 'appreciable'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'knowledge', 'results', 'comprehension'}, 'ccomp': {'led'}, 'compound': {'knowl', 'comprehension'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'npadvmod': {'topic'}, 'advcl': {'had'}, 'dobj': {'effects'}} Long High High
1890 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Only a few articles containing implicit conceptual definitions of knowledge encompassed the multidimensionality of students’ knowledge as described in the Multidimensional Knowledge in Text Comprehension framework (McCarthy & McNamara, 2021) 30 10 {'ADV': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Only'}, 'quantmod': {'a'}, 'nummod': {'few'}, 'nsubj': {'articles'}, 'acl': {'containing'}, 'amod': {'implicit', 'conceptual'}, 'dobj': {'definitions', 'multidimensionality'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Knowledge', 'knowledge', 'framework'}, 'ROOT': {'encompassed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'described'}, 'compound': {'Multidimensional', 'Text', 'Comprehension'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'McCarthy'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'McNamara'}} Long High Medium
1891 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Correspondingly, Walraven and Reitsma (1993) stated that prior knowledge should be relevant, while Pressley et al 16 5 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Correspondingly'}, 'punct': {',', '(', 'al', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Walraven', 'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Reitsma'}, 'appos': {'1993'}, 'ROOT': {'stated'}, 'mark': {'that', 'while'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'relevant'}, 'advcl': {'Pressley'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Medium High High
1892 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (1990) examined the influence of irrelevant knowledge to the comprehension task at hand 13 5 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'1990'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'influence'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'irrelevant'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'knowledge', 'hand'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}} Medium High Low
1893 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Referential Definitions There were two articles that included referential definitions of prior knowledge (Adams, 1982; Gurlitt et al., 2012) 19 5 {'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 5} [ADJ, PROPN, PRON, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Referential', 'referential', 'prior'}, 'npadvmod': {'1982', 'Definitions'}, 'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'Gurlitt', 'were'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'attr': {'articles'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'definitions'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Adams', 'al', '.', '2012', 'et'}} Medium High Low
1894 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Referential definitions are those that explain a construct, such as prior knowledge, by citing a particular individual or source 19 9 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'particular', 'Referential', 'such', 'prior'}, 'nsubj': {'definitions', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'those'}, 'relcl': {'explain'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'individual', 'construct'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'by', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'pcomp': {'citing'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'source'}} Medium High Low
1895 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2012) referred to Ausubel’s (1968, 2000) work as the conceptual grounding for the study of prior knowledge, emphasizing its stability in learners’ long-term memory.TAbLe 2 Examples of implicit definitions by category and construct Definitional CategoryConstruct Prior Knowledge Prior Knowledge Activation Implicit – Conceptual Refers to knowledge read in a previous text (Beker et al., 2016)Activated automatically (Gurlitt et al., 2012) Implicit – Referential “Naïve internal representations based on everyday experiences”— referencing Clement (1982) and diSessa (1982) (Alvermann & Hynd, 1989,p 80 17 {'PUNCT': 24, 'NUM': 7, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 9, 'PROPN': 23, 'PART': 3, 'NOUN': 18, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PART, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, ...] {'punct': {'–', '-', '.', '’s', ')', '—', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'2012', 'Examples'}, 'ROOT': {'referred', 'TAbLe', 'Implicit', 'construct'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'by', 'et', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'grounding', 'definitions', 'knowledge', 'Ausubel', 'category', 'experiences', 'text', 'study', 'memory'}, 'nummod': {'1968', '2'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', 'Refers', '2012', 'Gurlitt', '2000', '1982', 'Alvermann', '1989,p', 'representations'}, 'ccomp': {'work'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'Prior', 'Referential', 'conceptual', 'internal', 'long', 'implicit', 'everyday', 'prior', 'previous'}, 'advcl': {'emphasizing'}, 'poss': {'its', 'learners'}, 'dobj': {'Clement', 'CategoryConstruct', 'stability'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'Beker', 'Knowledge', 'Prior', 'Definitional', 'Conceptual', 'Activation', 'term'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'read'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'acl': {'based', 'referencing', '2016)Activated'}, 'advmod': {'automatically'}, 'nmod': {'Naïve'}, 'conj': {'Hynd', 'diSessa'}} Long High Low
1896 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 97)“Constructing rich and useful mental representations while studying new information”—referencing Hegland and Andre (1992) (Biemans et al., 2001) Implicit – Operational Multiple-choice prior topic knowledge assessment (Hattan & Alexander, 2021)Mobilization (Peeck et al., 1982); concept mapping (Amadieu et al., 2015) 40 3 {'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 15, 'PUNCT': 16, 'NUM': 4} [VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'rich', 'information”—referencing', 'mental', 'Multiple', 'new', '97)“Constructing', 'Operational', 'prior'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'.', 'mapping', 'Andre', 'useful', 'Alexander'}, 'ROOT': {'Implicit', 'representations'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'studying'}, 'dobj': {'Hegland'}, 'punct': {'–', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'Biemans', 'Peeck', '2015', '2021)Mobilization', '1992', '1982', 'assessment', 'Amadieu', 'Hattan', '2001'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}, 'nmod': {'choice'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'topic', 'concept'}} Long Low Medium
1897 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 85Operational Definitions Twenty of the 54 manuscripts were coded as containing implicit operational definitions of prior knowledge 17 6 {'PROPN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'85Operational', 'Definitions'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Twenty'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'54'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'manuscripts'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'coded'}, 'pcomp': {'containing'}, 'amod': {'implicit', 'operational', 'prior'}, 'dobj': {'definitions'}} Medium High Low
1898 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In effect, authors of these 20 articles used researcher-developed measures of prior knowledge to assess participants’ knowl-edge before reading a text or before implementing a knowledge activation tech-nique 28 11 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'before', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'knowledge', 'effect'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'20'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'npadvmod': {'researcher', 'nique'}, 'amod': {'developed', 'prior'}, 'dobj': {'participants', 'measures', 'edge', 'text', 'activation'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ROOT': {'assess'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'knowl', 'knowledge', 'tech'}, 'pcomp': {'reading', 'implementing'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'before'}} Long High Low
1899 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The measures included multiple-choice (Adams, 1982; Wetzels, Kester, & van Merriënboer, 2011) or true/false questions (Hynd & Alvermann, 1986), or tests where the participants needed to apply their prior knowledge when complet-ing a task (Alvermann & Hague, 1989) 38 9 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 16, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 5, 'SYM': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, SYM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'measures', 'participants'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'prior', 'true', 'false'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';', '/'}, 'nmod': {'choice', 'complet'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'Adams'}, 'npadvmod': {'1982', '1989', '1986'}, 'conj': {'Kester', 'Wetzels', 'Merriënboer', 'tests', 'Hague', 'questions', 'ing', 'Alvermann', 'Hynd'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'compound': {'van'}, 'appos': {'Alvermann', '2011'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'where'}, 'relcl': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'apply'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'task'}} Long High High
1900 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In all cases, the measures targeted the amount or accuracy of students’ topic or domain-specific knowledge that reflected the content of the texts to be read 26 14 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'students', 'texts'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'measures', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'targeted'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'amount', 'content'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'accuracy'}, 'nmod': {'topic'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'amod': {'specific'}, 'relcl': {'reflected'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}} Long High Low
1901 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Prior Knowledge Activation Defined Explicit Definitions Nine of the 54 articles included explicit definitions of prior knowledge activa- tion, which primarily emphasized the process of recalling previously learned knowledge (Table S2 in the online version of the journal) 38 11 {'ADV': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Knowledge', 'Prior', 'Definitions', 'Explicit', 'Table'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'Activation', 'Nine'}, 'ROOT': {'Defined'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'54'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'journal', 'version', 'tion'}, 'ccomp': {'included'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'activa-', 'learned', 'online', 'explicit'}, 'dobj': {'definitions', 'process', 'knowledge'}, 'nmod': {'knowledge'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'primarily', 'previously'}, 'relcl': {'emphasized'}, 'pcomp': {'recalling'}, 'appos': {'S2'}} Long High Low
1902 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Wetzels, Kester, and van Merriënboer (2011) stated, “If learners activate their prior knowl-edge, this knowledge is brought from long-term memory to working memory” (p 26 8 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'memory', 'example'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'learners', 'Wetzels'}, 'conj': {'Kester', 'Merriënboer'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'knowl', 'working', 'van', 'term'}, 'appos': {'p', '2011'}, 'ROOT': {'stated'}, 'mark': {'If'}, 'advcl': {'activate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'long'}, 'dobj': {'edge'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'brought'}} Long High Medium
1903 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 16); and Hattan (2020) wrote, “This process of activating background knowledge entails calling forward from memory what one already knows relative to an expe-rience, idea, or topic at hand” (p 30 11 {'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 11, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', ';', '16', '“'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'process', 'Hattan'}, 'appos': {'2020'}, 'ROOT': {'wrote'}, 'det': {'an', 'what', 'This'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'activating'}, 'compound': {'background'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'ccomp': {'entails', 'knows'}, 'xcomp': {'calling'}, 'advmod': {'forward', 'already'}, 'pobj': {'hand', 'idea', 'memory'}, 'oprd': {'relative'}, 'amod': {'expe'}, 'nmod': {'rience'}, 'conj': {'topic'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High Low
1904 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2012) described activation as more than facilitating students’ recall of content covered in specific readings 15 5 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')', '’'}, 'nummod': {'2012'}, 'amod': {'described', 'specific'}, 'npadvmod': {'activation'}, 'advmod': {'as'}, 'ROOT': {'more'}, 'prep': {'than', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'facilitating'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'dobj': {'recall'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'content'}, 'acl': {'covered'}} Medium High Low
1905 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Rather, these researchers emphasized the importance of integrating new knowledge into long-term memory as part of the knowledge activation process, and also stated that knowledge activation could occur automatically, rather than requiring external guidance 34 15 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'automatically', 'also', 'Rather', 'rather'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', 'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'emphasized'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'importance', 'guidance'}, 'prep': {'into', 'as', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'integrating', 'requiring'}, 'amod': {'long', 'external', 'new'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'term'}, 'pobj': {'part', 'process', 'memory'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than'}, 'conj': {'stated'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ccomp': {'occur'}} Long High Medium
1906 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In contrast, Hattan and Alexander (2020) empha-sized the need for external scaffolding for knowledge activation 15 5 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'contrast', 'scaffolding'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Hattan'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'2020'}, 'npadvmod': {'empha'}, 'ROOT': {'sized'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'need'}, 'amod': {'external'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}} Medium High Low
1907 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation They argued that, although there are instances when knowledge activation can occur instinc-tively or effortlessly, not all students activate relevant knowledge within the instructional environment or when attempting to comprehend a text 32 16 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, PART, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They', 'students', 'activation'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'mark': {'although', 'that'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'are', 'occur'}, 'attr': {'instances'}, 'advmod': {'instinc', '-', 'when', 'tively'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'attempting', 'effortlessly'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'the'}, 'ccomp': {'activate'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'relevant'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'text'}, 'prep': {'within'}, 'pobj': {'environment'}, 'xcomp': {'comprehend'}} Long High High
1908 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Implicit Definitions All 54 articles included an implicit definition of prior knowledge activation that made some mention of the purpose or operationalization of prior knowledge activation (Tables 1 and 2) 30 11 {'PROPN': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NUM': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, CCONJ, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'knowledge', 'Implicit'}, 'npadvmod': {'Definitions'}, 'quantmod': {'All'}, 'nummod': {'1', '54'}, 'nsubj': {'articles', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'some'}, 'amod': {'implicit', 'prior'}, 'dobj': {'mention', 'definition'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'purpose'}, 'relcl': {'made'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'operationalization', '2'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'Tables'}} Long High Low
1909 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Conceptual Definitions Twenty-three of the manuscripts included implicit-conceptual definitions of prior knowledge activation in their work, which focused on the purpose of knowl- edge activation, rather than the nature of knowledge activation per se 34 16 {'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'X': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, X] {'compound': {'Twenty', 'Conceptual', 'Definitions', 'knowledge', 'edge'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'three'}, 'prep': {'per', 'on', 'in', 'of', 'than'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'purpose', 'work', 'activation', 'nature', 'se', 'manuscripts'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'advmod': {'implicit', 'rather'}, 'amod': {'knowl-', 'prior', 'conceptual'}, 'dobj': {'definitions'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'relcl': {'focused'}} Long High Low
1910 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For exam-ple, several researchers stated that knowledge activation supports meaning making and knowledge construction (Andreassen & Bråten, 2011; Biemans et al., 2001) 22 4 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'exam'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'pobj': {'ple'}, 'amod': {'several'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', 'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'stated'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'supports'}, 'xcomp': {'meaning'}, 'dobj': {'making'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'construction', 'Bråten', 'al'}, 'appos': {'Biemans', '.', 'Andreassen', 'et', '2001', '2011'}} Long High Medium
1911 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Others noted that it anchors new learning (Azevedo et al., 2007), signals the rel-evant or important parts of the text (Bråten et al., 2017), and is a prerequisite for knowledge integration (Beker et al., 2016) 35 11 {'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PROPN': 12, 'NUM': 3, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'it', 'Others'}, 'ccomp': {'noted', 'anchors'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'evant', 'new'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'parts'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Beker', '2017', '2007', 'Azevedo', 'Bråten'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et', 'rel', '2016'}, 'conj': {'is', 'al', '.', 'important'}, 'ROOT': {'signals'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'integration', 'text'}, 'attr': {'prerequisite'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}} Long High Medium
1912 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Additional conceptual definitions indicated that knowledge activation is something that occurs before reading 13 5 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB] {'amod': {'Additional', 'conceptual'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', 'definitions', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'indicated'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'something'}, 'relcl': {'occurs'}, 'prep': {'before'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Medium High Medium
1913 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2017) said that prior knowledge activation can help pique students’ interest prior to engaging with the text, and Lupo et al 21 6 {'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'punct': {'(', 'al', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', '2017'}, 'ROOT': {'said'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'pique', 'Lupo'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'help'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'interest'}, 'advmod': {'prior'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to'}, 'pcomp': {'engaging'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'text'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dep': {'et'}} Long High Medium
1914 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Referential Definitions Implicit referential definitions of prior knowledge activation occurred in 15 of the included articles and typically referred to specific learning theories 23 6 {'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'referential', 'Referential', 'specific', 'included', 'prior'}, 'nsubj': {'Implicit', 'Definitions'}, 'dobj': {'definitions'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'knowledge'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'articles', 'theories', '15'}, 'ROOT': {'occurred'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'typically'}, 'conj': {'referred'}} Long High Low
1915 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For exam- ple, Biemans et al., (2001) referred to constructivist learning theories when defin-ing prior knowledge activation as “constructing rich and useful mental representations while studying new information” (p 29 6 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'For', 'to'}, 'amod': {'rich', 'mental', 'exam-', 'constructivist', 'new', 'prior'}, 'pobj': {'p', 'ple', 'theories'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'Biemans'}, 'appos': {'2001', 'et'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'useful'}, 'ROOT': {'referred'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'knowledge'}, 'advmod': {'defin', 'when'}, 'nmod': {'ing'}, 'advcl': {'activation', 'studying'}, 'pcomp': {'constructing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dobj': {'representations', 'information'}, 'mark': {'while'}} Long High High
1916 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Additionally, Alvarez (1993) referenced Ausubel’s subsumption theory, whereas Peeck et al., (1982) quoted Mayer (1979) in describing assimilation theory 19 3 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Additionally'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Peeck', 'Alvarez'}, 'appos': {'1982', '1993', '.', '1979'}, 'ROOT': {'referenced'}, 'poss': {'Ausubel'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'assimilation', 'subsumption'}, 'dobj': {'Mayer', 'theory'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}, 'advcl': {'quoted'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pcomp': {'describing'}} Medium High Medium
1917 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Operational Definitions In contrast to conceptual and referential definitions, implicit operational defi- nitions of prior knowledge activation described specific techniques, such as mobi- lization or concept mapping 27 7 {'ADJ': 10, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADJ, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'Operational', 'concept', 'knowledge', 'defi-'}, 'ROOT': {'described', 'Definitions'}, 'prep': {'to', 'as', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'definitions', 'contrast', 'lization'}, 'amod': {'operational', 'specific', 'conceptual', 'such', 'implicit', 'mobi-', 'prior'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'referential', 'mapping'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'nitions'}, 'dobj': {'techniques'}} Long High Low
1918 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These definitions described assisting students in making connections between their existing knowledge and a learning task 16 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'definitions'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'xcomp': {'assisting'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'connections'}, 'prep': {'between', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'making'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'learning', 'existing'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'task'}} Medium High Low
1919 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Since the inclusion of a prior knowledge activation technique was required to be part of this systematic literature review, all 54 articles used a technique meant to facilitate prior knowledge activation and, as such, contained an operational definition 38 18 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Since'}, 'det': {'an', 'this', 'a', 'all', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'inclusion'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'such', 'prior', 'operational'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'literature'}, 'pobj': {'technique', 'review'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'facilitate'}, 'attr': {'part'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'54'}, 'nsubj': {'articles'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'technique', 'definition'}, 'acl': {'meant'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'contained'}} Long High Medium
1920 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In many cases, the description of the activation technique was the only information that researchers provided about their definition of knowledge activation 22 12 {'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'about', 'In', 'of'}, 'amod': {'many', 'only'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'technique', 'definition', 'activation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'description', 'researchers'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'information'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'provided'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
1921 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation What Knowledge Activation Techniques Have Been Empirically Studied, and What Are Their Key Characteristics 14 7 {'PRON': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 1} [PRON, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'compound': {'Knowledge', 'Activation'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Techniques'}, 'aux': {'Have'}, 'auxpass': {'Been'}, 'advmod': {'Empirically'}, 'ROOT': {'Studied'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'attr': {'What'}, 'conj': {'Are'}, 'poss': {'Their'}, 'amod': {'Key'}, 'nsubj': {'Characteristics'}} Medium High Low
1922 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The second research question addressed the various types of knowledge acti- vation techniques examined in the literature, as well as the characteristics of those techniques 25 12 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'various', 'second'}, 'compound': {'acti-', 'knowledge', 'vation', 'research'}, 'nsubj': {'question'}, 'ROOT': {'addressed'}, 'dobj': {'types'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'literature'}, 'acl': {'examined'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'conj': {'characteristics'}} Long High Low
1923 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Table S3 in the online version of the journal provides a summary of the techniques that were studied, including domain, participants’ grade levels, when the techniques were implemented, and if prior knowledge was activated individually or in pairs or groups 40 18 {'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'grade', 'Table'}, 'nsubj': {'S3'}, 'prep': {'including', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'online', 'prior'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'techniques', 'pairs', 'journal', 'version'}, 'ROOT': {'provides'}, 'dobj': {'summary', 'levels'}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques', 'that', 'knowledge'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'relcl': {'studied', 'implemented'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nmod': {'participants'}, 'advmod': {'individually', 'when'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'conj': {'groups', 'activated', 'in'}} Long High High
1924 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Across the 54 articles and 68 studies (14 articles included 2 studies), 88 prior knowledge activation techniques were investigated 19 4 {'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'Across'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'14', '2', '68', '54', '88'}, 'pobj': {'articles'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'studies'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'articles'}, 'ccomp': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'studies'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge'}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'investigated'}} Medium High Low
1925 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, some studies included multiple domains (e.g., science and social stud-ies; Lupo et al., 2019) or students from more than one grade level (e.g., upper elementary and middle school; Risko & Alvarez, 1986) 33 9 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 12, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 3, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'However'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'some'}, 'nsubj': {'studies'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'amod': {'upper', 'social', 'multiple', 'elementary', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'domains', 'ies'}, 'conj': {'science', 'students', 'Alvarez', 'Risko', 'middle', 'stud'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'npadvmod': {'1986', 'Lupo'}, 'appos': {'2019', 'al', '.', 'school', 'et'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'compound': {'grade'}, 'pobj': {'level'}} Long High Low
1926 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Of those 88 techniques, 30 unique knowledge activation techniques were identified (Table S4 in the online version of the journal) 20 7 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'Of', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nummod': {'30', '88'}, 'pobj': {'version', 'techniques', 'journal'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'unique', 'online'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'Table'}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'dobj': {'S4'}} Long High Low
1927 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Many of these studies examined knowledge activation in a lab setting with undergraduate students, rather than in K–12 classrooms 19 9 {'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Many'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'setting', 'students', 'classrooms'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'lab', 'K–12'}, 'dobj': {'activation'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'cc': {'than'}} Medium High Low
1928 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, a notes column in Table S3 describes important nuances about the results (e.g., for techniques coded as mixed, which outcome measures had positive, negative, or neutral results), and an asterisk signifies studies that addressed misconceptions 36 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Table', 'notes'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'asterisk', 'measures', 'column', 'that'}, 'prep': {'for', 'about', 'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'results', 'S3'}, 'ROOT': {'describes'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'important', 'mixed'}, 'dobj': {'studies', 'nuances', 'results', 'misconceptions'}, 'acl': {'coded'}, 'advcl': {'outcome'}, 'ccomp': {'had'}, 'conj': {'signifies', 'neutral', 'negative'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'relcl': {'addressed'}} Long High Low
1929 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Lastly, when effect sizes were reported, those data for each technique were pro-vided (i.e., null, small, medium, or large). 19 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADJ, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Lastly', 'when', 'i.e.'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '.', ')'}, 'compound': {'effect'}, 'nsubjpass': {'sizes'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advcl': {'reported'}, 'det': {'each', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'data'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'technique'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'-', 'vided', 'pro'}, 'parataxis': {'null'}, 'conj': {'medium', 'large', 'small'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Medium High Medium
1930 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 87Domains Addressed in Readings The most common domain in which participants read was science (n = 36), followed by reading or language arts (n = 29); social studies or history (n = 23); psychology, statistics, or economics (n = 13); and media or technology (n = 2) 47 12 {'NOUN': 13, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 16, 'CCONJ': 10, 'SYM': 5, 'NUM': 5} [NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'87Domains', 'domain', 'participants'}, 'ROOT': {'Addressed'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'Readings'}, 'det': {'The'}, 'advmod': {'most'}, 'amod': {'social', 'common'}, 'relcl': {'read'}, 'conj': {'history', 'was', 'media', 'arts', 'psychology', 'statistics', '=', 'technology', 'economics'}, 'attr': {'science'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'studies', 'n'}, 'nmod': {'='}, 'npadvmod': {'36', '='}, 'advcl': {'followed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'or', 'n', 'and'}, 'compound': {'language'}, 'nummod': {'13', '2', '29', '23'}} Long High Low
1931 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These results demonstrate that knowledge activation techniques have been inves- tigated across multiple domains 14 5 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'These'}, 'nsubj': {'techniques', 'results'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrate'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ccomp': {'inves-', 'tigated'}, 'prep': {'across'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'pobj': {'domains'}} Medium High Medium
1932 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, students were infrequently asked to activate knowledge about mathematics or the arts 13 6 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'infrequently', 'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'about'}, 'pobj': {'mathematics'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'arts'}} Medium High Low
1933 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The former may reflect the reliance on mathematical symbols over connected discourse, while the latter may reflect a dependence on visual content in the arts 25 14 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'latter', 'former'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'reflect'}, 'dobj': {'reliance', 'dependence'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'over'}, 'amod': {'mathematical', 'connected', 'visual'}, 'pobj': {'symbols', 'discourse', 'arts', 'content'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'reflect'}} Long High Medium
1934 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Although the published studies in this review did not typically include the actual materials students read, many researchers described those texts as being expository in nature 26 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, AUX, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'many', 'published', 'actual'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'researchers', 'students'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'nature', 'review'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'typically'}, 'advcl': {'include'}, 'compound': {'materials'}, 'ccomp': {'read'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'pcomp': {'being'}, 'attr': {'expository'}} Long High Medium
1935 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This was even true for the domain of reading/language arts, where participants frequently read passages on past or current events (e.g., Beker et al., 2016; Kiili et al., 2012) 29 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'SYM': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'This', 'participants'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'frequently', 'even'}, 'acomp': {'true'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'arts', 'events'}, 'nmod': {'reading'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ',', ';', '/'}, 'compound': {'Beker', 'et', 'language'}, 'relcl': {'read'}, 'dobj': {'passages'}, 'amod': {'past'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'current'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'attr': {'al', '.'}, 'appos': {'2012', 'et', 'Kiili', '2016'}} Long High Medium
1936 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation A few of the reviewed studies did not indicate whether participants read expository or narrative texts (e.g., Peeck et al., 1982) 21 8 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'few', 'participants'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'reviewed'}, 'pobj': {'studies'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'indicate'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'ccomp': {'read'}, 'nmod': {'expository'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'narrative'}, 'dobj': {'.', 'texts'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'Peeck', 'al'}, 'compound': {'et'}, 'appos': {'1982'}} Long High Medium
1937 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation With few exceptions (Alvarez, 1993; Alvarez & Risko, 1989; Carriedo & Alonso-Tapia, 1995; Kaefer, 2020), participants infre-quently read narrative texts 20 2 {'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'With'}, 'amod': {'narrative', 'few'}, 'pobj': {'exceptions'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'Alvarez', '1989', '1995', '1993', '2020'}, 'conj': {'Alvarez', 'Kaefer', 'Risko', 'Carriedo', 'Tapia'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'compound': {'Alonso'}, 'nsubj': {'infre', 'participants'}, 'advmod': {'quently'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}} Long Low Low
1938 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Therefore, the effects of knowledge activation during the processing of narrative texts is an underresearched area that should be further explored 21 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'further', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'effects'}, 'prep': {'during', 'of'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'narrative'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'processing', 'texts'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'underresearched'}, 'attr': {'area'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'explored'}} Long High Low
1939 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Grade Levels Across the 88 investigated techniques, nearly half (48%) included undergradu- ate participants (n = 42) 17 2 {'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SYM': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, NUM, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Grade'}, 'nsubj': {'half', 'Levels'}, 'prep': {'Across'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'48', '88'}, 'amod': {'undergradu-', 'investigated', 'ate'}, 'pobj': {'techniques'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'nearly'}, 'appos': {'%', 'n'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'participants'}, 'nmod': {'='}, 'conj': {'42'}} Medium Low Low
1940 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Although some studies investigated techniques across grade levels (e.g., Gurlitt & Renkl, 2008), fewer studies explored knowledge acti- vation with high school (n = 20), middle school (n = 18), upper elementary (n = 20), and lower elementary (n = 2) students 42 5 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 16, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 6, 'NUM': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'SYM': 4} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'det': {'some'}, 'nsubj': {'studies'}, 'advcl': {'investigated'}, 'dobj': {'techniques', 'vation'}, 'prep': {'with', 'across', '2'}, 'compound': {'grade', 'acti-', 'knowledge'}, 'pobj': {'levels', 'school'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'Gurlitt'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'n'}, 'conj': {'elementary', 'Renkl', '='}, 'appos': {'students', '18', '2008'}, 'amod': {'lower', 'high', 'fewer', 'upper', 'middle'}, 'ROOT': {'explored'}, 'nummod': {'20'}, 'dep': {'school'}, 'nmod': {'='}} Long Low Medium
1941 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These results illuminate a dearth of research on activation techniques for younger students 13 5 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'results'}, 'ROOT': {'illuminate'}, 'dobj': {'dearth'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'techniques', 'research'}, 'compound': {'activation'}, 'amod': {'younger'}} Medium High Low
1942 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation One potential explanation is that the stress in early grades is on acquiring foundational reading skills 16 7 {'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1} [NUM, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'amod': {'potential', 'foundational', 'early'}, 'nsubj': {'explanation', 'stress'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'grades'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'acquiring'}, 'compound': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'skills'}} Medium High Medium
1943 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Despite this paucity of research, elementary teachers are often encouraged to activate their students’ knowledge before reading 17 7 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'prep': {'of', 'before', 'Despite'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'paucity', 'research'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'elementary'}, 'nsubjpass': {'teachers'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'ROOT': {'encouraged'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Medium High Medium
1944 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Addressing Misconceptions Nine articles addressed the issue of students’ misconceptions, all within the domain of science (e.g., Alvermann et al., 1985; Biemans et al., 2001) 25 7 {'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 10, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 2} [VERB, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Misconceptions', 'Addressing', 'et'}, 'nummod': {'Nine'}, 'nsubj': {'articles'}, 'ROOT': {'addressed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'.', 'issue'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'misconceptions', 'science'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'all'}, 'nmod': {'Alvermann'}, 'npadvmod': {'al'}, 'appos': {'Biemans', '.', '1985', 'et', '2001'}, 'conj': {'al'}} Long High Low
1945 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Misconceptions can influence students’ reading (Kendeou et al., 2014) and are particularly prevalent in science (Treagust, 1988) 17 4 {'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Misconceptions'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'influence'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'dobj': {'reading'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'Treagust', 'Kendeou'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '1988', 'et'}, 'conj': {'.', 'are'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'particularly'}, 'acomp': {'prevalent'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'science'}} Medium High Low
1946 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Researchers in the included studies addressed misconceptions through augmented activation, refutation texts, or analogical reasoning 15 4 {'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Researchers'}, 'prep': {'through', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'augmented', 'included', 'analogical'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'activation'}, 'ROOT': {'addressed'}, 'dobj': {'misconceptions'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'refutation'}, 'conj': {'reasoning', 'texts'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Medium High Low
1947 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Augmented activation is when students are told that what they are about to read may be different from what they already know (Alvermann & Hynd, 1989), refutation texts state and refute common scientific misconcep-tions (Alvermann & Hague, 1989), and analogical reasoning uses analogies as a tool to address misconceptions (Braasch & Goldman 52 20 {'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN] {'amod': {'Augmented', 'misconcep', 'analogical', 'scientific', 'common'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', 'state', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'already', 'when'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'told'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'pobj': {'tool', 'what'}, 'csubj': {'are'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as', 'from'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'ccomp': {'be', 'uses'}, 'acomp': {'different'}, 'dobj': {'misconceptions', 'what', 'tions', 'Alvermann', 'analogies'}, 'pcomp': {'know'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Goldman', 'Hague', 'reasoning', 'refute', 'Hynd'}, 'npadvmod': {'1989'}, 'compound': {'refutation', 'texts'}, 'appos': {'Braasch', 'Alvermann'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'acl': {'address'}} Long High High
1948 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, miscon-ceptions are different from irrelevant knowledge, which is knowledge extraneous to the text at hand, although not necessarily incorrect (Kaefer, 2020; Mannies et al., 1989). 26 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'necessarily', 'However'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'compound': {'miscon'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'ceptions'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'different'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'from'}, 'amod': {'irrelevant', 'extraneous', 'incorrect'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'hand', 'text'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'knowledge', 'Kaefer'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '1989', 'et', '2020'}, 'npadvmod': {'Mannies'}} Long High Medium
1949 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 88In contrast to what others have reported (Alvermann & Hague, 1989; Kendeou et al., 2014), Pressley et al 18 4 {'NUM': 3, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'nummod': {'88In'}, 'ROOT': {'contrast', 'Kendeou'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'Alvermann'}, 'nsubj': {'others'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'pcomp': {'reported'}, 'punct': {'al', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Hague'}, 'appos': {'2014', '1989', '.', 'Pressley'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}} Medium High Low
1950 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (1990) found that activating students’ inaccurate infor - mation may not be detrimental to comprehension 15 5 {'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB] {'punct': {'(', '-', ')', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'1990', 'mation'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'activating'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'amod': {'inaccurate'}, 'compound': {'infor'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'detrimental'}, 'xcomp': {'comprehension'}} Medium High Medium
1951 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Therefore, students’ inaccurate prior knowledge may shift more easily than established scientific misconceptions 13 4 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'easily', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'amod': {'inaccurate', 'prior', 'scientific'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'shift'}, 'mark': {'than'}, 'dep': {'established'}, 'dobj': {'misconceptions'}} Medium High Medium
1952 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, Hattan and Alexander (2021) examined the use of relational reasoning prompts that asked students how their knowledge may be different from or in conflict with the social studies texts they were reading, which proved helpful to their comprehension 39 19 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'they', 'knowledge', 'that', 'Hattan'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'in'}, 'appos': {'2021'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'use', 'texts'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'amod': {'social', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'studies', 'reasoning'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'prompts', 'conflict', 'comprehension'}, 'relcl': {'asked'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'may', 'were'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'different', 'helpful'}, 'advcl': {'proved'}} Long High Medium
1953 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Again, misconceptions were not the focus of that study, but such structured prompts could support students in addressing either inaccurate or incomplete prior knowledge vis-à-vis text content 27 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Again'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'prompts', 'misconceptions'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'attr': {'focus'}, 'prep': {'vis', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'content', '-', 'study', 'à'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'amod': {'structured', 'such', 'prior', 'vis'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'conj': {'incomplete', 'support'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'knowledge'}, 'pcomp': {'addressing'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'acomp': {'inaccurate'}, 'compound': {'text'}} Long High Low
1954 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Before, During, or After Reading Overall, prior knowledge activation occurred primarily before reading 13 5 {'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2} [ADP, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'primarily', 'Before'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'During'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'prep': {'before', 'After'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'Reading'}, 'pobj': {'Overall'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'nsubj': {'activation'}, 'conj': {'occurred'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Medium High Low
1955 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In fact, 47 of the 88 techniques solely addressed knowledge activation before reading, while 65 of the techniques included a prereading prompt, even if it was combined with during or after reading activation 33 16 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'before', 'during', 'with', 'of', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'fact'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'47', '88'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'solely', 'even'}, 'amod': {'prereading', 'addressed'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'dep': {'activation'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'mark': {'if', 'while'}, 'nsubj': {'65'}, 'advcl': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'prompt'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'combined'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'after'}} Long High High
1956 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Knowledge activation was initiated solely during reading in 19 of the techniques, while 28 techniques included during read-ing scaffolds in addition to before or after reading activation 27 12 {'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'compound': {'Knowledge'}, 'nsubjpass': {'activation'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'initiated'}, 'advmod': {'solely'}, 'prep': {'before', 'during', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'while'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'techniques', '19', 'addition', 'scaffolds'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nummod': {'28'}, 'npadvmod': {'techniques'}, 'acl': {'included'}, 'amod': {'read'}, 'prt': {'ing'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'after'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'activation'}} Long High Medium
1957 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation There were 17 instances when postreading activation took place alongside before or during read-ing but only 1 instance when knowledge activation occurred solely after reading 25 10 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, VERB, NUM, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, NUM, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'nummod': {'17', '1'}, 'attr': {'instances'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'when', 'before', 'solely', 'alongside'}, 'amod': {'postreading'}, 'nsubj': {'activation'}, 'advcl': {'took'}, 'dobj': {'place'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'during'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'read'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'ing'}, 'npadvmod': {'instance'}, 'relcl': {'occurred'}, 'prep': {'after'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High High
1958 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation From a practical perspective, these results are not surprising, as teachers are often encouraged to activate students’ knowledge, typically topic-specific knowl-edge, prior to reading or engaging with course content (Hattan et al., 2015) 33 12 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'From', 'with', 'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'amod': {'practical', 'specific'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'al', 'perspective'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'results'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'surprising'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubjpass': {'teachers'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'prior', 'typically'}, 'advcl': {'encouraged'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', '.'}, 'npadvmod': {'topic', 'et'}, 'compound': {'knowl', 'course'}, 'appos': {'Hattan', '2015', 'edge'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'engaging'}} Long High Medium
1959 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, as mentioned, the Construction Integration Model of Text Comprehension (Kintsch, 1998) emphasizes a continuous interaction between the reader and the text, suggesting the importance of also scaffolding students’ knowl-edge activation during or after reading 35 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'also', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'mentioned', 'suggesting'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Construction', 'Text', 'knowl', 'edge', 'Integration'}, 'nsubj': {'Model'}, 'prep': {'during', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'Comprehension', 'reader'}, 'appos': {'Kintsch'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998'}, 'ROOT': {'emphasizes'}, 'amod': {'continuous'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'interaction', 'importance'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'after', 'text'}, 'pcomp': {'reading', 'scaffolding'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Medium
1960 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation As such, the activation of prior knowledge during and after reading may support knowledge integration and learning from texts (Hattan & Lupo, 2020) 23 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'such'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'activation'}, 'prep': {'after', 'during', 'of', 'from'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'reading', 'texts'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'support'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'dobj': {'integration'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'Lupo'}, 'appos': {'Hattan'}, 'npadvmod': {'2020'}} Long High Medium
1961 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This illuminates the importance of clearly delineat-ing the process of knowledge activation, which should then map onto the knowl-edge activation techniques that are investigated in the studies 27 14 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'which', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'illuminates'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'importance'}, 'prep': {'onto', 'of', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'clearly', 'then'}, 'npadvmod': {'delineat'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'techniques', 'ing', 'process', 'activation'}, 'compound': {'knowl', 'knowledge', 'edge', 'activation'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'relcl': {'investigated', 'map'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}} Long High Low
1962 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Individual or Collaborative Activation The vast majority of techniques required participants to activate their prior knowledge individually (n = 71), with fewer techniques supporting pair (n = 3) or group (n = 14) activation 34 7 {'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SYM': 3, 'NUM': 3} [ADJ, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nmod': {'Individual', '='}, 'cc': {'or', 'n'}, 'conj': {'group', 'Collaborative', '3', '='}, 'npadvmod': {'Activation', '='}, 'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'fewer', 'vast', 'prior'}, 'nsubj': {'majority', 'techniques'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', '14'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'pair', 'participants'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'individually'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'dep': {'activation', 'n'}, 'nummod': {'71'}, 'pcomp': {'supporting'}, 'appos': {'n'}} Long High Low
1963 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Given that many studies took place in lab-like set- tings with undergraduate participants, this pattern is not surprising 18 7 {'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ] {'prep': {'with', 'in', 'Given'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'many', 'undergraduate', 'set-', 'like'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'pattern'}, 'pcomp': {'took'}, 'dobj': {'place'}, 'npadvmod': {'lab'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'tings', 'participants'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'surprising'}} Medium High Medium
1964 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, reading is not only an individual pursuit, but also a social practice (Street, 1984) 15 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'reading'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'social'}, 'attr': {'pursuit'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'practice'}, 'appos': {'Street'}, 'npadvmod': {'1984'}} Medium High Low
1965 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation As such, more research is needed around how shared knowledge activation, in contrast to individual activation, influences readers’ overall comprehension of text or may either mitigate or exacerbate the inaccurate understandings that indi-viduals hold relative to the topic or domain. 40 18 {'SCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 14, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 2} [SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, CCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'overall', 'individual', 'inaccurate', 'such', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.', '’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'research'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'prep': {'around', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'relative', 'how'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'influences', 'indi'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'topic', 'contrast', 'text'}, 'poss': {'readers'}, 'nsubj': {'viduals', 'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'advcl': {'mitigate'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'exacerbate'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'understandings'}, 'relcl': {'hold'}} Long High High
1966 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation To What Extent Are Positive, Negative, Neutral, or Mixed Outcomes Associated With Those Categories 14 6 {'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'To'}, 'det': {'Those', 'What'}, 'nsubj': {'Extent'}, 'auxpass': {'Are'}, 'amod': {'Mixed', 'Negative', 'Positive'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'Outcomes', 'Neutral'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'pobj': {'Associated', 'Categories'}, 'prep': {'With'}} Medium High Low
1967 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In order to explore how knowledge activation was operationalized, categories were generated based on shared attributes of the 30 unique techniques included in this review 25 10 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'based', 'of', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'order', 'attributes', 'review'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'included', 'explore'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'nsubjpass': {'activation', 'categories'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'ccomp': {'operationalized'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'generated'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'unique'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nummod': {'30'}} Long High Medium
1968 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation As displayed in Table 3, those techniques fell into eight categories: open-ended prompts, procedural or strategic supports during reading, visual rep-resentation, analogical reasoning, text alteration, augmented activation, extratex-tual activities, and spontaneous activation 32 8 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 16, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 9, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'displayed'}, 'prep': {'into', 'during', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'categories', 'Table'}, 'nummod': {'eight', '3'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ':'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'nsubj': {'techniques'}, 'ROOT': {'fell'}, 'amod': {'ended', 'procedural', 'tual', 'spontaneous', 'augmented', 'analogical', 'visual', 'open'}, 'appos': {'supports', 'prompts', 'resentation', 'rep'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'strategic', 'reasoning', 'alteration', 'activation', 'activities'}, 'compound': {'extratex', 'text'}} Long High Medium
1969 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Although there is no explicit hierarchy to the derived categories, the following sections begin with the most common category: open-ended prompts 21 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'amod': {'following', 'ended', 'derived', 'open', 'explicit', 'common'}, 'attr': {'hierarchy'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'category', 'categories'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'sections'}, 'ROOT': {'begin'}, 'advmod': {'most'}, 'appos': {'prompts'}} Long High Medium
1970 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The second category, procedural and strategic supports, was similar to open-ended prompts in that they often included teacher questioning, but they differed from those prompts in that there were more explicit attempts to reinforce certain reading behaviors 37 18 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'those'}, 'amod': {'ended', 'certain', 'procedural', 'second', 'open', 'explicit'}, 'nsubj': {'category', 'they'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'strategic', 'differed'}, 'appos': {'supports'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'similar'}, 'prep': {'to', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'prompts'}, 'mark': {'that', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'more'}, 'advcl': {'included', 'were'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'teacher'}, 'dobj': {'behaviors', 'questioning'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'attr': {'attempts'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'reinforce'}} Long High High
1971 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The third through fifth categories dealt more expressly with how concepts con-nect to each other (i.e., visual, analogical reasoning, and text alteration) 22 10 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'each'}, 'nsubj': {'third'}, 'prep': {'through', 'with', 'to'}, 'amod': {'fifth', 'analogical', 'visual'}, 'pobj': {'other', 'categories'}, 'ROOT': {'dealt'}, 'advmod': {'expressly', 'i.e.', 'more', 'how'}, 'pcomp': {'concepts'}, 'npadvmod': {'con'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'acomp': {'nect'}, 'appos': {'reasoning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'conj': {'alteration'}} Long High Medium
1972 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, visual representations helped students understand how their prior knowledge of concepts and subconcepts related to each other via concept maps; analogical reasoning supported students in considering how their prior knowledge may be similar to the text at hand; and text alteration is when the texts students read were manipulated in some way, sometimes prompting students to consider how a concept they presumably understood (e.g., tire pressure) could help them learn about a new concept (e.g., wind flow patterns) 80 33 {'ADP': 9, 'NOUN': 26, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADJ': 7, 'VERB': 12, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 6, 'AUX': 5, 'ADV': 4, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'about', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'via', 'at', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'way', 'concepts', 'example', 'other', 'hand', 'text', 'concept', 'maps'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'new', 'prior', 'analogical', 'visual'}, 'nsubj': {'them', 'they', 'students', 'knowledge', 'reasoning', 'alteration', 'representations'}, 'ROOT': {'helped'}, 'ccomp': {'help', 'understand', 'supported', 'be', 'manipulated', 'learn'}, 'advmod': {'presumably', 'when', 'sometimes', 'e.g.', 'how'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'is', 'subconcepts'}, 'acl': {'related'}, 'det': {'a', 'some', 'the', 'each'}, 'compound': {'wind', 'texts', 'tire', 'flow', 'text', 'concept'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'concept'}, 'pcomp': {'considering'}, 'aux': {'could', 'may', 'to'}, 'acomp': {'similar'}, 'advcl': {'read', 'prompting'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'relcl': {'understood'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'patterns', 'pressure'}} Long High High
1973 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The sixth and seventh categories described augmented activation and extratex- tual activities 12 3 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 1} [DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'sixth', 'augmented', 'extratex-', 'tual'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'activities', 'seventh'}, 'nsubj': {'categories'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'dobj': {'activation'}} Medium High Low
1974 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These two categories are presented consecutively since the research regarding the effectiveness of extratextual activities was quite mixed, but the negative effects of extratextual activities could sometimes be mitigated with the use of augmented activation 35 19 {'DET': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubjpass': {'effects', 'categories'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'ROOT': {'presented'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'consecutively', 'sometimes'}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'nsubj': {'research'}, 'prep': {'with', 'regarding', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'effectiveness', 'use', 'activities'}, 'amod': {'extratextual', 'augmented', 'negative'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'mixed'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'conj': {'mitigated'}} Long High Medium
1975 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Finally, information on spontaneous activation is presented, which has the least amount of empirical evidence and also requires less explicit prompting 21 11 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'also', 'less', 'Finally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'information'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'amod': {'empirical', 'least', 'explicit', 'spontaneous'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'evidence'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'presented'}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'advcl': {'has'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'amount', 'prompting'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'requires'}} Long High Low
1976 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Specifically, each knowledge activation technique (n = 88) was coded according to whether it improved students’ reading performance or not 20 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SYM': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PART] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'det': {'each'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge'}, 'nsubjpass': {'technique'}, 'appos': {'n'}, 'nmod': {'='}, 'nummod': {'88'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'coded'}, 'prep': {'to', 'according'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'pcomp': {'improved'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'performance'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Medium
1977 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (See last column in Table S3.) For the 88 documented instances, 51 resulted in positive effects on readers’ learning or comprehension, whereas 15 demonstrated negative outcomes 26 9 {'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NUM, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NUM, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'’', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'ROOT': {'See', 'resulted'}, 'amod': {'documented', 'positive', 'last', 'negative'}, 'dobj': {'outcomes', 'column'}, 'prep': {'on', 'For', 'in'}, 'compound': {'Table'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'effects', 'S3', 'instances'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'88'}, 'nsubj': {'51', '15'}, 'nmod': {'readers'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'comprehension'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'advcl': {'demonstrated'}} Long High Medium
1978 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Another eight cases reported no significant outcomes, and an addi-tional eight recorded mixed outcomes depending on the outcome measure used 20 9 {'DET': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NUM, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'det': {'Another', 'an', 'the', 'no'}, 'nummod': {'eight'}, 'nsubj': {'cases'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'amod': {'tional', 'significant', 'recorded', 'mixed'}, 'dobj': {'outcomes'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'addi'}, 'conj': {'outcomes'}, 'prep': {'on', 'depending'}, 'compound': {'outcome'}, 'pobj': {'measure'}, 'ccomp': {'used'}} Long High Low
1979 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The remaining six instances were qualitative or exploratory studies that did not quantitatively assess the influence of activation on learning or comprehension 22 11 {'DET': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2} [DET, VERB, NUM, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'remaining', 'qualitative'}, 'nummod': {'six'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'instances'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'exploratory', 'comprehension'}, 'attr': {'studies'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'quantitatively'}, 'relcl': {'assess'}, 'dobj': {'influence'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'learning'}} Long High Low
1980 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Effect sizes were reported for 20 of the 88 instances of prior knowledge activa- tion techniques 16 5 {'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'Effect', 'tion'}, 'nsubjpass': {'sizes'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'nsubj': {'20'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'88'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'instances'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'dep': {'activa-'}, 'dobj': {'techniques'}} Medium High Low
1981 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In some cases, prior knowledge activation was integrated into a larger intervention (Andreassen & Bråten, 2011) 16 5 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'into', 'In'}, 'det': {'a', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'intervention'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'larger', 'prior'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'nsubjpass': {'activation'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'integrated'}, 'appos': {'Andreassen', '2011'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Bråten'}} Medium High Low
1982 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In those instances, the influence of the entire intervention on student learning was examined since the unique influ-ences of prior knowledge activation could not be determined 26 13 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'since', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'ences', 'instances', 'learning', 'intervention', 'activation'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'influence'}, 'amod': {'entire', 'unique', 'prior'}, 'compound': {'influ', 'knowledge', 'student'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'was'}, 'csubjpass': {'examined'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'determined'}} Long High Medium
1983 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation To investigate the effectiveness of prior knowledge activation techniques on comprehension out-comes, patterns were identified within each of the eight categories in an effort to 25 14 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'investigate'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'effectiveness', 'comes'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'out', 'in', 'of'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'comprehension', 'each', 'effort', 'categories'}, 'punct': {',', '-', 'to'}, 'nsubjpass': {'patterns'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'nummod': {'eight'}} Long High Low
1984 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts 91discern whether, when, how, and for whom the techniques facilitate comprehension 20 11 {'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Leveraging'}, 'dobj': {'Sense', 'What'}, 'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'ccomp': {'Know'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'Make'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'whom', 'Texts'}, 'punct': {',', '91discern'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'conj': {'comprehension', 'how'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'techniques', 'facilitate'}} Long High High
1985 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Open-Ended Prompts Open-ended prompts, which asked students to respond to questions by sharing everything they knew related to a question, were investigated in 23 of the 54 articles, making it the largest category 33 14 {'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 9, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 2} [ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'Open', 'largest', 'Ended', 'ended'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nmod': {'Prompts'}, 'npadvmod': {'Open'}, 'nsubjpass': {'prompts'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'it', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'asked', 'knew'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'everything'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'respond'}, 'prep': {'by', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'articles', '23', 'questions', 'question'}, 'pcomp': {'sharing'}, 'acl': {'related'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'investigated'}, 'nummod': {'54'}, 'advcl': {'making'}, 'ccomp': {'category'}} Long High Low
1986 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These prompts typically asked students to consider what they already knew about a particular topic 15 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'prompts', 'they'}, 'advmod': {'already', 'typically'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'what'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'ccomp': {'knew'}, 'prep': {'about'}, 'amod': {'particular'}, 'pobj': {'topic'}} Medium High Low
1987 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation One exception was when students were asked to activate their knowledge of metacognitive strategies (Kostons & van der Werf, 2015) 20 7 {'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'exception'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advcl': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'metacognitive'}, 'pobj': {'strategies'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Kostons', '2015'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'compound': {'der', 'van'}, 'conj': {'Werf'}} Long High Medium
1988 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In most instances, open-ended questions were posed before reading; however, occasionally readers were asked to share what they knew after reading as well (Andreassen & Bråten, 2011) 27 12 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'after', 'before', 'In'}, 'amod': {'open', 'most', 'ended'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'instances'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubjpass': {'readers', 'questions'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ccomp': {'knew', 'posed'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'occasionally', 'however'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'share'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'Andreassen'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Bråten'}, 'npadvmod': {'2011'}} Long High Low
1989 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In this category, participants ranged from lower elementary school through college, and the domains included social studies, science, and reading 20 7 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'through', 'In', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'category', 'school', 'college'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'domains', 'participants'}, 'ROOT': {'ranged'}, 'amod': {'social', 'lower', 'elementary'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reading', 'included', 'science'}, 'dobj': {'studies'}} Long High Low
1990 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Across the studies, open-ended prompts occurred through individual written knowledge activation (Peeck et al., 1982), as well as via whole class (Dole et al., 1991), small group (Schmidt et al., 1989) or paired discussions (Kiili et al., 2012) 38 9 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 16, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 15, 'NUM': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, X, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'through', 'via', 'group', 'Across'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'activation', 'class'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'ended', 'individual', 'written', 'small', 'whole', 'open'}, 'nsubj': {'prompts'}, 'ROOT': {'occurred'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'Dole', 'et'}, 'appos': {'Peeck', 'al', '2012', '1989', '1982', 'Schmidt', 'Kiili', '1991'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}, 'conj': {'paired', 'al', '.'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'cc': {'or', 'as'}, 'dobj': {'discussions'}} Long High Low
1991 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Analyses revealed that the effectiveness of open-ended knowledge activation varied by grade level, as well as the degree to which the prompts were collabora-tive in nature 26 13 {'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Analyses', 'prompts'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'effectiveness'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'open'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'ended'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'collabora', 'grade'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'which', 'nature', 'level'}, 'acl': {'varied'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'conj': {'degree'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'attr': {'tive'}} Long High Medium
1992 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Hattan and Alexander (2021) found that individual, written knowledge mobilization did not support fifth- and sixth-grade students’ text comprehension in comparison to a more structured relational reasoning tech-nique or a control condition 34 12 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, X, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'nique', 'comparison', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'mobilization', 'Hattan'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'condition', 'grade', 'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'2021'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'structured', 'individual', 'written', 'relational', 'sixth'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'reasoning', 'tech', 'text', 'control'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'support'}, 'nmod': {'fifth-'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'comprehension'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'advmod': {'more'}} Long High Medium
1993 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Yet researchers found that upper elementary and middle school students who responded to open-ended prompts via whole class, group, or paired discussions, experienced positive comprehension outcomes (Andreassen & Bråten, 2011; Bråten et al., 2017, Dole et al., 1991) 38 8 {'CCONJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PROPN': 10, 'NUM': 3} [CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'cc': {'and', 'Yet', '&', 'or'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'researchers', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'ended', 'whole', 'upper', 'elementary'}, 'conj': {'group', 'experienced', 'Bråten', 'middle'}, 'compound': {'et', 'Dole', 'school', 'comprehension'}, 'relcl': {'responded'}, 'prep': {'via', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'open'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', 'et', ',', ';'}, 'pobj': {'prompts', 'class'}, 'ccomp': {'paired'}, 'dobj': {'discussions', 'al', 'outcomes'}, 'appos': {'1991', 'Andreassen', '2017', '2011'}, 'dep': {'Bråten'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.'}} Long High Medium
1994 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Therefore, it is possible that the opportunity to discuss with peers may be particularly impor - tant for knowledge activation with upper elementary and middle school students 27 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'particularly', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'opportunity'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'possible'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'acl': {'discuss'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'peers', 'students'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'impor'}, 'attr': {'tant'}, 'amod': {'upper'}, 'preconj': {'elementary'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'school', 'middle'}} Long High Medium
1995 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Additionally, Stahl (2008) provided opportunities for lower elementary stu- dents to respond to open-ended prompts both individually and collaboratively via a Know-Want to learn-Learned (KWL) chart 26 8 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PRON, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'individually', 'Additionally', 'open'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Stahl', 'Want'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'ROOT': {'provided'}, 'dobj': {'KWL', 'opportunities'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'amod': {'lower', 'elementary', 'ended'}, 'compound': {'stu-', 'Know'}, 'pobj': {'prompts', 'dents', 'chart'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'respond'}, 'prep': {'via', 'to'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'collaboratively'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pcomp': {'learn'}, 'nmod': {'Learned'}} Long High Medium
1996 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, in this study, KWL did not lead to improved performance on maze, vocabulary recognition, or free recall tasks 19 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'tasks', 'study'}, 'nsubj': {'KWL'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'lead'}, 'amod': {'free', 'maze', 'improved', 'vocabulary'}, 'conj': {'recognition'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'recall'}} Medium High Low
1997 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Perhaps due to their more limited experiences and background knowledge, younger students require more structured knowledge activation support to guide them in accessing relevant knowledge 25 10 {'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADV, ADP, ADP, PRON, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Perhaps', 'more'}, 'prep': {'in', 'due'}, 'pcomp': {'accessing', 'to'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'limited', 'structured', 'relevant', 'younger'}, 'pobj': {'experiences'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'background'}, 'conj': {'knowledge'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'require'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'them', 'support'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'guide'}} Long High Low
1998 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Of course, additional studies are needed to explore possible reasons for those findings 13 5 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'additional', 'possible'}, 'nsubjpass': {'studies'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'explore'}, 'dobj': {'reasons'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'pobj': {'findings'}} Medium High Low
1999 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In contrast to mixed results for elementary and middle-school students, open- ended prompts appeared to facilitate text comprehension more consistently for high school (Martin et al., 1986) and undergraduate students (Hattan & Alexander, 2018; Pressley et al., 1990) 38 8 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 10, 'NUM': 3} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'to', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'results', 'contrast', 'school'}, 'amod': {'mixed', 'ended', 'high', 'elementary', 'middle'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'school', 'undergraduate', 'Alexander'}, 'nmod': {'open-'}, 'nsubj': {'prompts'}, 'ROOT': {'appeared'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'facilitate'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'comprehension'}, 'advmod': {'more', 'consistently'}, 'appos': {'Martin', '1986', 'Hattan', '1990'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018', 'al', 'Pressley', 'et'}} Long High Low
2000 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, although studies on high school students included both individual (e.g., Wetzels, Kester, & van Merriënboer, 2011) and collaborative (e.g., Lupo et al., 2019) knowledge activation, all researchers who investigated undergraduate students’ responses to open-ended prompts did so via individual writing and not discussion 44 13 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 14, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, NOUN] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'However', 'so', 'open'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'researchers', 'who'}, 'prep': {'via', 'on', 'to'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'high', 'individual', 'ended'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'van', 'school'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'prompts', 'writing'}, 'advcl': {'included'}, 'det': {'all', 'both'}, 'dobj': {'individual', 'responses'}, 'intj': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'et', '2019', 'Wetzels', '2011'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'Kester', 'discussion', 'Merriënboer'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'nmod': {'.', 'al', 'Lupo', 'collaborative'}, 'relcl': {'investigated'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ROOT': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Medium
2001 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Two studies involving the use of open-ended knowledge activation with high school students had particularly interesting results 17 5 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'Two'}, 'nsubj': {'studies'}, 'acl': {'involving'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'use', 'results'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'open', 'particularly'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'high', 'interesting', 'ended'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'school'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'students'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}} Medium High Low
2002 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For one, Guzzetti (1990) reported no significant differences on application problems between high school 14 5 {'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'problems', 'school'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Guzzetti'}, 'appos': {'1990'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'det': {'no'}, 'amod': {'high', 'significant'}, 'dobj': {'differences'}, 'compound': {'application'}} Medium High Low
2003 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 92students who activated their prior knowledge via group discussion and a control group 13 5 {'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'92students'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'activated'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'via'}, 'compound': {'group', 'control'}, 'pobj': {'discussion'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'conj': {'group'}} Medium High Low
2004 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, qualitative analyses of interviews revealed that while students often thought that they did not have any relevant prior topic knowledge about Boyle’s law, they, in fact, had prior experiences that they accurately related to the text topic 38 20 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'accurately', 'often', 'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'qualitative', 'they'}, 'dobj': {'experiences', 'knowledge', 'analyses'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'law', 'fact', 'interviews'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'mark': {'that', 'while'}, 'advcl': {'thought'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'have', 'had'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'prior'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'text'}, 'poss': {'Boyle'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'acl': {'related'}} Long High High
2005 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2012) examined students’ talk while activat-ing knowledge, reading, and writing a collaborative essay 13 3 {'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'meta': {'2012'}, 'amod': {'ing', 'examined', 'collaborative'}, 'appos': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'talk'}, 'prep': {'while'}, 'npadvmod': {'activat'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'conj': {'reading', 'writing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'essay'}} Medium High Medium
2006 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Although the study did not include a comparison group, the researchers found five collaborative reading profiles, ranging from coconstructors to silent readers 22 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'study'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'ranging', 'include'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'comparison'}, 'dobj': {'group', 'profiles'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'nummod': {'five'}, 'amod': {'silent', 'collaborative'}, 'prep': {'to', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'coconstructors', 'readers'}} Long High Medium
2007 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These results suggested that high school students may have varying levels of comfort and different approaches to sharing their knowledge via open-ended discussion 23 9 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'These'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'results'}, 'ROOT': {'suggested'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'different', 'high', 'varying', 'ended'}, 'compound': {'school'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'levels'}, 'prep': {'via', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'discussion', 'comfort'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'approaches'}, 'pcomp': {'sharing'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'open'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Long High Medium
2008 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Techniques in the open-ended category also revealed differences depending on the level of students’ knowledge, although outcomes were not consistent 20 9 {'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'Techniques', 'outcomes'}, 'prep': {'depending', 'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'open'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'ended'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'category', 'level'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'dobj': {'differences'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'advcl': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'consistent'}} Long High Medium
2009 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (1989) found that open-ended small group discussions were beneficial for both 9th- and 10th-grade students 15 5 {'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NUM, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'discussions', '1989'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'open'}, 'amod': {'small', '10th', 'ended'}, 'compound': {'group', 'grade'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'beneficial'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'pobj': {'9th-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'students'}} Medium High Medium
2010 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Yet the 10th-grade students, who were assumed to have more topic knowledge, produced more explanations than the 9th graders 19 10 {'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1} [CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Yet'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'10th', '9th', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'grade', 'topic'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'nsubjpass': {'who'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'assumed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'explanations'}, 'ROOT': {'produced'}, 'prep': {'than'}, 'pobj': {'graders'}} Medium High Low
2011 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In another study, Wetzels, Kester, and van Merriënboer (2011) compared written, open-ended mobilization to perspective taking, which asked students to examine a picture of a heart from the perspective of a blood ves-sel 33 13 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'another', 'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'heart', '-', 'perspective', 'mobilization', 'ves', 'sel', 'taking', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Kester', 'Wetzels', 'Merriënboer'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'perspective', 'blood', 'van'}, 'appos': {'2011'}, 'ROOT': {'compared'}, 'amod': {'written', 'open', 'ended'}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'relcl': {'asked'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'picture'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'examine'}} Long High Low
2012 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation They found that open-ended mobilization was more beneficial for high school students presumed to have lower topic knowledge, compared to undergraduate students assumed to have higher topic knowledge 28 10 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 2} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They', 'mobilization'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'ended', 'undergraduate', 'lower', 'high', 'higher', 'open'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'acomp': {'beneficial'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'compared'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'school'}, 'pobj': {'students'}, 'acl': {'assumed', 'presumed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}} Long High Medium
2013 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The authors explained that mobilization allows students to “freely activate a set of concepts that are only loosely connected and have not yet developed into a coherent knowledge struc-ture,” (p 30 14 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'mobilization', 'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'explained'}, 'ccomp': {'activate', 'allows'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'loosely', 'freely', 'yet'}, 'dobj': {'set'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'concepts', 'ture'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'connected'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'developed'}, 'amod': {'coherent'}, 'compound': {'struc', 'knowledge'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High Low
2014 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Analysis of the outcomes also revealed that activating irrelevant or incompat- ible information prior to or during reading could hinder comprehension 21 9 {'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Analysis'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'outcomes'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'prior'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'activating'}, 'amod': {'irrelevant'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'incompat-', 'during', 'ible'}, 'dobj': {'comprehension', 'information'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'compound': {'hinder'}} Long High Medium
2015 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (1989) found that mobilizing relevant information was helpful for middle school students’ free recall, whereas mobilizing irrelevant information impaired students’ comprehension 21 4 {'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'1989'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'whereas', 'that'}, 'csubj': {'mobilizing'}, 'amod': {'irrelevant', 'impaired', 'free', 'relevant', 'middle'}, 'dobj': {'comprehension', 'information'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'helpful'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'compound': {'school'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'pobj': {'recall'}, 'advcl': {'mobilizing'}, 'nmod': {'information'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High High
2016 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Collectively, these results support the idea that there may be a knowledge threshold for open-ended prompts to be useful (O’Reilly et al., 2019) 23 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, X, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Collectively', 'O’Reilly', 'open'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'results'}, 'ROOT': {'support'}, 'dobj': {'idea'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'acl': {'be'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'attr': {'threshold', '.'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'amod': {'ended'}, 'pobj': {'prompts'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'useful'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2019'}} Long High Medium
2017 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation That being said, for upper elementary and middle school students, peer discussions may help bridge the gap with collective knowl-edge activation 21 7 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'DET': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'That'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'advcl': {'said'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with'}, 'amod': {'collective', 'upper', 'elementary'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'school', 'middle'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'activation'}, 'compound': {'knowl', 'peer', 'edge'}, 'nsubj': {'discussions'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'help'}, 'xcomp': {'bridge'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'gap'}} Long High Low
2018 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Yet, substantially more research is needed on lower elementary students’ knowledge activation, for whom this type of open-ended prompting, even when paired with discussion, does not yet appear to be useful for compre-hension (Stahl, 2008) 35 17 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'PART': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'substantially', 'when', 'Yet', 'yet', 'even', 'open'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'lower', 'elementary', 'more', 'ended'}, 'nsubjpass': {'research'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'prep': {'with', 'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'pobj': {'whom', 'compre', '-', 'prompting', 'hension', 'discussion', 'activation'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'nsubj': {'type'}, 'relcl': {'paired', 'appear'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'useful'}, 'appos': {'Stahl'}, 'npadvmod': {'2008'}} Long High Medium
2019 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Procedural or Strategic Supports During Text Processing The next category of activation techniques involved targeting specific proce- dures or strategies during reading as a means of using students’ existing knowl-edge to enhance comprehension 33 12 {'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Procedural'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'Strategic', 'Text', 'knowl', 'activation', 'proce-'}, 'conj': {'category', 'Supports', 'strategies'}, 'prep': {'as', 'During', 'during', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'means', 'Processing'}, 'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'specific', 'next'}, 'ROOT': {'involved'}, 'xcomp': {'targeting'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'dures', 'comprehension'}, 'pcomp': {'using', 'reading'}, 'punct': {'’', '-'}, 'npadvmod': {'edge'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'enhance'}} Long High Low
2020 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Across 12 articles, an array of instructional procedures were used or strategic processes were reinforced 15 7 {'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'of', 'Across'}, 'nummod': {'12'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'procedures'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'an'}, 'nsubjpass': {'processes', 'array'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'instructional'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'reinforced'}} Medium High Low
2021 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Some of the instruc-tional procedures included supports a teacher would provide, such as teacher prompting or periodic questioning (e.g., Carr & Thompson, 1996; Hattan & Alexander, 2020) and providing written prompts (Hattan, 2020) 33 9 {'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 3} [PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'teacher', 'Some'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'-', 'instruc', 'tional', 'written', 'such', 'periodic'}, 'pobj': {'procedures'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'supports', 'prompts'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'relcl': {'provide'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'pcomp': {'prompting'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'Thompson', 'providing', 'Hattan', 'questioning', 'Alexander'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'Carr', '2020'}, 'appos': {'1996', 'Hattan', '2020'}} Long High Low
2022 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Other techniques in this category involved procedures that a student is expected to carry out, such 16 9 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ] {'amod': {'Other'}, 'nsubj': {'techniques'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'category'}, 'ROOT': {'involved'}, 'dobj': {'procedures', 'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'student'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'expected'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'carry'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'such'}} Medium High Low
2023 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts 93as the use of a metacognitive support device, which is a computer-supported prompt to think more deeply about their learning 29 14 {'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2} [VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Leveraging'}, 'dobj': {'Sense', 'What', 'use'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'Students'}, 'ccomp': {'Know'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'think', 'Make'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'compound': {'support', 'Texts'}, 'pobj': {'device', 'learning', '93as'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'metacognitive', 'supported'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'npadvmod': {'computer'}, 'attr': {'prompt'}, 'advmod': {'deeply', 'more'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
2024 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, the computer might prompt students to think about what they want to learn from a text (Bannert et al., 2009) 22 10 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'about', 'For', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'example', 'text'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'computer', 'they'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'prompt'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'what'}, 'xcomp': {'think', 'learn'}, 'pcomp': {'want'}, 'nmod': {'Bannert'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2009'}} Long High Low
2025 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Another technique that students would engage in is completion of a conditional knowledge questionnaire in which students would reflect on their goals for reading, strategies they would use to help them achieve those goals, and strategies they would avoid that might hinder their text understanding (Bouffard-Bouchard, 1994) 47 24 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'PRON': 8, 'AUX': 6, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, AUX, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'Another', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'them', 'they', 'students', 'technique', 'that'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'goals', 'reading', 'questionnaire', 'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'might', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'hinder', 'reflect', 'avoid', 'use', 'engage'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'strategies'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'completion'}, 'amod': {'conditional'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'Bouffard', 'text'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'xcomp': {'help'}, 'ccomp': {'achieve'}, 'dobj': {'goals', 'understanding'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'Bouchard', 'strategies'}, 'npadvmod': {'1994'}} Long High Low
2026 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Lastly, students may engage in perspective taking during read-ing (Wetzels, Kester, & van Merriënboer, 2011) 15 3 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Lastly'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'during', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'ing', 'perspective'}, 'acl': {'taking'}, 'compound': {'van', 'read'}, 'appos': {'Wetzels', '2011'}, 'conj': {'Kester', 'Merriënboer'}, 'cc': {'&'}} Medium High Low
2027 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, students were asked to take the role of a blood cell traveling through the heart to better under - stand a text about how the heart works 29 15 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'through', 'about', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'heart', 'example', 'cell'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'take'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'text'}, 'compound': {'blood'}, 'acl': {'traveling'}, 'advcl': {'better', 'stand'}, 'advmod': {'under', 'how'}, 'nsubj': {'heart'}, 'pcomp': {'works'}} Long High Medium
2028 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation When compared to a control group not receiving any treatment, these proce- dural and strategic supports tended to positively affect comprehension and learn-ing (Azevedo et al., 2007; Bannert et al., 2009; Elbro & Buch-Iversen, 2013; Spires & Donley, 1998) 39 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 11, 'NUM': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 13} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NUM, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'When', 'positively'}, 'advcl': {'compared'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'these', 'any'}, 'compound': {'Buch', 'control'}, 'pobj': {'group'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acl': {'receiving'}, 'dobj': {'treatment', 'comprehension'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'proce-', 'dural'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'al', '-', '.', 'Iversen', 'Elbro', 'strategic', 'ing', 'Spires', 'Donley', 'learn'}, 'nsubj': {'supports'}, 'ROOT': {'Azevedo', 'tended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'affect'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998', 'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2009', '2013', 'et', '2007', 'Bannert'}} Long High Medium
2029 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Wetzels, Kester, and van Merriënboer (2011) found benefits for both perspective taking and mobilization; while Hattan and Alexander (2021) only found benefits for relational reasoning 25 8 {'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Wetzels', 'perspective', 'Hattan'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'mobilization', 'Kester', 'Merriënboer', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'van'}, 'appos': {'2021', '2011'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'dobj': {'benefits'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'det': {'both'}, 'pobj': {'taking', 'reasoning'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'advcl': {'found'}, 'amod': {'relational'}} Long High Medium
2030 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Similarly, Carr and Thompson (1996) found that both teacher prompting and spontaneous activation had positive results on readers’ text comprehension 20 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Similarly'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Carr', 'teacher'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Thompson', 'activation'}, 'appos': {'1996'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'both'}, 'csubj': {'prompting'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'spontaneous'}, 'ccomp': {'had'}, 'dobj': {'results'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'poss': {'readers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'pobj': {'comprehension'}} Long High Medium
2031 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Visual Representation Visual representations required students to create a graphic display of their knowledge related to the text, and also provided opportunities for them to con-sider the relations between various concepts and subconcepts 33 15 {'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Visual', 'con'}, 'nmod': {'Representation'}, 'amod': {'Visual', 'graphic', 'various'}, 'nsubj': {'representations'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'relations', 'display', 'opportunities'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'create'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'between'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'sider', 'them', 'concepts', 'knowledge', 'text'}, 'acl': {'related'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'conj': {'provided', 'subconcepts'}, 'dative': {'to'}} Long High Low
2032 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Four articles in the current review examined students’ use of visual representations via concept maps 15 5 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'Four'}, 'nsubj': {'articles'}, 'prep': {'via', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'visual', 'current'}, 'pobj': {'representations', 'review', 'maps'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'use'}, 'compound': {'concept'}} Medium High Low
2033 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation All four articles focused on high school or undergraduate students and primarily led to positive comprehension results for these older readers 21 8 {'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'All', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'nsubj': {'articles'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to'}, 'amod': {'high', 'positive', 'older'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'results', 'school'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'undergraduate', 'students', 'led'}, 'advmod': {'primarily'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}} Long High Low
2034 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation When comparing visual representations to control groups or other forms of knowledge activation (Alvarez, 1993; Hattan & Alexander, 2018), concept maps led to significantly better text comprehension 27 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'significantly'}, 'advcl': {'comparing'}, 'amod': {'other', 'better', 'visual'}, 'dobj': {'representations', 'groups'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'control'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'forms', 'Hattan'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'concept', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'comprehension'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1993', '2018', 'Alvarez'}, 'nsubj': {'maps'}, 'ROOT': {'led'}} Long High Medium
2035 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, results were more nuanced when consider - ing the timing (e.g., before or after reading), the structure of visuals, and partici-pants’ relevant knowledge 24 11 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'before', 'e.g.', 'However', 'more'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'results'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'nuanced'}, 'advcl': {'consider'}, 'dep': {'ing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'timing'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'after', 'pants'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'visuals'}, 'appos': {'structure', 'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'partici'}, 'amod': {'relevant'}} Long High Medium
2036 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2015) compared the development of concept maps before reading to after reading 12 5 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 4} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADP, VERB] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'2015', 'compared'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'maps', 'development'}, 'prep': {'after', 'before', 'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'concept'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Medium High Low
2037 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Activating students’ knowledge after read-ing led to better performance on a multiple-choice comprehension assessment 14 4 {'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Activating'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '-'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'mark': {'after'}, 'compound': {'choice', 'read', 'comprehension'}, 'nsubj': {'ing'}, 'advcl': {'led'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'better'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'assessment'}, 'det': {'a'}} Medium High Medium
2038 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation To examine the structure of visual representations, Gurlitt and Renkl (2008) asked high school and undergraduate students to either create and label lines in a con-cept map, or label lines on an already created map 35 14 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PART, CCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'examine'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'structure', 'lines', 'school'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'created', 'cept', 'high', 'visual', 'con'}, 'pobj': {'map', 'representations'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Renkl', 'undergraduate', 'label', 'lines', 'Gurlitt'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'xcomp': {'create'}, 'compound': {'label'}, 'advmod': {'already'}} Long High Low
2039 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These researchers reported that high school students (who they assumed had less content knowledge) benefited from labeling provided lines 19 7 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'These'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'researchers', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'provided', 'high', 'less'}, 'compound': {'content', 'school'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'relcl': {'assumed'}, 'ccomp': {'had', 'benefited'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'lines'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pcomp': {'labeling'}} Medium High Medium
2040 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation By comparison, undergraduate students (who the researchers assumed had more knowledge) benefited from creating and labeling lines 17 7 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'By', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'comparison'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'researchers', 'who'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'relcl': {'assumed'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'lines'}, 'conj': {'labeling', 'benefited'}, 'pcomp': {'creating'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
2041 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In addition to considering timing and structure, the measures used to assess students’ comprehension could lead to different effects depending on the outcome measure 24 10 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'In', 'depending'}, 'pobj': {'effects', 'measure', 'addition'}, 'pcomp': {'considering'}, 'dobj': {'comprehension', 'timing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'structure'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'measures'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'assess'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ROOT': {'lead'}, 'amod': {'different'}, 'compound': {'outcome'}} Long High Low
2042 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Gurlitt and Renkl (2010) assessed students’ comprehen-sion with think-aloud protocols coded for elaboration, organization, and model 18 5 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'with', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'protocols', 'example', 'elaboration'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'Gurlitt', 'sion'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'organization', 'model', 'Renkl'}, 'appos': {'2010'}, 'amod': {'assessed'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'compound': {'aloud', 'comprehen'}, 'npadvmod': {'think'}, 'ROOT': {'coded'}} Medium High Low
2043 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 94construction, finding large effect sizes for model construction but not elaboration or organization 13 4 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'94construction', ','}, 'ROOT': {'finding'}, 'amod': {'large'}, 'compound': {'model', 'effect'}, 'dobj': {'sizes'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'construction'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'organization', 'elaboration'}} Medium High Low
2044 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Overall, these studies support the use of visual representations for activating students’ prior knowledge during text processing 17 5 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Overall'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'studies'}, 'ROOT': {'support'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'use'}, 'prep': {'for', 'during', 'of'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'visual'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'representations'}, 'pcomp': {'activating'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}, 'compound': {'text'}} Medium High Low
2045 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, more research is needed to determine at what point during the reading process visual representa-tions are most beneficial 19 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'advmod': {'However', 'most'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'more', 'visual'}, 'nsubjpass': {'research'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'determine'}, 'prep': {'at', 'during'}, 'det': {'what', 'the'}, 'pcomp': {'point'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'representa'}, 'nmod': {'process'}, 'pobj': {'tions'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'beneficial'}} Medium High Low
2046 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Additional research is also needed to determine the con-ditions under which visual representations can be effective activation techniques for younger to older students, and the amount of structural support that is optimal for students with different levels of relevant topic or domain knowledge 43 20 {'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 14, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PART, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'Additional', 'effective', 'younger', 'different', 'structural', 'relevant', 'visual', 'older'}, 'nsubjpass': {'research'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'determine'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'domain', 'con'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'dobj': {'ditions'}, 'prep': {'under', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'students', 'topic', 'levels', 'support'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'representations'}, 'relcl': {'be', 'is'}, 'attr': {'techniques'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'amount'}, 'acomp': {'optimal'}} Long High Low
2047 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Analogical Reasoning Analogical reasoning, as a knowledge activation technique, supported students in making comparisons between their prior knowledge and the text content 22 7 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'Analogical', 'prior'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'Reasoning', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'between', 'as', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'technique', 'knowledge'}, 'ROOT': {'supported'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'comparisons'}, 'pcomp': {'making'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'content'}} Long High Low
2048 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This was done across six of the included articles, either by presenting an analogy to support students in understanding new information (Braasch & Goldman, 2010) or by prompting students to develop their own comparisons (Biemans et al., 2001; Hattan & Alexander, 2021) 42 17 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 8} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'This'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'done'}, 'prep': {'by', 'across', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'six'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'included', 'own', 'new'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'pcomp': {'prompting', 'presenting', 'understanding'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'analogy', 'comparisons', 'information'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'support'}, 'conj': {'Goldman', 'al', '.', 'by', 'Braasch', 'Alexander', 'Hattan'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'et', '2010'}, 'xcomp': {'develop'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'Biemans', '2021', '2001'}} Long High Low
2049 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Most techniques that included analogical reasoning led to positive outcomes for students, such as relational reasoning prompts (Hattan 2020; Hattan & Alexander, 2021) and CONTACT-2 (Biemans & Simons, 1996) 29 7 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'positive', 'Most', 'such', 'analogical', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'techniques', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'led'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'prompts', 'outcomes'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'Hattan'}, 'nummod': {'2020'}, 'conj': {'Hattan', 'Biemans', 'Simons', 'CONTACT-2', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'1996'}} Long High Low
2050 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Also, the use of analogies in text lead to positive results for students who had suf-ficient domain or topic knowledge before reading (Braasch & Goldman, 2010; Hayes & Tierney, 1982) 30 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Also'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'use'}, 'prep': {'before', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'lead', 'analogies', 'results'}, 'compound': {'ficient', 'topic', 'suf', 'text'}, 'amod': {'positive'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'had'}, 'dobj': {'domain', 'Braasch'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'Goldman', 'Hayes', 'Tierney'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'npadvmod': {'2010'}, 'appos': {'1982'}} Long High Low
2051 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2001) focused on continuous external support via a computer- assisted program using CONTACT-2 13 4 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2001'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'prep': {'via', 'on'}, 'amod': {'assisted', 'continuous', 'external'}, 'pobj': {'program', 'support'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'nmod': {'computer-'}, 'acl': {'using'}, 'dobj': {'CONTACT-2'}} Medium High Low
2052 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Fifth- and sixth-grade students were asked to activate their prior knowledge on physical geography by answering an idea question, defined as “a concrete problem that has to be solved by relating the central concepts of the corresponding training text” (p 40 17 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4} [PROPN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'dep': {'Fifth-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'central', 'corresponding', 'physical', 'sixth', 'prior', 'concrete'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'compound': {'grade', 'idea', 'training'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'were'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'activate', 'solved'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'concepts', 'knowledge', 'question'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'geography', 'problem', 'text'}, 'pcomp': {'answering', 'relating'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'acl': {'defined'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'has'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long High Low
2053 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 268), and were then prompted to compare and contrast their prior knowledge with new information that was provided in a text 21 11 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'dep': {'268'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'ROOT': {'prompted'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'compare'}, 'conj': {'contrast'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'new'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'text', 'information'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'provided'}, 'det': {'a'}} Long High Low
2054 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The computer program continuously prompted stu-dents to apply and evaluate their understanding of the content by asking students to write down similarities and differences between their knowledge and the con-cepts in text, and then to revisit the idea question after reading 41 20 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 6} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'idea', 'con', 'stu', 'computer'}, 'nsubj': {'program'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'continuously'}, 'ROOT': {'prompted'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'dobj': {'dents', 'question', 'students', 'understanding', 'similarities'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'write', 'apply'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'evaluate', 'revisit', 'cepts', 'differences'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'prep': {'after', 'in', 'by', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'knowledge', 'text'}, 'pcomp': {'reading', 'asking'}, 'prt': {'down'}} Long High Low
2055 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This process was intended to provide opportunities for students to modify their knowledge base as they read and reread the text 21 10 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'process'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'intended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'provide'}, 'dobj': {'text', 'base', 'opportunities'}, 'mark': {'for', 'as'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'acl': {'modify'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'advcl': {'read'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reread'}} Long High High
2056 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, as McCarthy and McNamara (2021) contended, the amount and specificity of students’ knowledge is important when judging the utility of ana-logical reasoning as an activation method 27 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'amount', 'McCarthy'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'McNamara', 'specificity'}, 'appos': {'2021'}, 'advcl': {'contended', 'judging'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'reasoning', 'method'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'dobj': {'utility'}, 'amod': {'logical', 'ana'}, 'compound': {'activation'}} Long High High
2057 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Braasch and Goldman (2010) found that providing analogies in text tended to be beneficial for students who had some knowledge of tire pressure when presented with an analogy to explain wind flow patterns, but not those with little such knowledge 42 20 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, PRON, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'example', 'knowledge', 'text', 'analogy', 'pressure'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Braasch', 'who'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'Goldman', 'those'}, 'appos': {'2010'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'providing'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'analogies', 'patterns'}, 'ccomp': {'tended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'beneficial'}, 'relcl': {'had'}, 'det': {'an', 'some'}, 'compound': {'tire', 'flow', 'wind'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'explain', 'presented'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'amod': {'such', 'little'}} Long High High
2058 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, students with more pertinent knowledge were less likely to espouse misconcep-tions when developing conceptual models of the text content 20 9 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'less', 'when', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'conceptual', 'pertinent'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'content'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'espouse'}, 'compound': {'misconcep', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'models', 'tions'}, 'advcl': {'developing'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Medium
2059 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Additionally, while Hattan and Alexander (2021) utilized relational reasoning prompts that helped readers understand how their personal or world knowledge could be different from or in conflict with the text content, the students’ topic knowledge was still a significant predictor of comprehension. 42 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Additionally', 'still', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '.', ')'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'nsubj': {'readers', 'knowledge', 'that', 'Hattan'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'world', 'Alexander', 'in'}, 'appos': {'2021'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'utilized', 'significant'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'reasoning', 'text', 'relational'}, 'prep': {'with', 'prompts', 'of', 'from'}, 'relcl': {'helped'}, 'ccomp': {'understand', 'be'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'acomp': {'different'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'conflict', 'comprehension'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'predictor'}} Long High High
2060 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 95Text Alteration Text alteration, which took place in 10 of the included articles, occurred when researchers manipulated texts for the explicit purpose of supporting knowledge activation 26 8 {'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'95Text'}, 'compound': {'Text', 'Alteration', 'knowledge'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'researchers', 'alteration'}, 'punct': {','}, 'relcl': {'took'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'place', 'texts'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'purpose', '10'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'explicit', 'included'}, 'ROOT': {'occurred'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'manipulated'}, 'pcomp': {'supporting'}} Long High Medium
2061 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In other words, researchers changed the content of texts in ways they thought might facilitate students’ knowledge activation and text comprehension 21 8 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'words', 'texts'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'changed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'content'}, 'relcl': {'thought'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'ccomp': {'facilitate'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'text'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'comprehension'}} Long High Low
2062 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, text alteration was accomplished by manipulating the text to explain inconsistent information (Beker et al., 2019); using analogies in text (Braasch & Goldman, 2010); focusing on headings (Townsend et al., 1990); developing sto-ries with emotion words (Gernbacher & Robertson, 1992); or including self-selected cases (Alvarez, 1993), thematic organizers (Alvarez, 1993; Alvarez & Risko, 1989; Risko & Alvarez, 1986), or advanced organizers (Gurlitt et al., 2012) 67 11 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 34, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 8, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 22, 'NUM': 9, 'CCONJ': 6} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ...] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'by', 'with', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'example', 'headings', 'text', 'cases', 'words'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'compound': {'emotion', 'text'}, 'nsubjpass': {'alteration'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ccomp': {'accomplished'}, 'pcomp': {'manipulating'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'information', 'ries', 'analogies', 'text'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'using', 'focusing', 'explain'}, 'amod': {'thematic', 'selected', 'inconsistent', 'sto', 'advanced'}, 'appos': {'Beker', '1990', '2019', 'Alvarez', '2012', '1989', 'Gernbacher', 'Gurlitt', '1993', 'Braasch', '1986'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', '1992', '2010', 'et', 'self'}, 'conj': {'Goldman', 'organizers', 'al', '.', 'including', 'Alvarez', 'developing', 'Risko', 'Robertson'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'nmod': {'Townsend'}, 'ROOT': {'organizers'}} Long High Low
2063 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Overall, altering texts led to positive comprehension outcomes for elementary students (Risko & Alvarez, 1986) through undergraduates (Beker et al., 2016) 21 3 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Overall'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'altering', 'comprehension'}, 'nsubj': {'texts'}, 'ROOT': {'led'}, 'prep': {'through', 'for', 'to'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'elementary'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'undergraduates', 'outcomes'}, 'conj': {'Risko', '.', 'al', 'Alvarez'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'1986', 'et'}, 'appos': {'Beker', '2016'}} Long Low Low
2064 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, thematic organizers (Alvarez, 1993; Alvarez & Risko, 1989; Risko & Alvarez, 1986), which prompted upper elementary, middle school, high school, and undergraduate students to activate previous experiences related to the theme of a story, consistently led to positive outcomes 41 9 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 13, 'ADJ': 7, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'theme', 'story', 'outcomes', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'thematic', 'positive', 'high', 'upper', 'previous', 'middle'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'organizers'}, 'appos': {'1993', '1989', '1986', 'Alvarez'}, 'conj': {'undergraduate', 'Risko', 'school', 'Alvarez'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'relcl': {'prompted'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'experiences', 'elementary'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'acl': {'related'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'consistently'}, 'ROOT': {'led'}} Long High Low
2065 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For this activation technique, researchers added details to the text, such as comparing and contrasting the jobs of detectives and scientists, and then provided statements for students to agree or disagree with during reading (Alvarez & Risko, 1989) 38 17 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'during', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'For'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'activation'}, 'pobj': {'detectives', 'technique', 'reading', 'text'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'added'}, 'dobj': {'jobs', 'details', 'statements'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'pcomp': {'comparing'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Risko', 'contrasting', 'disagree', 'provided', 'scientists'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'agree'}, 'npadvmod': {'1989', 'Alvarez'}} Long High Medium
2066 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Additionally, Alvarez (1993) used cases in which high school students explored how to solve a problem related to the text 20 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Additionally', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'Alvarez'}, 'appos': {'1993'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'dobj': {'cases', 'problem'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'text'}, 'amod': {'high'}, 'compound': {'school'}, 'relcl': {'explored'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'solve'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'acl': {'related'}} Long High Medium
2067 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In this study, students chose cases to read based on their inter - ests 14 5 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'based', 'on', 'In'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'ests', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'chose'}, 'dobj': {'cases'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'inter'}} Medium High Low
2068 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The cases were developed to include a problem-oriented task meant to con-nect content to real-life situations and, in doing so, provided opportunities for students to activate their topic and personal knowledge 31 14 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubjpass': {'cases'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'include'}, 'npadvmod': {'problem'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'nect', 'personal', 'real', 'oriented'}, 'dobj': {'task', 'topic', 'opportunities'}, 'acl': {'activate', 'meant'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'con', 'so'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'situations'}, 'compound': {'life'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pcomp': {'doing'}, 'conj': {'provided', 'knowledge'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2069 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Mixed results were reported when researchers altered texts to consider relevant versus irrelevant information or misconceptions 16 4 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'irrelevant', 'Mixed'}, 'nsubjpass': {'results'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'advcl': {'altered', 'consider'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acomp': {'relevant'}, 'prep': {'versus'}, 'pobj': {'information'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'misconceptions'}} Medium High Medium
2070 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2016) found that texts modified to include compatible versus incompatible sentences led to faster reading times for undergraduate students but did not lead to better recall 26 8 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, PART, VERB, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'texts', '2016'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'modified'}, 'aux': {'did', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'recall', 'include'}, 'dobj': {'times', 'compatible'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'versus'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'incompatible'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'sentences'}, 'acl': {'led'}, 'advmod': {'faster', 'better'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'lead'}} Long High Medium
2071 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2019) had upper elementary and middle school students read texts that either did or did not explain certain incon-sistencies 19 8 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, CCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', '2019'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'upper', 'elementary'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'explain', 'school', 'middle'}, 'ccomp': {'read'}, 'dobj': {'sistencies', 'texts'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'advcl': {'did'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'compound': {'incon'}} Medium High Medium
2072 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The authors found that students who read texts containing inconsistent information had poorer performance on multiple-choice, open-ended, and appli-cation questions 20 6 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'authors', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'read'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'texts', 'information'}, 'acl': {'containing'}, 'amod': {'poorer', 'multiple', 'ended', 'inconsistent'}, 'ccomp': {'had'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nmod': {'choice'}, 'advmod': {'open'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'cation', 'appli'}, 'pobj': {'questions'}} Long High Medium
2073 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Conversely, students who read texts that explained inconsisten-cies in content comprehended better 12 3 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADV] {'advmod': {'Conversely', 'better'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'students'}, 'nsubj': {'cies', 'that', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'read', 'explained'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'compound': {'inconsisten'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'content'}, 'ccomp': {'comprehended'}} Medium High Low
2074 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Also, as noted, including analogies in text facilitated comprehension only for students with sufficient topic knowledge (Braasch et al., 2010; Hayes & Tierney, 1982) 24 6 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'only', 'Also'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'ROOT': {'noted'}, 'prep': {'for', 'including', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'knowledge', 'analogies', 'comprehension'}, 'npadvmod': {'1982', 'text'}, 'amod': {'sufficient', 'facilitated'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'et'}, 'appos': {'Braasch', 'al', '2010'}, 'conj': {'Hayes', '.', 'Tierney'}, 'cc': {'&'}} Long High Medium
2075 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In contrast to the overall trend for this category, one text alteration resulted in no appreciable change in comprehen-sion performance 20 9 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'to', 'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'contrast', 'trend', 'category', 'performance'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'overall', 'appreciable'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'compound': {'sion', 'comprehen', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'alteration'}, 'ROOT': {'resulted'}} Long High Low
2076 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Specifically, embedding headings in the text to prompt knowl-edge activation did not improve undergraduates’ comprehension even though the students thought the headings helped (Townsend et al., 1990) 27 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Specifically', 'even'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'amod': {'undergraduates', 'embedding'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'headings'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'text'}, 'aux': {'did', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'prompt'}, 'compound': {'knowl', 'edge'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'comprehension'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'improve'}, 'mark': {'though'}, 'advcl': {'thought'}, 'ccomp': {'helped'}, 'parataxis': {'Townsend'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}, 'appos': {'1990'}} Long High Medium
2077 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Augmented Activation Augmented activation, which involves alerting students that what they are about to read may differ from what they think they know about a topic, was 27 15 {'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX] {'compound': {'Augmented', 'Activation'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', 'which', 'they'}, 'punct': {','}, 'relcl': {'involves'}, 'xcomp': {'alerting', 'read'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'what'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'what'}, 'csubj': {'are'}, 'prep': {'about', 'from'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'acl': {'differ'}, 'pcomp': {'think'}, 'ccomp': {'know'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}} Long High Medium
2078 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This instructional technique was developed in response to experimental studies on knowledge acti-vation in the mid-1980s (Alvermann et al., 1985; Hynd & Alvermann, 1986), which found that activating misconceptions hindered students’ reading compre-hension 33 9 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'activating', 'experimental', 'hindered'}, 'nsubjpass': {'technique'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'vation', 'mid-1980s', 'response'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'acti'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', 'et', ',', ';'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'Alvermann'}, 'appos': {'1985', '1986'}, 'conj': {'Alvermann', 'Hynd'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'misconceptions', 'students'}, 'relcl': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'compre', '-', 'hension'}} Long High Medium
2079 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Augmented activation was designed to alert students to the fact that they may hold erroneous beliefs about a given science topic prior to reading, and this approach generally led to positive comprehension outcomes 33 13 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'Augmented', 'positive', 'erroneous', 'given'}, 'nsubjpass': {'activation'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'designed'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'alert'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'beliefs'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'topic', 'outcomes', 'fact'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'approach', 'they'}, 'acl': {'hold'}, 'compound': {'comprehension', 'science'}, 'advmod': {'generally', 'prior'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'led'}} Long High Medium
2080 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For instance, Alvermann and Hague (1989) told the undergraduates in their study to “be sure to pay attention to those ideas presented that may be different from your own” (p 30 16 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'from', 'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'own', 'ideas', 'instance', 'study'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'Alvermann'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Hague'}, 'appos': {'p', '1989'}, 'ROOT': {'told'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'dobj': {'undergraduates', 'attention'}, 'poss': {'their', 'your'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'different', 'sure'}, 'xcomp': {'pay'}, 'acl': {'presented'}, 'relcl': {'be'}} Long High Low
2081 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The comprehension performance of students in the augmented activation group was then compared to outcomes for those in an activation-only group 21 12 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'comprehension'}, 'nsubjpass': {'performance'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'group', 'outcomes', 'those'}, 'amod': {'only', 'augmented'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'ROOT': {'compared'}, 'npadvmod': {'activation'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Long High Low
2082 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Participants in the augmented activation group outperformed students in the acti-vation-only group 12 5 {'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Participants'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'only', 'augmented'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'vation', 'acti'}, 'pobj': {'group'}, 'ROOT': {'outperformed'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Medium High Low
2083 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These findings suggest that augmented activation may heighten readers’ awareness of incongruent information, which may aid them in reconciling their prior misunderstanding against the new and more scientifically accurate content 30 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADP, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', 'findings', 'which'}, 'ROOT': {'suggest'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'augmented', 'prior', 'new', 'incongruent'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'heighten'}, 'nmod': {'readers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'awareness', 'them', 'misunderstanding'}, 'prep': {'against', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'information'}, 'punct': {','}, 'relcl': {'aid'}, 'pcomp': {'reconciling'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'scientifically', 'more'}, 'conj': {'accurate'}} Long High Medium
2084 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, the three studies that demonstrated facilitative effects of augmented activation were conducted with undergraduate students (Alvermann & Hague, 1989; Alvermann & Hynd, 1989; Hynd & Alvermann, 1989) 28 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'nsubjpass': {'studies'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'demonstrated'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'facilitative', 'augmented'}, 'dobj': {'effects'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'conducted'}, 'appos': {'1989', 'Alvermann'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Hynd', 'Hague', 'Alvermann'}} Long High Low
2085 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In contrast, an aug-mented activation study involving high school students found no significant dif-ferences for comprehension between the treatment and control conditions (Guzzetti, 1990) 24 7 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'In', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'conditions', 'contrast', 'comprehension'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'no', 'an', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'aug'}, 'amod': {'high', 'significant', 'mented'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'dif', 'school'}, 'nsubj': {'study'}, 'acl': {'involving'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'ferences'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'nmod': {'treatment'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'control'}, 'appos': {'Guzzetti'}, 'npadvmod': {'1990'}} Long High Low
2086 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Therefore, more research is needed to consider the conditions (e.g., readers’ age or academic domain) under which augmented activation facili-tates readers’ comprehension 22 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'amod': {'augmented', 'academic', 'more'}, 'nsubjpass': {'research'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'conditions'}, 'nmod': {'readers', 'activation'}, 'appos': {'age', 'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'domain'}, 'prep': {'under'}, 'pobj': {'which'}, 'compound': {'tates', 'facili'}, 'relcl': {'readers'}} Long High Low
2087 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Extratextual Activities The techniques included in this specific activation category involved the use of some extratextual activity or experience meant to instantiate or trigger students’ knowledge for the upcoming reading 30 11 {'PROPN': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Extratextual', 'activation'}, 'ROOT': {'involved', 'Activities'}, 'det': {'some', 'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'techniques'}, 'acl': {'meant', 'included'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'extratextual', 'specific', 'upcoming'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'category', 'activity'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'knowledge', 'use'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'experience', 'trigger'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'instantiate'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
2088 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Guzzetti (1990) included teacher demonstrations where the instructor placed a balloon inside a glass jar, students watched as air pressure decreased and the balloon volume increased, and then students discussed their reactions to the experiment to activate their knowl-edge 41 15 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 17, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'inside', 'For', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'jar', 'example', 'experiment'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'instructor', 'students', 'Guzzetti', 'volume', 'pressure'}, 'appos': {'1990'}, 'ccomp': {'included'}, 'compound': {'glass', 'teacher', 'knowl', 'balloon', 'air'}, 'dobj': {'reactions', 'edge', 'balloon', 'demonstrations'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'where'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'relcl': {'placed'}, 'ROOT': {'watched'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'activate', 'decreased'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'increased', 'discussed'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High High
2089 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Additional activities employed prereading illustrations (Alvermann & Hague, 1989), incorporated prereading statements via anticipation guides (Adams, 1982), included pretests that were explicitly meant to activate students’ prior knowledge (Kaefer, 2020), or used a cloze task procedure (Salminen et al., 2010) 40 7 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 7, 'PUNCT': 16, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Additional', 'prior', 'prereading', 'cloze'}, 'nsubj': {'activities'}, 'ROOT': {'employed'}, 'compound': {'anticipation', 'prereading', 'task'}, 'dobj': {'procedure', 'students', 'statements', 'illustrations', 'pretests'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '’'}, 'appos': {'Adams', 'al', '.', 'Kaefer', '2010', 'knowledge', 'Alvermann'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'incorporated', 'Hague', 'included', 'used'}, 'npadvmod': {'1982', '1989', '2020', 'et'}, 'prep': {'via'}, 'pobj': {'guides'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly'}, 'relcl': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'nmod': {'Salminen'}} Long High Low
2090 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In all but one of eight studies in this category (Kaefer, 2020), the participants were high school students or undergraduates 20 11 {'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, PRON, SCONJ, NUM, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'category', 'one', 'all'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'nummod': {'eight'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Kaefer'}, 'npadvmod': {'2020'}, 'nsubj': {'participants'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'amod': {'high'}, 'compound': {'school'}, 'attr': {'students'}, 'conj': {'undergraduates'}} Long High Medium
2091 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Analysis of techniques revealed that there is a fine line between activating background knowledge via extratextual activities and building background knowledge before reading 23 9 {'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'nsubj': {'Analysis'}, 'prep': {'via', 'before', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'activities'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'extratextual', 'fine'}, 'attr': {'line'}, 'pcomp': {'reading', 'activating'}, 'compound': {'background'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'building'}} Long High Medium
2092 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In fact, both of these processes could occur at the same time 12 8 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'at', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'processes', 'fact', 'time'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'both'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ROOT': {'occur'}, 'amod': {'same'}} Medium High Low
2093 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For the purposes of this literature review, extratextual activities were identi-fied as activating prior knowledge if the researchers’ intentions were explicit 21 9 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'prep': {'as', 'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'purposes', 'review'}, 'compound': {'literature'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'extratextual', 'prior'}, 'nsubj': {'intentions', 'activities'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'npadvmod': {'identi'}, 'acomp': {'fied', 'explicit'}, 'pcomp': {'activating'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'poss': {'researchers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'advcl': {'were'}} Long High Medium
2094 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Yet some studies utilized techniques that focused on building background knowledge before reading, without the express purpose of activating knowledge 20 8 {'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'cc': {'Yet'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'ROOT': {'studies'}, 'acl': {'utilized'}, 'dobj': {'techniques', 'knowledge'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'focused'}, 'prep': {'on', 'without', 'before', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'building', 'activating'}, 'compound': {'background'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'purpose'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'express'}} Long High Low
2095 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (1991), in an effort to prepare students to read a text, teachers read scripts to students with information that they did not know 23 11 {'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'meta': {'1991'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'effort', 'information'}, 'aux': {'did', 'to'}, 'acl': {'prepare'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'that', 'scripts', 'text'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'know'}} Long High Low
2096 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts 97Lupo et al 12 4 {'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'ROOT': {'Leveraging'}, 'dobj': {'Sense', 'What'}, 'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'ccomp': {'Know'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'Make'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'Texts'}, 'pobj': {'97Lupo'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'punct': {'al'}} Medium High Low
2097 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2019), teachers built relevant knowledge through the use of videos, PowerPoints, and other activities 14 5 {'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'meta': {'2019'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers'}, 'ROOT': {'built'}, 'amod': {'other', 'relevant'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'through', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'videos'}, 'conj': {'PowerPoints', 'activities'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
2098 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Although it is possible that knowledge was acti-vated in these and other similar situations, that was not the primary purpose of the instructional method 24 15 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'it', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'vated', 'possible'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'npadvmod': {'acti'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'other', 'primary', 'similar', 'instructional'}, 'pobj': {'situations', 'method'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'purpose'}} Long High High
2099 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Thus, this literature review only classified techniques as knowledge activation if the activity was designed with the clear purpose of acti-vating students’ knowledge during the reading process 27 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'only'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'literature', 'reading'}, 'ROOT': {'review'}, 'amod': {'vating', 'clear', 'classified'}, 'dobj': {'techniques'}, 'prep': {'as', 'during', 'of', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'process', 'students'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubjpass': {'activity'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'designed'}, 'poss': {'purpose'}, 'npadvmod': {'acti'}} Long High Medium
2100 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The activation activities populating this category led to mixed results for learn- ing and comprehension 15 5 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'this'}, 'compound': {'activation'}, 'nsubj': {'activities'}, 'acl': {'populating'}, 'dobj': {'category'}, 'ROOT': {'led'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to'}, 'amod': {'learn-', 'mixed'}, 'pobj': {'ing', 'results'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'comprehension'}} Medium High Low
2101 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For instance, extratextual activities in several studies led to negative outcomes for undergraduates (Hynd & Alvermann, 1986), unless knowledge activation was augmented (Alvermann & Hague, 1989; Alvermann & Hynd, 1989) 30 7 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'undergraduates', 'instance', 'outcomes'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'extratextual', 'several', 'negative'}, 'nsubj': {'activities'}, 'ROOT': {'led'}, 'appos': {'1989', 'Hynd'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Hynd', 'Hague', 'Alvermann'}, 'npadvmod': {'1986'}, 'mark': {'unless'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'nsubjpass': {'activation'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'augmented'}, 'dobj': {'Alvermann'}} Long High Medium
2102 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation There was one study that reported positive effects for treatment groups over the control condition, whether augmented activation was included or not (Hynd & Alvermann, 1989) 26 11 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [PRON, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PART, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'attr': {'study'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'reported'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'augmented'}, 'dobj': {'effects'}, 'prep': {'for', 'over'}, 'compound': {'treatment', 'control'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'groups'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubjpass': {'activation'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'acl': {'included'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'Alvermann', 'Hynd'}, 'npadvmod': {'1989'}} Long High Medium
2103 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In that study, students were asked draw and describe the path that a marble would take if it were shot off a table 23 14 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'off', 'In'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'table', 'study'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'students', 'it'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'oprd': {'draw'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'describe'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'path'}, 'nsubj': {'marble'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'relcl': {'take'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'advcl': {'shot'}} Long High Medium
2104 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation (2010) introduced the same extratextual activity to students in all study conditions, making it impossible to ascertain the effects of that activation activity on reported outcomes 26 11 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'it', '2010'}, 'ROOT': {'introduced'}, 'det': {'all', 'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'extratextual', 'same', 'reported'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'activity'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'conditions', 'outcomes', 'activity'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'study'}, 'advcl': {'making', 'ascertain'}, 'ccomp': {'impossible'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Low
2105 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For the one investigation that focused on younger readers, Kaefer (2020) examined kindergarten students’ recall or inferential comprehension when they were (a) administered a topic knowledge pretest, (b) provided with relevant infor - mation, or (c) given irrelevant information prior to reading 42 14 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 13, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'given', 'to', 'with', 'For'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'mation', 'investigation'}, 'nsubj': {'Kaefer', 'that', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'focused'}, 'amod': {'examined', 'irrelevant', 'inferential', 'younger', 'relevant'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'b', '2020'}, 'compound': {'kindergarten', 'topic', 'infor'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'nsubjpass': {'recall'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'c', 'comprehension'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'prior', 'pretest'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'attr': {'a'}, 'ROOT': {'administered'}, 'npadvmod': {'knowledge'}, 'advcl': {'provided'}, 'dobj': {'information'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
2106 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Although there were no significant differences between groups for recall questions, students adminis-tered the pretest or provided with relevant information significantly outperformed students who were given irrelevant information on the inductive inferencing task 33 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, X, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'were'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'amod': {'irrelevant', 'significant', 'relevant', 'inductive', 'inferencing'}, 'attr': {'differences'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'with', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'questions', 'groups', 'information'}, 'compound': {'students', 'recall'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'adminis', 'pretest'}, 'ROOT': {'tered'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'provided', 'outperformed'}, 'advmod': {'significantly'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'information'}, 'nsubjpass': {'who'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'given'}} Long High Medium
2107 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, follow-up analyses revealed that knowledge activation seemed to facili-tate comprehension only for students who had substantial prior topic knowledge, further complicating the question as to when it might be useful to activate knowl-edge via topic-related activities versus building students’ knowledge 41 19 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 16, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'when', 'However', 'further'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'related', 'follow', 'facili', 'substantial', 'prior'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', 'analyses', 'who', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'knowl', 'knowledge', 'topic', 'tate'}, 'ccomp': {'seemed'}, 'prep': {'versus', 'to', 'via', 'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'activities', 'comprehension'}, 'relcl': {'had'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'knowledge', 'edge', 'question'}, 'advcl': {'complicating'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to'}, 'pcomp': {'building', 'be'}, 'acomp': {'useful'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'npadvmod': {'topic'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High High
2108 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Spontaneous Activation The category of spontaneous activation included three studies in which stu- dents were not expressly directed to reflect on their existing knowledge prior to reading 27 11 {'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2} [ADJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB] {'amod': {'Spontaneous', 'existing', 'spontaneous'}, 'npadvmod': {'Activation'}, 'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'category'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'which', 'knowledge'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'dobj': {'studies'}, 'compound': {'stu-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'dents'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'expressly', 'prior'}, 'relcl': {'directed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'reflect'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High Low
2109 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Rather, these studies may have involved a method, such as think-alouds, that required students to share their thinking while reading 20 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'that'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'involved'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'method', 'thinking'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'compound': {'think'}, 'pobj': {'alouds'}, 'relcl': {'required'}, 'xcomp': {'share'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
2110 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Some portion of what students verbalized as they thought aloud could refer to what they know or have experienced relative to the text content 24 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'Some'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'portion', 'they'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'relative'}, 'pcomp': {'know', 'verbalized'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'thought'}, 'advmod': {'aloud'}, 'aux': {'could', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'refer'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'experienced'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'pobj': {'content'}} Long High Medium
2111 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Hattan and Dinsmore (2019) asked upper elementary students to think aloud while reading science and social studies texts 20 5 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'For'}, 'pobj': {'example'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Hattan'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'studies', 'Dinsmore'}, 'appos': {'2019'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'amod': {'social', 'upper', 'elementary'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'science'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'think'}, 'advmod': {'aloud'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}, 'dep': {'texts'}} Long High Medium
2112 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The researchers found that there was no relation between the fre-quency at which students referred to their prior knowledge and experiences and their comprehension performance 25 14 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'no', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'attr': {'relation'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'between'}, 'amod': {'fre', 'prior'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'quency', 'which', 'knowledge'}, 'relcl': {'referred'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'experiences'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'dobj': {'performance'}} Long High Medium
2113 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Hattan and Alexander (2020) analyzed the dis-course occurring in an upper elementary classroom during reading instruction for the amount and quality of solicited and unsolicited prior knowledge activation 28 11 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'course', 'Hattan'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'quality', 'Alexander', 'unsolicited'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'appos': {'2020'}, 'ROOT': {'analyzed'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'dis', 'knowledge'}, 'ccomp': {'occurring'}, 'prep': {'for', 'during', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'upper', 'prior', 'elementary'}, 'pobj': {'amount', 'solicited', 'classroom'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'instruction'}} Long High Low
2114 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These researchers found that unsolicited or spontaneous knowledge activation occurred in about one-third of students’ knowledge activation utterances 18 8 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'det': {'These'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', 'researchers'}, 'ccomp': {'found', 'occurred'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'unsolicited'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'spontaneous'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'about'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'one'}, 'punct': {'’', '-'}, 'quantmod': {'third'}, 'ROOT': {'utterances'}} Medium High Low
2115 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Finally, Carr and Thompson (1996) compared spontaneous activation to experimenter activation by means of open-ended prompts for upper elementary and middle school students with and without learning disabilities 28 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 5} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Carr'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Thompson', 'without', 'school', 'middle'}, 'appos': {'1996'}, 'ROOT': {'compared'}, 'amod': {'ended', 'spontaneous', 'upper', 'open', 'elementary'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'disabilities'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'experimenter'}, 'prep': {'by', 'for', 'of', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'prompts', 'means'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
2116 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 98that students in the experimenter activation condition had higher comprehension scores than students in the spontaneous activation condition, although those dif-ferences were not significant 24 10 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ] {'dep': {'98that'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'ferences'}, 'prep': {'than', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'dif', 'comprehension', 'experimenter'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'students'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'spontaneous'}, 'dobj': {'scores'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'advcl': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'significant'}} Long High Medium
2117 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Based on these studies, spontaneous activation did not translate into strong, positive effect on students’ comprehension or learning 18 7 {'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'Based', 'into'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'effect', 'comprehension'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'spontaneous', 'strong'}, 'nsubj': {'activation'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'translate'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'learning'}} Medium High Low
2118 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Overarching Trends for Activation Categories The results across the eight knowledge activation categories highlight the fact that there are many different ways to support students’ contemplation on what they know or have experienced 33 16 {'VERB': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, AUX, VERB] {'csubj': {'Overarching'}, 'dobj': {'Trends', 'contemplation', 'what', 'fact'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'across'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'Activation'}, 'pobj': {'categories', 'Categories'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'results', 'they'}, 'nummod': {'eight'}, 'ROOT': {'highlight'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'amod': {'many', 'different'}, 'attr': {'ways'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'support'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pcomp': {'know'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'experienced'}} Long High Medium
2119 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Yet in the analyzed body of research, knowledge activation seemed to have been predominantly operationalized as techniques that occur in the prereading phase of text processing, often in the form of written or oral question prompts 36 18 {'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1} [CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'cc': {'or', 'Yet'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'analyzed', 'written', 'prereading'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'techniques', 'prompts', 'phase', 'body', 'form', 'research'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'question', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'seemed'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advmod': {'predominantly', 'often'}, 'xcomp': {'operationalized'}, 'relcl': {'occur'}, 'conj': {'oral'}} Long High Low
2120 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The mixed results that were noted for studies within each category suggested that the overall effectiveness of knowledge activation tech-niques is predicated on students’ age, the amount and accuracy of their relevant knowledge, as well as the degree of scaffolding afforded 41 21 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'each'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'overall', 'mixed'}, 'nsubj': {'results'}, 'nsubjpass': {'effectiveness', 'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'were'}, 'relcl': {'noted'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'scaffolding', 'age', 'knowledge', 'category', 'niques'}, 'ROOT': {'suggested'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'tech'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ','}, 'ccomp': {'predicated'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'npadvmod': {'amount'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'degree', 'accuracy'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'acl': {'afforded'}} Long High Medium
2121 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Nonetheless, even younger students with limited topic or domain knowledge have personal and experiential knowledge that can support comprehension and learning if suitably activated before, during, and after reading 29 13 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'before', 'Nonetheless', 'suitably', 'even'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'limited', 'personal', 'younger'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that'}, 'prep': {'after', 'with', 'during'}, 'pobj': {'topic'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'compound': {'domain'}, 'conj': {'experiential', 'knowledge', 'learning'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'comprehension'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'support'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'advcl': {'activated'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
2122 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation As the data extracted on the positive, neutral, mixed, and negative effects of studies within the activation categories illustrated, many of the techniques implemented were better for students’ compre-hension and learning than leaving them to their own devices 38 19 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 7, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'many', 'data'}, 'advcl': {'extracted'}, 'prep': {'on', 'than', 'within', 'to', 'of', 'for'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'own', 'neutral'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'learning', 'mixed', 'negative'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'compre', 'techniques', '-', 'hension', 'effects', 'categories', 'devices'}, 'compound': {'activation'}, 'parataxis': {'illustrated'}, 'acl': {'implemented'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'better'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pcomp': {'leaving'}, 'dobj': {'them'}} Long High Medium
2123 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Conclusions and Implications This systematic literature review led to important findings about students’ prior knowledge and its activation within the context of learning from text 25 10 {'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Conclusions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'Implications', 'review'}, 'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'important', 'prior'}, 'compound': {'literature'}, 'ROOT': {'led'}, 'prep': {'within', 'from', 'to', 'of', 'about'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'findings', 'context', 'text'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
2124 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Those findings pertain to the conceptualizations of prior knowledge and knowledge acti-vation that populate this literature, the characteristics of knowledge activation techniques that have been empirically investigated, the broader categories of tech-niques that were identified from these characterizations, and notable patterns within the activation studies associated with significant improvements in students’ comprehension 52 23 {'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 21, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'Those', 'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'findings', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'pertain'}, 'prep': {'within', 'from', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'techniques', 'characterizations', 'conceptualizations', 'improvements', 'comprehension', 'knowledge', 'niques'}, 'amod': {'broader', 'significant', 'prior', 'notable'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'acti', 'tech'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'conj': {'vation', 'patterns', 'categories'}, 'relcl': {'populate', 'investigated', 'identified'}, 'dobj': {'literature'}, 'npadvmod': {'characteristics'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been', 'were'}, 'advmod': {'empirically'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
2125 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Given the resurgence of interest in students’ existing knowledge on their comprehension (Hattan & Lupo, 2020), it is timely to scrutinize the litera-ture on what we know about prior knowledge and its activation 33 15 {'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'Given'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'resurgence', 'comprehension', 'students', 'interest', 'knowledge'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'amod': {'existing', 'prior'}, 'poss': {'its', 'their'}, 'appos': {'Hattan'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'Lupo'}, 'npadvmod': {'2020'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'timely'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'scrutinize'}, 'compound': {'litera'}, 'dobj': {'ture', 'what'}, 'pcomp': {'know'}} Long High Low
2126 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Before revisiting the major contributions of this review for deepening understanding of prior knowledge and its activation, below is an overview of the specific parameters of this undertaking 28 15 {'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'of', 'Before'}, 'pcomp': {'deepening', 'revisiting'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'major', 'prior', 'specific'}, 'dobj': {'contributions', 'understanding'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'undertaking', 'parameters', 'review'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'conj': {'activation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'below'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'nsubj': {'overview'}} Long High Low
2127 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Delimitations As with any investigation, there are constraints that we imposed on this sys- tematic review that must be acknowledged 20 12 {'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'npadvmod': {'Delimitations'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'As'}, 'det': {'any', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'investigation', 'review'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'constraints'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'relcl': {'imposed', 'acknowledged'}, 'amod': {'sys-'}, 'compound': {'tematic'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Low
2128 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For one, although reading outcome measures were included in Table S3, the current review did not critically analyze those assessments 20 9 {'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'S3'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reading'}, 'compound': {'outcome', 'Table'}, 'dobj': {'assessments', 'measures'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advcl': {'included'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'current'}, 'nsubj': {'review'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'critically'}, 'ROOT': {'analyze'}} Long High Medium
2129 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Future reviews may explore how students’ learning or compre-hension was contingent on the type of technique used to activate their existing knowledge, but also on the manner in which their comprehension or learning was measured 35 19 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'amod': {'existing', 'Future'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'reviews'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'explore'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'how'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'ccomp': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'compre', 'was'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', '-', 'hension'}, 'acomp': {'contingent'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'technique', 'manner', 'type'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'xcomp': {'activate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubjpass': {'comprehension'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'relcl': {'measured'}} Long High Medium
2130 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation It may also be beneficial to explore the rationale for knowledge activa-tion provided to students, along with the exact procedures, explicit directions, and ongoing supports that accompany each technique 29 14 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'It'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'beneficial'}, 'xcomp': {'explore'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'dobj': {'technique', 'rationale'}, 'prep': {'for', 'along', 'with'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'activa'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'procedures', 'tion'}, 'acl': {'provided'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'amod': {'explicit', 'exact', 'ongoing'}, 'conj': {'directions', 'supports'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'relcl': {'accompany'}} Long High Low
2131 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts 99specifically focused on knowledge activation within the context of reading 19 8 {'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1} [VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'ROOT': {'Leveraging'}, 'dobj': {'Sense', 'What'}, 'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'ccomp': {'Know'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'Make'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'context', 'Texts'}, 'advmod': {'99specifically'}, 'advcl': {'focused'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Medium High Low
2132 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Yet the influence of prior knowledge is not solely relegated to reading or to the com-prehension of text but is presumed to shape all forms of learning (Alexander & Murphy, 1998; Ausubel, 1968, 2000) 34 15 {'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 3} [CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'cc': {'or', 'but', 'Yet', '&'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'influence'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'knowledge', 'prehension', 'text'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'solely'}, 'ROOT': {'relegated'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'conj': {'presumed', 'Murphy', 'to', 'Ausubel'}, 'compound': {'com'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'shape'}, 'dobj': {'forms'}, 'appos': {'1968', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998'}, 'nummod': {'2000'}} Long High Low
2133 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Thus, an exploration of knowledge activa-tion in contexts where comprehension of texts is not the primary focus seems warranted 19 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PART, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'where'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'comprehension', 'exploration'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'activa'}, 'pobj': {'texts', 'tion', 'contexts'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'amod': {'primary'}, 'attr': {'focus'}, 'aux': {'seems'}, 'ROOT': {'warranted'}} Medium High Medium
2134 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Finally, although this review considered students’ grade levels, it did not exam- ine the contexts in which the selected studies took place (e.g., rural, urban); nor did it consider participants’ linguistic backgrounds, ethnicities, or socioeconomic status 36 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 11, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'it', 'review'}, 'advcl': {'considered'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'grade'}, 'dobj': {'levels', 'place', 'backgrounds', 'participants', 'contexts'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'exam-'}, 'xcomp': {'ine'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'which'}, 'amod': {'socioeconomic', 'selected', 'linguistic', 'rural'}, 'relcl': {'took'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'acomp': {'urban'}, 'cc': {'or', 'nor'}, 'conj': {'ethnicities', 'status', 'consider'}} Long High Medium
2135 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Unfortunately, most of the included studies provided scant information about the participants, especially those that targeted undergraduate students 18 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'especially', 'Unfortunately'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'most'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'targeted', 'included', 'scant'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'participants'}, 'ROOT': {'provided'}, 'dobj': {'information'}, 'appos': {'students', 'those'}} Medium High Low
2136 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Recent calls to offer richer histories or personal narratives for study participants (Willis, 2015) suggest that future research on prior knowledge activation need to delve into contextual differences and learner characteristics if the goal is to under - stand when, where, and for whom knowledge activation is a catalyst for improved comprehension and learning 54 22 {'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 17, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 4, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'personal', 'richer', 'contextual', 'learner', 'future', 'Recent', 'prior', 'improved'}, 'nsubj': {'goal', 'calls', 'research', 'activation'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'is', 'offer'}, 'dobj': {'histories'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'narratives', 'characteristics'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'into'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'study'}, 'pobj': {'whom', 'comprehension', 'differences', 'participants', 'activation'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2015', 'Willis'}, 'ccomp': {'suggest', 'need'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'xcomp': {'delve', 'stand'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'under', 'when', 'where'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'catalyst'}} Long High High
2137 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Key Findings and Proposed Responses Despite the aforementioned delimitations, there were important insights gar - nered from this review that can inform both educational research and guide instructional practice 29 10 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'gar', 'Key'}, 'dep': {'Findings'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'important', 'Proposed', 'aforementioned', 'educational'}, 'conj': {'Responses', 'guide'}, 'prep': {'Despite', 'from'}, 'det': {'both', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'delimitations', 'review'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'insights'}, 'acl': {'nered'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'inform'}, 'dobj': {'practice', 'research'}} Long High Medium
2138 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These insights pertain to the nature of prior knowledge and its various manifestations that play a role in learning from texts 21 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'insights'}, 'ROOT': {'pertain'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'nature', 'texts'}, 'amod': {'various', 'prior'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'conj': {'manifestations'}, 'relcl': {'play'}, 'dobj': {'role'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
2139 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation These findings also speak to the categories of techniques that can be employed within the learn-ing environment to prompt students to bring their relevant knowledge to the fore-front when engaged in reading 32 18 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, VERB] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'findings'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'speak'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'categories', 'front', 'environment'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'employed'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'learn'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'prt': {'ing'}, 'advcl': {'engaged', 'prompt'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'knowledge'}, 'xcomp': {'bring'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'fore'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
2140 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, this systematic review afforded a glimpse into the conditions under which prior knowledge activation had the desired effect of improving students’ comprehension or learning performance 26 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'desired', 'improving', 'prior'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', 'review'}, 'ROOT': {'afforded'}, 'dobj': {'comprehension', 'effect', 'glimpse'}, 'prep': {'into', 'under', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'conditions', 'performance'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'relcl': {'had'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'learning'}} Long High Low
2141 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Finally, as would be expected from any such review, critical gaps in the research were identified 16 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'were'}, 'advcl': {'expected'}, 'prep': {'in', 'from'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'amod': {'such', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'research', 'review'}, 'nsubjpass': {'gaps'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}} Medium High Medium
2142 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Below is a summary of key findings as well as subsequent steps that might be pursued in future research 19 11 {'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Below', 'as', 'well'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'nsubj': {'summary'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'future', 'key', 'subsequent'}, 'pobj': {'findings', 'research'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'conj': {'steps'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'pursued'}} Medium High Low
2143 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Definitions and Descriptions of Prior Knowledge and Prior Knowledge Activation Were Often Unclear There is a paucity of explicit definitions for prior knowledge and prior knowl- edge activation within the empirical literature 32 13 {'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, ADV, PROPN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Definitions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'Activation', 'Descriptions'}, 'prep': {'for', 'within', 'of'}, 'compound': {'Knowledge', 'Prior', 'edge'}, 'pobj': {'Knowledge', 'definitions', 'literature', 'knowledge'}, 'ccomp': {'Were'}, 'advmod': {'Often'}, 'acomp': {'Unclear'}, 'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'paucity'}, 'amod': {'knowl-', 'explicit', 'prior', 'empirical'}} Long High Low
2144 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Although definitions and descrip-tions could be inferred from many articles, given that prior knowledge encompasses many types of knowledge, such as topic, personal, cultural, or conditional knowl-edge, researchers should inform the consumers of this research as to what they precisely mean by the term, as well as what specific forms of prior knowledge they have chosen to target 58 30 {'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 16, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 9, 'ADJ': 9, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB] {'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'definitions'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as', 'or'}, 'compound': {'knowl', 'descrip'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'conj': {'personal', 'cultural', 'chosen', 'tions', 'edge', 'conditional'}, 'aux': {'should', 'could', 'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'inferred'}, 'prep': {'given', 'from', 'to', 'by', 'of', 'as'}, 'amod': {'many', 'such', 'prior', 'specific'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'knowledge', 'articles', 'research', 'term'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'researchers', 'they'}, 'pcomp': {'mean', 'encompasses'}, 'dobj': {'consumers', 'what', 'types', 'forms'}, 'ROOT': {'inform'}, 'det': {'what', 'the', 'this'}, 'advmod': {'precisely', 'as', 'well'}, 'xcomp': {'target'}} Long High High
2145 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Definitions of prior knowledge and its activation may influence the types of knowledge and knowledge activation that are investigated in empirical work, which could in turn influence the knowledge readers draw upon, thus influencing their overall comprehension 37 17 {'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'which', 'readers', 'Definitions'}, 'prep': {'upon', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'overall', 'prior', 'empirical'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'work', 'turn'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'its', 'their'}, 'conj': {'activation'}, 'aux': {'could', 'may'}, 'ROOT': {'influence'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'types', 'comprehension'}, 'nmod': {'knowledge'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'influence', 'investigated'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ccomp': {'draw'}, 'advmod': {'thus'}, 'advcl': {'influencing'}} Long High Medium
2146 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Therefore, as a domain in inquiry, it may be helpful for text comprehension researchers to operate with a more precise understanding of prior knowledge and prior knowledge activation per se, as well as clarity regarding the particular forms that are the centerpiece of their particular studies. 46 25 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 13, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, X, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'well', 'as', 'more', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'prep': {'per', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'forms', 'understanding', 'knowledge', 'inquiry', 'domain', 'se'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'it', 'that'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'helpful'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'comprehension', 'text'}, 'advcl': {'operate'}, 'amod': {'precise', 'prior', 'particular'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'clarity'}, 'acl': {'regarding'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'attr': {'centerpiece'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2147 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 100Prior Knowledge Although explicit definitions of prior knowledge were limited in this body of research, below is a working definition extracted from this review of the literature and the theoretical pieces referenced: Prior knowledge can be understood as the sum of individuals’ existing knowledge, including personal, domain, topic, strategic, social, cultural, and linguistic knowledge (Alexander et al., 1991; Hattan & Lupo, 2020) 62 21 {'NUM': 3, 'PROPN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 6, 'PUNCT': 14, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1} [NUM, PROPN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, AUX, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'100Prior'}, 'ROOT': {'Knowledge', 'is'}, 'mark': {'Although'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'personal', 'existing', 'prior', 'Prior', 'working', 'linguistic', 'explicit'}, 'nsubjpass': {'definitions', 'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'including', 'from', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'body', 'literature', 'knowledge', 'individuals', 'research', 'review', 'sum'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'were'}, 'advcl': {'limited', 'understood'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'punct': {'’', ':', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'advmod': {'below'}, 'nsubj': {'definition', 'pieces'}, 'acl': {'extracted'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'ccomp': {'referenced'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'appos': {'knowledge', '1991', 'al', '2020'}, 'conj': {'.', 'cultural', 'Lupo', 'topic', 'social', 'strategic', 'domain', 'Hattan'}, 'compound': {'Alexander', 'et'}} Long High Medium
2148 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, individuals’ existing knowledge extends beyond academic knowledge to knowledge of self and the world outside the classroom 18 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'academic'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge'}, 'ROOT': {'extends'}, 'prep': {'outside', 'to', 'of', 'beyond'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'self', 'classroom'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'world'}} Medium High Low
2149 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Moreover, individuals’ prior knowledge affects their learning and development even when it is incomplete or inaccurate 16 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'even', 'when'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'it'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}, 'ROOT': {'affects'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'inaccurate', 'development'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'incomplete'}} Medium High Medium
2150 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation By acknowledging the scope and nature of individuals’ knowledge bases, edu- cational researchers and practitioners may be better equipped to assist all students to use their wealth of knowledge during text processing 32 13 {'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'during', 'By', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'acknowledging'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'wealth', 'scope'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practitioners', 'nature'}, 'poss': {'individuals', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'knowledge', 'bases'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'cational', 'edu-'}, 'appos': {'researchers'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'better'}, 'ROOT': {'equipped'}, 'xcomp': {'assist'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ccomp': {'use'}} Long High Low
2151 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This shift may be particu-larly important for students who may have limited domain or topic knowledge but possess experiential knowledge upon which they can draw to support their text understanding (Hattan & Lupo, 2020) 34 15 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'This'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'shift', 'who'}, 'aux': {'can', 'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'npadvmod': {'2020', 'particu'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'larly'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'prep': {'for', 'upon'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'which'}, 'relcl': {'draw', 'have'}, 'amod': {'limited', 'experiential'}, 'dobj': {'domain', 'knowledge', 'understanding'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', '&'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'text'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'possess', 'Lupo'}, 'advcl': {'support'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'Hattan'}} Long High Medium
2152 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, as stated by McCarthy and McNamara (2021), it is important to recognize that the amount, specificity, accu-racy, and coherence of readers’ prior knowledge matters 25 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'stated'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'McCarthy'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'coherence', 'McNamara', 'racy', 'specificity'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'matters'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'recognize'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ccomp': {'amount'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'accu'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'prior'}} Long High High
2153 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This may be relevant when the focus is on building subject-matter knowledge 12 7 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'This', 'focus'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'relevant'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pcomp': {'building'}, 'compound': {'subject', 'matter'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}} Medium High Medium
2154 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Prior Knowledge Activation This review revealed that researchers primarily defined prior knowledge acti- vation operationally 15 2 {'ADV': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PROPN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADV] {'compound': {'Knowledge', 'Prior', 'acti-', 'knowledge'}, 'npadvmod': {'Activation'}, 'det': {'This'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'review'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'primarily', 'operationally'}, 'ccomp': {'defined'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'dobj': {'vation'}} Medium Low Medium
2155 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In other words, researchers most often described certain pro- cedures that are presumed to prompt students to call forth their understandings or experiences and to connect that knowledge to the task or text at hand rather than providing a definition for what they mean by prior knowledge activation 48 25 {'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 3} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'at', 'for', 'to', 'by', 'than', 'In'}, 'amod': {'other', 'prior', 'certain'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'hand', 'words', 'activation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'they'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'most', 'rather'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'pro-'}, 'dobj': {'definition', 'what', 'students', 'knowledge', 'cedures', 'understandings'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'presumed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'prompt', 'call'}, 'prt': {'forth'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'connect', 'experiences', 'text'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'pcomp': {'providing', 'mean'}} Long High Low
2156 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Perhaps researchers believe that the meaning of prior knowledge activation is well estab-lished; however, this review of the research demonstrated that prior knowledge activation was taken up differently across studies 30 14 {'ADV': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 3} [ADV, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Perhaps', 'well', 'differently', 'however'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'meaning', 'review'}, 'ccomp': {'taken', 'is', 'believe'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'prep': {'across', 'of'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'research', 'studies'}, 'npadvmod': {'estab'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '-'}, 'acomp': {'lished'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrated'}, 'nsubjpass': {'activation'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'prt': {'up'}} Long High High
2157 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, a broad array of tech-niques were identified across eight different categories, thus illustrating that how a researcher defines activation can vary 22 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'thus', 'Further', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'different', 'broad'}, 'nsubjpass': {'array'}, 'prep': {'across', 'of'}, 'compound': {'researcher', 'defines', 'tech'}, 'pobj': {'categories', 'niques'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'nummod': {'eight'}, 'advcl': {'illustrating'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'activation'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'vary'}} Long High High
2158 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation As such, based on the various categories and ways of activating knowledge identified in this literature review, a proposed working definition of prior knowledge activation for reading is: How individuals or groups intentionally or unintentionally draw on their background knowledge and experiences in order to comprehend or learn from texts 50 23 {'ADP': 9, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 16, 'CCONJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'from', 'As', 'in', 'based', 'of', 'for'}, 'amod': {'working', 'proposed', 'various', 'such', 'prior'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'order', 'texts', 'knowledge', 'activation', 'categories', 'review'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'ways', 'experiences', 'groups', 'unintentionally', 'learn'}, 'pcomp': {'activating'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'acl': {'identified', 'comprehend'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'literature', 'background'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'definition'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'How', 'intentionally'}, 'ccomp': {'draw'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Medium
2159 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This process can occur explicitly before, during, or after reading through external prompts, cues, or tasks, or automatically without external prompting 21 10 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'This'}, 'nsubj': {'process'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'occur'}, 'advmod': {'automatically', 'explicitly', 'during', 'before'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'after', 'without', 'cues', 'tasks'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'prep': {'through'}, 'amod': {'external'}, 'pobj': {'prompts', 'prompting'}} Long High Low
2160 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Students’ Individual Differences Influenced the Effectiveness of Knowledge Activation Techniques Within the reviewed literature, individual differences, such as grade level or amount of prior knowledge, influenced the effectiveness of knowledge activation techniques 32 11 {'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'poss': {'Students'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'compound': {'Individual', 'Knowledge', 'grade', 'knowledge', 'Activation', 'activation'}, 'nsubj': {'Differences', 'differences'}, 'ROOT': {'Influenced'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'effectiveness', 'Effectiveness'}, 'prep': {'as', 'Within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'Techniques', 'literature', 'knowledge', 'level'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'such', 'prior', 'reviewed'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'influenced', 'amount'}} Long High Low
2161 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts 101structured knowledge activation prompts, as opposed to open-ended scaffolds (e.g., Gurlitt & Renkl, 2008; Hattan & Alexander, 2021) 27 6 {'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2} [VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'Leveraging'}, 'dobj': {'Sense', 'What', 'Gurlitt'}, 'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'ccomp': {'Know'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'Make'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', '101structured', 'Texts'}, 'pobj': {'prompts', 'scaffolds'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'opposed'}, 'advmod': {'open'}, 'amod': {'ended'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'Hattan', 'Renkl'}, 'appos': {'2021', '2008'}} Long High Medium
2162 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, additional research on prior knowledge activation with elementary students is needed, with special attention to developmental differences as well as the amount of support that may be needed 29 15 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'additional', 'developmental', 'special', 'prior', 'elementary'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that', 'research'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'pobj': {'differences', 'students', 'support', 'activation', 'attention'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'amount'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'relcl': {'needed'}} Long High Low
2163 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In the meantime, researchers can guide practitioners to con-sider their students’ initial knowledge levels and other individual difference fac-tors to tailor activation techniques to their students 26 10 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'levels', 'meantime'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'guide'}, 'dobj': {'practitioners', 'techniques'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'difference', 'activation', 'fac', 'con'}, 'nmod': {'sider'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'other', 'initial', 'individual'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'tors'}, 'advcl': {'tailor'}} Long High Low
2164 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation As such, researchers can help educators understand the different types of techniques that support prior knowl-edge activation, such as visual representations, analogical reasoning, or during reading activities, with the goal of being able to teach students to activate and use their knowledge independently 43 18 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADV] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'such'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'that', 'educators'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'help'}, 'ccomp': {'understand'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'visual', 'different', 'such', 'analogical', 'prior'}, 'dobj': {'types', 'students', 'knowledge', 'activation', 'activities'}, 'prep': {'with', 'as', 'during', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'goal', 'techniques', 'representations'}, 'relcl': {'support'}, 'compound': {'knowl', 'edge'}, 'conj': {'reasoning', 'use'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'pcomp': {'reading', 'being'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'activate', 'teach'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'independently'}} Long High Medium
2165 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Future research could more deeply investigate which prior knowledge activation techniques work best for which situations and students, in an effort to support teachers’ selection of appropriate instructional scaffolds for a variety of learning tasks 35 13 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'amod': {'appropriate', 'instructional', 'prior', 'Future'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'techniques', 'research'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'deeply', 'best', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'investigate'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge'}, 'ccomp': {'work'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'which', 'a', 'an'}, 'pobj': {'situations', 'effort', 'scaffolds', 'variety'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'students'}, 'punct': {','}, 'acl': {'support'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'selection', 'tasks'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
2166 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Additionally, researchers could investi-gate how teachers select knowledge activation techniques when reading a variety of texts, to better understand what text, task, reader, or contextual factors guide their decision making 30 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 14, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'Additionally', 'better', 'when', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'teachers', 'text'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'investi'}, 'ROOT': {'gate'}, 'ccomp': {'select', 'guide'}, 'dobj': {'techniques', 'decision', 'what', 'variety'}, 'advcl': {'reading', 'understand', 'making'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'texts'}, 'conj': {'task', 'reader', 'factors'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'contextual'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
2167 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Knowledge Activation Appeared Beneficial at All Phases of Reading The current literature review revealed that before-, during-, and after-reading activation techniques were beneficial for students’ comprehension, yet during- reading supports seemed to be particularly useful 35 13 {'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, VERB, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'compound': {'Knowledge', 'reading', 'literature', 'activation'}, 'nsubj': {'techniques', 'Activation', 'supports'}, 'ROOT': {'Appeared'}, 'dobj': {'review', 'Beneficial'}, 'prep': {'for', 'at', 'of'}, 'det': {'All', 'The'}, 'pobj': {'Phases', 'comprehension'}, 'pcomp': {'Reading'}, 'amod': {'during-', 'current'}, 'advcl': {'revealed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'after', 'yet', 'particularly', 'before-'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'conj': {'reading', 'during-', 'seemed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'beneficial', 'useful'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}} Long High Medium
2168 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Given that prior knowledge activation has been conceived as a bidirectional and continuous process that should occur throughout reading (Kintsch, 1998), this finding is consistent with current theories and understandings of the reading process 34 15 {'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'throughout', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'Given'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'bidirectional', 'prior', 'current'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'reading'}, 'nsubjpass': {'activation'}, 'aux': {'should', 'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'pcomp': {'reading', 'conceived'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'understandings', 'continuous'}, 'pobj': {'process', 'theories'}, 'nsubj': {'finding', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'occur'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'dobj': {'Kintsch'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'consistent'}} Long High Medium
2169 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, classroom instruction typically focuses knowledge activation efforts before reading, rather than throughout the reading process (e.g., Hattan & Alexander, 2020), and therefore this finding has the potential to shift instructional practices 32 12 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'rather', 'typically', 'therefore', 'e.g.', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'reading', 'classroom'}, 'nsubj': {'finding', 'instruction'}, 'ROOT': {'focuses'}, 'dobj': {'potential', 'efforts', 'practices'}, 'prep': {'before', 'throughout'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than', '&'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'process'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'has', 'Hattan'}, 'npadvmod': {'2020'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'shift'}, 'amod': {'instructional'}} Long High Low
2170 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Future studies could continue to investigate prior knowledge activation throughout the learning process and consider supporting knowledge activating across multiple phases of reading (e.g., before and after reading) 28 10 {'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2} [NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'amod': {'multiple', 'prior', 'Future'}, 'nsubj': {'studies'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'continue'}, 'xcomp': {'investigate', 'supporting'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'knowledge'}, 'dobj': {'activation', 'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'across', 'throughout', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'phases', 'process'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'after', 'consider'}, 'acl': {'activating'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'before'}} Long High Low
2171 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Additionally, since most stud-ies included expository texts, future studies could further explore whether acti-vating prior knowledge during all phases of reading is also beneficial while reading narrative texts 28 11 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'further', 'Additionally', 'also'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'whether', 'while', 'since'}, 'amod': {'future', 'most', 'vating', 'narrative', 'prior'}, 'compound': {'expository', 'stud'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'knowledge', 'ies'}, 'advcl': {'reading', 'included'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ROOT': {'explore'}, 'npadvmod': {'acti'}, 'prep': {'during', 'of'}, 'det': {'all'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'phases'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'beneficial'}} Long High High
2172 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Collaborative Knowledge Activation Supported Students’ Comprehension The vast majority of techniques (81%) focused specifically on the activation of an individual’s prior knowledge 22 7 {'PROPN': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Knowledge', 'Collaborative', 'Supported'}, 'nsubj': {'majority', 'Activation'}, 'poss': {'Students'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'Comprehension', 'focused'}, 'det': {'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'vast', 'prior'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'activation', 'techniques', 'individual'}, 'nummod': {'81'}, 'appos': {'%'}, 'advmod': {'specifically'}, 'dep': {'’s'}, 'npadvmod': {'knowledge'}} Long High Low
2173 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Yet there is evidence that activating students’ prior knowledge in groups or pairs is beneficial for students’ comprehension (e.g., Andreassen & Bråten, 2011; Carriedo & Alonso-Tapia, 1995) 27 8 {'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [CCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'cc': {'or', 'Yet', '&'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'evidence'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'activating'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'knowledge'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'groups', 'comprehension'}, 'conj': {'Tapia', 'Carriedo', 'Bråten', 'pairs'}, 'acl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'beneficial'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'Andreassen'}, 'nummod': {'2011'}, 'compound': {'Alonso'}, 'appos': {'1995'}} Long High Medium
2174 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Activating knowl-edge collectively provides opportunities for students to learn from one another and collaboratively discuss their prior understandings (Lupo et al., 2019) 22 7 {'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NUM, DET, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'csubj': {'Activating'}, 'compound': {'knowl'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'dobj': {'understandings', 'edge', 'opportunities'}, 'advmod': {'collectively', 'collaboratively'}, 'ROOT': {'provides'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'learn'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pobj': {'one'}, 'det': {'another'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'discuss', '.'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'appos': {'2019', 'Lupo'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}} Long High Medium
2175 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Thus, both researchers designing studies and practicing educators can consider studying and using collaborative knowledge activation techniques to support students’ learning from texts. 23 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'det': {'both'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'designing'}, 'dobj': {'studies', 'techniques', 'students', 'educators'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'csubj': {'practicing'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'conj': {'using', 'consider'}, 'xcomp': {'studying', 'support'}, 'amod': {'collaborative'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pobj': {'texts'}} Long High Low
2176 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation 102Students’ Potential Erroneous Understandings or Misconceptions Need to Be Addressed Studies that explicitly examined the activation of students’ misconceptions found that doing so could hinder comprehension (e.g., Alvermann et al., 1985) 31 10 {'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, PROPN, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADV, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'102Students', 'Understandings', 'that'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'amod': {'Potential', 'Erroneous'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'Misconceptions'}, 'ROOT': {'Need'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'Be'}, 'compound': {'Addressed'}, 'attr': {'Studies'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly', 'e.g.', 'so'}, 'relcl': {'examined'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'al', '.', 'comprehension', 'et', 'activation'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'misconceptions'}, 'advcl': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'doing'}, 'ccomp': {'hinder'}, 'npadvmod': {'1985', 'Alvermann'}} Long High Medium
2177 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This finding is not surprising, especially considering previous work investigating science misconceptions (e.g., Lombardi & Sinatra, 2012) 17 3 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'This'}, 'nsubj': {'finding'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'surprising'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'especially'}, 'advcl': {'considering'}, 'amod': {'previous'}, 'dobj': {'work', 'misconceptions'}, 'acl': {'investigating'}, 'compound': {'science'}, 'parataxis': {'e.g.'}, 'conj': {'Sinatra', 'Lombardi'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012'}} Medium High Low
2178 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Yet there are promising instructional supports, such as augmented activation, text alteration, and teacher prompts, that can help students confront and reconcile their erroneous under - standing or misconceptions before and during reading 33 15 {'CCONJ': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1} [CCONJ, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, VERB] {'cc': {'and', 'Yet', 'or'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'can', 'are'}, 'ROOT': {'promising'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'such', 'augmented', 'erroneous'}, 'dobj': {'standing', 'supports'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'as', 'before'}, 'pobj': {'activation'}, 'compound': {'teacher', 'text'}, 'conj': {'prompts', 'misconceptions', 'reconcile', 'during', 'alteration'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'help'}, 'ccomp': {'confront'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'under'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High Low
2179 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation However, it is also important for educators to recognize when students’ responses signal a true misconception, rather than a different perspective that is shaped by their cultural background and life experiences 31 16 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'also', 'when', 'However', 'rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'responses', 'it', 'educators'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'recognize', 'signal'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'different', 'true', 'cultural'}, 'dobj': {'misconception'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than'}, 'pobj': {'experiences', 'perspective'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'shaped'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nmod': {'background'}, 'conj': {'life'}} Long High High
2180 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation For example, Ballenger (2004) initially thought her students did not understand a particular story 14 5 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For'}, 'pobj': {'example'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'Ballenger'}, 'appos': {'2004'}, 'advmod': {'initially'}, 'ROOT': {'thought'}, 'poss': {'her'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'understand'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'particular'}, 'dobj': {'story'}} Medium High Low
2181 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Yet after learning about their cultural heritage, she realized that their understanding of the text was influenced by their culture, which led to a different, albeit logi-cal, interpretation 28 15 {'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [CCONJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'cc': {'Yet'}, 'prep': {'after', 'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'different', 'logi', 'cultural'}, 'pobj': {'interpretation', 'culture', 'heritage', 'text'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'she'}, 'ROOT': {'realized'}, 'mark': {'albeit', 'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'understanding'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ccomp': {'influenced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'relcl': {'led'}, 'nmod': {'cal'}} Long High High
2182 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation In other words, students may comprehend a text differently as a result of their lived experiences and funds of knowledge (Moll, 2019) 22 10 {'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'as', 'In', 'of'}, 'amod': {'other', 'lived'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'words', 'experiences', 'result'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'comprehend'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'text'}, 'advmod': {'differently'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'funds'}, 'appos': {'Moll'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}} Long High Low
2183 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation This is an equity issue as researchers continue to investigate knowledge activation and misconceptions, since some minoritized communities and forms of knowl-edge may be excluded from the texts and ideas that are typically studied (Ladson-Billings, 2000) 36 17 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'researchers', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'some'}, 'compound': {'knowl', 'knowledge', 'equity', 'Ladson'}, 'attr': {'issue'}, 'mark': {'as', 'since'}, 'advcl': {'excluded', 'continue'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'investigate'}, 'dobj': {'activation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'forms', 'ideas', 'misconceptions', 'Billings'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'studied', 'minoritized'}, 'nsubjpass': {'communities', 'that'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'edge', 'texts'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'advmod': {'typically'}, 'appos': {'2000'}} Long High High
2184 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, researchers must consider how they evaluate readers’ comprehension and whether the assessment allows for varied cultural understandings of texts 20 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'assessment', 'researchers', 'they'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'ccomp': {'evaluate'}, 'poss': {'readers'}, 'dobj': {'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'allows'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'varied', 'cultural'}, 'pobj': {'understandings', 'texts'}} Long High High
2185 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Final Thoughts Overall, this review revealed that prior knowledge activation can optimize stu- dents’ learning and comprehension through the use of a wide range of techniques 26 9 {'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'stu-', 'knowledge', 'Thoughts', 'Final'}, 'npadvmod': {'Overall'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', 'review'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'wide'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'optimize'}, 'poss': {'dents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'comprehension'}, 'prep': {'through', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'range', 'techniques', 'use'}} Long High Medium
2186 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation The effectiveness of these techniques are influenced by how and when readers’ knowledge is activated and the amount and accuracy of learners’ knowledge 23 14 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'The', 'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'effectiveness', 'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'knowledge'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'are'}, 'ROOT': {'influenced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'when', 'accuracy', 'amount'}, 'poss': {'readers', 'learners'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pcomp': {'activated'}} Long High High
2187 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Findings from this systematic literature review clearly demonstrate that a broad array of knowledge activation techniques have been empirically investigated and that most led to positive learning outcomes for students 30 12 {'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'most', 'Findings'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'positive', 'broad'}, 'compound': {'activation', 'knowledge', 'literature', 'learning'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'techniques', 'outcomes', 'review'}, 'advmod': {'clearly', 'empirically'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrate'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'array'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ccomp': {'investigated'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'led'}} Long High High
2188 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Therefore, prior knowl-edge activation is a crucial component to help maximize learning and understand-ing from texts and should not be diminished in conversations that focus predominantly on knowledge building to support comprehension 32 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, VERB, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'predominantly', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'crucial'}, 'compound': {'knowl', 'understand', 'edge', 'knowledge'}, 'nsubj': {'activation', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'component'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'help', 'focus'}, 'xcomp': {'maximize'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'diminished', 'ing'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'conversations', 'texts'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'support'}} Long High Low
2189 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation As such, educa-tors and researchers need to be clear about how they define prior knowledge and its activation, acknowledging when and why conceptualizations are either broad or narrow in scope 30 17 {'SCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2} [SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'amod': {'such', 'prior'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'educa', 'conceptualizations', 'tors', 'they'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'activation', 'narrow', 'researchers', 'why'}, 'ROOT': {'need'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'clear', 'broad'}, 'prep': {'about', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'how'}, 'pcomp': {'define'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'advcl': {'acknowledging'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'pobj': {'scope'}} Long High High
2190 Leveraging What Students Know to Make Sense of Texts- What the Research Says About Prior Knowledge Activation Further, as educators and researchers broaden their defini-tions, they can also consider the vast array of techniques that support students’ learning from and understanding of texts 26 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'also', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'from'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'they', 'educators'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'researchers', 'understanding'}, 'advcl': {'broaden'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'defini'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'tions', 'array'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'vast'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'texts'}, 'relcl': {'support'}, 'acl': {'learning'}} Long High Low
2191 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing will have made a significant contribution to the extant literature and set a course for improved enhanced student learning and instructional practice 22 10 {'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'aux': {'have', 'will'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'extant', 'enhanced', 'significant', 'improved'}, 'dobj': {'course', 'contribution'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'literature'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'set', 'practice'}, 'compound': {'student'}} Long High Low
2192 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Moreover, in concep-tualizing this issue, Dinsmore and Fryer not only sought international scholars withexpertise in this field, but also individuals representing varied theoretical and method- ological traditions 27 11 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 5} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PART, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'Moreover', 'also'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'npadvmod': {'concep'}, 'pcomp': {'tualizing'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'dobj': {'issue', 'traditions'}, 'nsubj': {'Dinsmore', 'scholars'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'Fryer', 'individuals', 'method-'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'amod': {'ological', 'international', 'theoretical', 'varied'}, 'ccomp': {'withexpertise'}, 'pobj': {'field'}, 'acl': {'representing'}} Long High Low
2193 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing For one, there are three overarching theoretical models referenced in the various articles,Approaches to Learning (ILS, Vermunt, 1994), the Model of Domain Learning (MDL,Alexander, 1997, 2003), and Self-Regulated Learning (SRL, Winne, 2010; Zimmerman &Schunk, 2011) 35 12 {'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 7, 'PUNCT': 20, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 14, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NUM, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'one', 'Learning'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'overarching', 'various'}, 'attr': {'models'}, 'acl': {'referenced'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'Self', '1994', 'Vermunt', 'Approaches', 'Winne'}, 'appos': {'ILS', '1997', 'MDL', '2010', 'SRL', '2003', '2011'}, 'conj': {'Zimmerman', 'Schunk', 'Model', 'Learning', 'Alexander'}, 'compound': {'Domain'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'nmod': {'Regulated'}} Long High Low
2194 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Further, as the editors promised, there are different populations, academicdomains, learning contexts, experimental measures, and statistical techniques repre-sented 18 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'editors'}, 'advcl': {'promised'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'different', 'experimental', 'statistical'}, 'attr': {'populations'}, 'conj': {'techniques', 'measures', 'academicdomains', 'contexts'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'repre'}, 'acomp': {'sented'}} Medium High Medium
2195 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing In preparing my responses to this intriguing collection, I was taken by the editors’ choice of the word intersection in the title to situate the relation between levels and regulation of strategies, as well as approaches to learning 38 21 {'ADP': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'In', 'between'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'preparing'}, 'poss': {'editors', 'my'}, 'dobj': {'responses', 'relation'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'intriguing'}, 'pobj': {'title', 'choice', 'intersection', 'levels', 'collection', 'strategies'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'I'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'taken'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'word'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'situate'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'approaches'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}} Long High Low
2196 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing That word evoked an image ofdistinct avenues of theory and research temporarily crossing paths and then continuing ontheir separate ways 20 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'That', 'an'}, 'nsubj': {'word'}, 'ROOT': {'evoked'}, 'nmod': {'image'}, 'amod': {'ontheir', 'ofdistinct', 'separate'}, 'dobj': {'ways', 'paths', 'avenues'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'theory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'continuing', 'research'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'temporarily'}, 'acl': {'crossing'}} Long High Low
2197 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing My primary goal in thiscommentary was to look down the road to the next decade of theory and research onlearners’ strategic processing and approaches to learning and to forward recommenda-tions to those who are likely to pave the path that others will follow 43 24 {'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'poss': {'My'}, 'amod': {'forward', 'primary', 'strategic', 'next'}, 'nsubj': {'goal', 'who', 'others'}, 'prep': {'down', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'thiscommentary', 'road', 'decade', 'those', 'learning', 'tions'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'xcomp': {'pave', 'look'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'theory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'recommenda', 'research'}, 'conj': {'approaches', 'to', 'onlearners'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'relcl': {'are', 'follow'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'path'}} Long High Low
2198 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Yet, to accomplish this goal, there are initial steps that must be taken 13 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Yet'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'advcl': {'accomplish'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'dobj': {'goal'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'initial'}, 'attr': {'steps'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'taken'}} Medium High Low
2199 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing First, it is necessary for me to find evidence of intersection among these contributing authors who represent diverse perspectives and traditions regarding the depth andregulation of strategies and approaches to learning 31 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'First'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'necessary'}, 'prep': {'to', 'among', 'of', 'for', 'regarding'}, 'pobj': {'andregulation', 'intersection', 'authors', 'evidence', 'me', 'strategies'}, 'amod': {'contributing', 'find', 'diverse', 'depth'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'relcl': {'represent'}, 'dobj': {'perspectives'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'approaches', 'traditions'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
2200 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing By identifying these points ofconvergence, I will be better positioned to envision future directions 14 6 {'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'By'}, 'pcomp': {'identifying'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'compound': {'points'}, 'dobj': {'ofconvergence', 'directions'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'better'}, 'acomp': {'positioned'}, 'advcl': {'envision'}, 'amod': {'future'}} Medium High Low
2201 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Second, I want topinpoint the obstacles researchers have encountered on their journey towards greaterunderstanding of the cognitive and metacognitive behaviours that learners manifest or theorientation towards learning they espouse 29 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'Second'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'learners', 'researchers', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'dobj': {'obstacles', 'that', 'topinpoint'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ccomp': {'espouse', 'encountered'}, 'prep': {'on', 'towards', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'greaterunderstanding', 'journey', 'behaviours'}, 'amod': {'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'metacognitive', 'theorientation'}, 'relcl': {'manifest'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
2202 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Some of those obstacles are apparent to anyone engaged in this research, whereas others are more embedded and, thus, harder to see and to avoid 25 18 {'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2} [PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PART, VERB, CCONJ, PART, VERB] {'nsubj': {'others', 'Some'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'this', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'research', 'anyone', 'obstacles'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'embedded', 'harder', 'apparent'}, 'acl': {'engaged'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'thus', 'more'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'see'}, 'conj': {'avoid'}} Long High Medium
2203 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Further, in certain cases, barriers to progress arise more often for oneresearch tradition, one learner population, or one academic domain than for another 23 12 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PRON] {'advmod': {'often', 'more', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'than', 'for', 'in'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'learner', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'another', 'tradition'}, 'nsubj': {'barriers'}, 'aux': {'to', 'progress'}, 'ROOT': {'arise'}, 'compound': {'oneresearch'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'appos': {'population'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'domain'}} Long High Low
2204 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Inother cases, these obstructions are common to all pursuing the goal of enhanced learningand academic development 16 6 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'enhanced', 'academic', 'Inother'}, 'npadvmod': {'cases'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'obstructions'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'common'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'all', 'development'}, 'advcl': {'pursuing'}, 'dobj': {'goal'}, 'nmod': {'learningand'}} Medium High Low
2205 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing However, they manifest or for whom, the drive to removethese obstacles will set a future course for these avenues of inquiry 21 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'drive'}, 'ROOT': {'manifest'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'whom', 'inquiry', 'avenues', 'obstacles'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'future', 'removethese'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'conj': {'set'}, 'dobj': {'course'}} Long High Low
2206 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Convergence of evidence Several years ago, I was negotiating the meaning of learning with Diane Schallert andRalph Reynolds (2009), who represent contrasting theoretical perspectives on thiscomplex construct 27 9 {'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Convergence', 'contrasting'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'evidence', 'construct', 'Reynolds'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'thiscomplex', 'Several'}, 'npadvmod': {'years'}, 'advmod': {'ago'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'who'}, 'aux': {'represent', 'was'}, 'ROOT': {'negotiating'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'perspectives', 'meaning'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'compound': {'Diane', 'andRalph', 'Schallert'}, 'appos': {'2009'}} Long High Low
2207 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing It was then that I became reacquainted with writings of Wilson (1998)around consilience 13 8 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'became'}, 'ccomp': {'reacquainted'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'writings', 'Wilson'}, 'punct': {'('}, 'nummod': {'1998)around'}, 'appos': {'consilience'}} Medium High Medium
2208 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Drawing on philosophical work of Whewell (1840), credited withcoining the term consilience , Wilson (1998) argued that researchers should search for the unity of knowledge that emerges from the diverse perspectives or distinct methodologiesassociated with an important issue or construct 40 15 {'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB] {'advcl': {'Drawing'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'amod': {'philosophical', 'important', 'diverse'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'issue', 'knowledge', 'work', 'Whewell', 'unity'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1840', 'Wilson', '1998'}, 'ROOT': {'credited'}, 'xcomp': {'withcoining'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'term'}, 'dobj': {'consilience'}, 'conj': {'argued', 'distinct', 'construct'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'that'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ccomp': {'search'}, 'relcl': {'emerges'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'acl': {'methodologiesassociated'}} Long High Medium
2209 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing That unity of knowledge, in effect, represents a convergence of evidence; the empirical bedrock upon which inquiry should be based 20 10 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'That', 'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'unity'}, 'prep': {'upon', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'knowledge', 'evidence', 'effect'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'dobj': {'convergence'}, 'amod': {'empirical'}, 'appos': {'bedrock'}, 'nsubjpass': {'inquiry'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'based'}} Long High Medium
2210 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing I have subsequently employed this analytic technique on recent occasions whentrying to extract the essence of complex and controversial constructs, including relevance(Alexander, 2018) and reflectivity (Alexander, 2017) 27 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'subsequently'}, 'ROOT': {'employed'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'complex', 'recent', 'analytic'}, 'dobj': {'technique', 'essence'}, 'prep': {'on', 'including', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'occasions', 'relevance(Alexander', 'constructs'}, 'acl': {'whentrying'}, 'advcl': {'extract'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'controversial', 'reflectivity'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017'}} Long High Low
2211 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Thus, when preparing my responseto this Special Issue, I returned to consilience once more 14 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADV] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'when', 'once', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'preparing'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'dobj': {'Issue', 'responseto'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'compound': {'Special'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'returned'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'consilience'}} Medium High Medium
2212 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing shared by these scholars under the expectation that this area of convergence of evidence best captured what is known about depth and regulation of strategies and approaches tolearning 28 14 {'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, VERB] {'ROOT': {'shared'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'scholars', 'evidence', 'depth', 'expectation', 'convergence', 'strategies'}, 'prep': {'about', 'under', 'of'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'area'}, 'advmod': {'best'}, 'acl': {'captured'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'known'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'approaches'}, 'advcl': {'tolearning'}} Long High Medium
2213 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing As I quickly came to realize, there are indeed points of convergence among those who investigate strategies and those concerned with approaches to learning 24 14 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'who'}, 'advmod': {'indeed', 'quickly'}, 'advcl': {'realize', 'came'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'points'}, 'prep': {'with', 'among', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'convergence', 'approaches', 'those'}, 'relcl': {'investigate'}, 'dobj': {'strategies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'those'}, 'amod': {'concerned'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Medium
2214 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Specifically, the common ground shared by the contributing authors to this Special Issue is as follows: There are discernible, non-random patterns in the way individuals and groups strategically engage in learning 31 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'strategically', 'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'-', 'random', 'discernible', 'contributing', 'non', 'common'}, 'nsubj': {'ground', 'individuals'}, 'acl': {'shared'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'authors', 'way', 'Issue'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'compound': {'Special'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'follows'}, 'expl': {'There'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'patterns'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'engage', 'groups'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Medium
2215 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Before the 20th century dawned, the pragmatist William James (1890) articulated significant principles about human learning and development that remain relevant today.One of those principles related to humans’ tendency to habituate their thinking and behaviours 35 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Before'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'20th', 'articulated', 'significant', 'human'}, 'nsubj': {'century', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'One', 'dawned'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '.', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'today', 'pragmatist'}, 'compound': {'William'}, 'appos': {'principles', '1890', 'James'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'humans', 'tendency', 'principles'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'behaviours', 'development'}, 'relcl': {'remain'}, 'acomp': {'relevant'}, 'acl': {'habituate', 'related'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'thinking'}} Long High Medium
2216 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Regardless of age or background, individuals quickly establish routines that allow them to functionefficiently and effectively in the world 19 8 {'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'functionefficiently', 'quickly', 'Regardless'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'world', 'age'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'effectively', 'background'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'that', 'them'}, 'ROOT': {'establish'}, 'dobj': {'routines'}, 'relcl': {'allow'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
2217 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing This habituation manifests in the cognitive domainas much as in the physical or social realm 15 8 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'habituation'}, 'ROOT': {'manifests'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'amod': {'physical', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'domainas', 'realm'}, 'advmod': {'much'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'social'}} Medium High Low
2218 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Whether the contributors to this Special Issue are exploring cognitive or metacog- nitive/regulatory strategy use or approaches to learning, they apparently have taken as agiven that there are, in fact, reliable, predictable patterns (i.e., habits) in the way humansoperate in academic contexts 42 18 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SYM': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'X': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, SYM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Whether', 'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'contributors', 'they'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'strategy', 'way'}, 'pobj': {'Issue', 'learning', 'humansoperate', 'fact', 'contexts'}, 'aux': {'have', 'are'}, 'advcl': {'exploring'}, 'amod': {'nitive', 'reliable', 'predictable', 'regulatory', 'academic', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'metacog-', 'approaches'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '/', ')'}, 'dobj': {'use'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'apparently', 'i.e.', 'agiven'}, 'ROOT': {'taken'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'patterns'}, 'appos': {'habits'}} Long High High
2219 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Moreover, these authors seemingly ascribe to the premise that, with the right measures and techniques, they can uncover those habits of thought and behaviour, quantify and analyse the results, and draw conclusions of educationalimportance 34 17 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'seemingly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'ascribe'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'thought', 'premise', 'measures', 'educationalimportance'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'right'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'techniques', 'quantify', 'draw', 'behaviour', 'analyse'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'uncover'}, 'dobj': {'results', 'conclusions', 'habits'}} Long High Medium
2220 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing If these contributing authors did not believe that there are discernible, non-random patterns in the way individuals and groups strategically engage in learning, therewould be no reason to conduct the investigations represented in this Special Issue 36 17 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN] {'mark': {'If', 'that'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'amod': {'-', 'random', 'discernible', 'contributing', 'non'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'individuals'}, 'aux': {'did', 'to', 'therewould'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'believe'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are', 'engage'}, 'punct': {','}, 'attr': {'patterns', 'reason'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'way', 'Issue'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'groups'}, 'advmod': {'strategically'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'conduct'}, 'dobj': {'investigations'}, 'acl': {'represented'}, 'compound': {'Special'}} Long High High
2221 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Individuals are able to describe their strategic behaviours or general approaches to learning with some consistency 16 7 {'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Individuals'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'describe'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'general'}, 'dobj': {'behaviours'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'approaches'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'det': {'some'}, 'pobj': {'consistency'}} Medium High Low
2222 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing When it comes to discerning those habits of mind and behaviour to which I just referred, there is yet another commonality that emerges across the articles in this SpecialIssue 29 19 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'advmod': {'When', 'just', 'yet'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'it', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'comes'}, 'prep': {'across', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'discerning'}, 'det': {'another', 'this', 'the', 'those'}, 'dobj': {'habits'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'mind', 'articles', 'SpecialIssue'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'behaviour'}, 'relcl': {'referred', 'emerges'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'commonality'}} Long High Medium
2223 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Specifically, contributing authors apparently accept the idea that the participants intheir studies, regardless of their ages, sociocultural backgrounds, or academic experi-ences, have an awareness of and an ability to articulate the procedures they are using, haveused, or typically use when engaged academically 42 18 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'DET': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADV] {'advmod': {'when', 'academically', 'typically', 'Specifically', 'regardless', 'apparently'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advcl': {'engaged', 'contributing'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'they', 'participants'}, 'ROOT': {'accept'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'idea', 'procedures', 'awareness'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'appos': {'studies', 'intheir'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'ages'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'sociocultural'}, 'conj': {'ences', 'ability', 'use', 'backgrounds', 'haveused'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'compound': {'experi'}, 'acl': {'have', 'articulate'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'using'}} Long High High
2224 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing In effect, these researchers operateunder the assumption that what is revealed during think-alouds, post-performance interviews, or questionnaires has sufficient correspondence to what actually transpires to merit analysis 27 12 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'during', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'analysis', 'effect', 'interviews'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'what', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'questionnaires'}, 'ROOT': {'operateunder'}, 'dobj': {'correspondence', 'assumption'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'acl': {'revealed'}, 'npadvmod': {'think'}, 'amod': {'-', 'post', 'alouds', 'sufficient', 'performance'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'has'}, 'advmod': {'actually'}, 'pcomp': {'transpires'}, 'compound': {'merit'}} Long High Medium
2225 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing For instance, framing their study within self-regulated learning or SRL, Deekens, Greene, and Lobczowski (2018) re-analysed think-aloud data from two investigations asthe means to establish a statistical, if not a theoretical, relation between depth ofprocessing and frequency of monitoring and, ultimately, high-school and college students’performance on history and science tasks 50 20 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 19, 'PUNCT': 13, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'within', 'from', 'of', 'For', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'investigations', 'instance', 'learning', 'tasks', 'ofprocessing', 'monitoring'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'csubj': {'framing'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'data', 'study', 'relation'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'statistical', 'high', 'regulated', 'analysed'}, 'cc': {'or', 'if', 'and'}, 'conj': {'-', 'college', 'science', 'frequency', 're', 'SRL', 'students’performance', 'Deekens', 'Greene', 'Lobczowski'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'compound': {'think', 'aloud', 'depth'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubj': {'asthe'}, 'ROOT': {'means'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'establish'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'ultimately'}, 'nmod': {'history', 'school'}} Long High Medium
2226 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing (2018) used first-year psychology students’ responses on the Inventory of Learning Patterns-Short Version (Donche & Van Petegem, 2008) to craft learner profiles 22 5 {'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'2018'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'amod': {'learner', 'first'}, 'nmod': {'year'}, 'compound': {'psychology', 'Van', 'Learning', 'Short'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'dobj': {'profiles', 'responses'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'Patterns', 'Inventory'}, 'appos': {'2008', 'Version'}, 'conj': {'Petegem', 'Donche'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'craft'}} Long High Low
2227 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Eye- tracking data were then gathered from a subgroup of the different profiles with the goal oflinking profiles to regulatory behaviour 21 9 {'INTJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2} [INTJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'dep': {'Eye-'}, 'compound': {'tracking'}, 'nsubjpass': {'data'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'ROOT': {'gathered'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'goal', 'profiles', 'subgroup', 'behaviour'}, 'amod': {'different', 'regulatory'}, 'acl': {'oflinking'}, 'dobj': {'profiles'}} Long High Low
2228 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing researchers regarded what participants voiced or wrote as credible evidence of what was occurring inside their minds or what they routinely do when learning 24 12 {'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, VERB] {'nsubj': {'researchers', 'what', 'they', 'participants'}, 'ROOT': {'regarded'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'ccomp': {'voiced'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'wrote', 'do'}, 'prep': {'inside', 'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'credible'}, 'pobj': {'evidence', 'minds'}, 'aux': {'was'}, 'pcomp': {'occurring'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'routinely', 'when'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}} Long High Medium
2229 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Another principle James (1890) articulated, which may at first blush seem paradoxical with the notion of habitation, pertained to the uniqueness of human experience 24 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3} [DET, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'Another', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'principle'}, 'appos': {'1890', 'James'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'acl': {'articulated'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of', 'to', 'with'}, 'amod': {'first', 'human'}, 'pobj': {'habitation', 'uniqueness', 'notion', 'blush', 'experience'}, 'relcl': {'seem'}, 'oprd': {'paradoxical'}, 'ROOT': {'pertained'}} Long High Low
2230 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Echoingthe pre-Socratic philosopher Heraclitus, who famously said that ‘No man ever steps in thesame river twice, for it’s not the same river and he’s not the same man’, James contended that the continuous flow of events humans experience ensure that no thought or action can ever be truly replicated 49 26 {'PROPN': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'SCONJ': 4, 'DET': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2} [PROPN, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'nmod': {'Echoingthe'}, 'amod': {'pre', '-', 'continuous', 'same', 'Socratic'}, 'compound': {'thesame', 'philosopher'}, 'nsubj': {'humans', 'who', 'he', 'flow', 'it', 'James', 'man', 'Heraclitus'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'advmod': {'twice', 'famously', 'truly', 'ever'}, 'relcl': {'said', 'experience'}, 'mark': {'for', 'that'}, 'det': {'No', 'no', 'the'}, 'ccomp': {'ensure', 'steps', '’s', 'replicated'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'events', 'river'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'man', 'river'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'’s', 'action'}, 'ROOT': {'contended'}, 'nsubjpass': {'thought'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High High
2231 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing That is to say,thoughts and actions can repeat in an approximate way, being inevitably shaped by thechanging conditions within individuals or external to them 24 14 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON] {'nsubj': {'That', 'thoughts'}, 'parataxis': {'is'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'say'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'actions'}, 'ROOT': {'repeat'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'approximate'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'them', 'way'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'advmod': {'inevitably', 'external'}, 'advcl': {'shaped'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pcomp': {'thechanging'}, 'dobj': {'conditions'}} Long High Low
2232 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing The resulting pattern is stillrecognizable as a variant of what has occurred; just not an exact copy 17 10 {'DET': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PART, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'an', 'The'}, 'amod': {'exact', 'resulting'}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'pattern'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'stillrecognizable'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'variant'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'pcomp': {'occurred'}, 'punct': {';'}, 'advmod': {'just'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'copy'}} Medium High Low
2233 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Certainly, this same principle applies to students’ strategic behaviour or approaches to learning 13 5 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'Certainly'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'same'}, 'nsubj': {'principle'}, 'ROOT': {'applies'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'behaviour'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'approaches'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Low
2234 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing All learners may adopt certain processing rituals or routines, but those rituals androutines are expected to iterate as conditions internal or external to the learner shift 26 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'All', 'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'learners'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'adopt'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'learner', 'internal'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'rituals'}, 'dobj': {'rituals'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'routines', 'external', 'expected'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'androutines'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'xcomp': {'iterate'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'conditions', 'shift'}} Long High Low
2235 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing In fact, there are a various internal and external influences mentioned by the contributing authors, such as learner characteristics (e.g., topic knowledge or domain interest),specific task features (e.g., complexity or structuredness of the task), and performancevenue (e.g., on computer or in history or science classrooms) 45 19 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 17, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 6, 'ADV': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'as', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'characteristics', 'task', 'authors', 'classrooms', 'computer', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'internal', 'various', 'such', 'contributing', 'learner'}, 'cc': {'and', 'e.g.', 'or'}, 'conj': {'external', 'features', 'science', 'structuredness', 'in', 'knowledge', 'domain', 'performancevenue'}, 'attr': {'influences'}, 'acl': {'mentioned'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'task', 'topic', 'interest),specific'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'complexity'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'nmod': {'history'}} Long High Low
2236 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing For example, Fryer and Vermunt (2018) used Latent Profile Transition Analysis to examine the profiles of Japanese students at the beginning and end of their first year atcollege 28 11 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'at', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'atcollege', 'beginning', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Fryer'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Vermunt', 'end'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'compound': {'Latent', 'year', 'Transition', 'Profile'}, 'dobj': {'profiles', 'Analysis'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'examine'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'Japanese', 'first'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
2237 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Data for this analysis came from select scales measuring deep and surface approaches to learning and three modes of regulation (i.e., self, external, and lack of) 26 10 {'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'X': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Data'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'scales', 'analysis', 'regulation'}, 'ROOT': {'came'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'select'}, 'acl': {'measuring'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'external', 'surface', 'modes', 'lack'}, 'dobj': {'approaches'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'appos': {'self'}} Long High Low
2238 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Relevant to the claim of strategic iteration, Fryer and Vermunt determined that fourprofiles captured the data effectively at the beginning of the school year –Low Quality, Low Quantity, Average, and High Quantity 32 11 {'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN] {'advcl': {'Relevant'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'claim', 'beginning', 'year', 'iteration'}, 'amod': {'strategic'}, 'punct': {',', '–', 'Quantity'}, 'nsubj': {'Fryer', 'fourprofiles'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Quantity', 'Vermunt', 'Average'}, 'ROOT': {'determined'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'captured'}, 'dobj': {'data'}, 'advmod': {'effectively'}, 'compound': {'Low', 'school', 'High'}, 'npadvmod': {'Quality'}} Long High Medium
2239 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing By the end of the school year, while themembership of the Average and Low Quality profiles remained quite stable, there was anoticeable shift in membership for students initially populating the High and LowQuantity profiles 34 15 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'By', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'profiles', 'students', 'end', 'membership', 'year'}, 'compound': {'Low', 'school'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'nsubj': {'themembership'}, 'amod': {'anoticeable', 'Average', 'High'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'LowQuantity', 'Quality'}, 'advcl': {'remained'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'initially'}, 'acomp': {'stable'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'shift'}, 'acl': {'populating'}, 'dobj': {'profiles'}} Long High Medium
2240 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing The authors had not anticipated this pattern in ‘movers’ and ‘stayers’ and explored a number of possible explanations for their findings 21 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'anticipated'}, 'dobj': {'number', 'pattern'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’'}, 'pobj': {'movers', 'explanations', 'findings'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'explored', 'stayers'}, 'amod': {'possible'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
2241 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing One of those explanations was internal to the students and centred on the possible adequacy of the Average groups approaches tolearning and regulatory behaviours for the academic context 28 14 {'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2} [NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'One'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'adequacy', 'students', 'context', 'explanations', 'groups'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'internal'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'centred', 'approaches', 'behaviours'}, 'amod': {'regulatory', 'academic', 'possible', 'Average'}, 'dobj': {'tolearning'}} Long High Low
2242 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Another, which was moreexternal in form, posited that the movers from High Quantity to Low Quality or Averagegroups may reflect ‘friction between their strategy use and the expectations of theenvironment’ (p 31 15 {'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'which', 'Another', 'movers'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '‘', '’'}, 'relcl': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'moreexternal'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'theenvironment', 'form', 'Quality', 'use', 'Quantity'}, 'ROOT': {'posited'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'strategy', 'Low', 'High'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'Averagegroups', 'expectations'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'reflect'}, 'dobj': {'friction'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High Medium
2243 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing The prevailing cultural within Japanese higher education was alsodiscussed as an external force that may have exerted influence on these students’approaches to learning and regulatory behaviours 26 12 {'DET': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'The', 'these'}, 'amod': {'external', 'prevailing', 'learning', 'Japanese', 'regulatory', 'higher'}, 'nsubjpass': {'cultural'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'within', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'students’approaches', 'force', 'education', 'behaviours'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'alsodiscussed'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'relcl': {'exerted'}, 'dobj': {'influence'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
2244 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Investigating strategies through the lens of the MDL (Alexander, 1997, 2003), Parkinson and Dinsmore (2018) considered the influence of readers’ domain-specificknowledge and interest on their text processing 27 10 {'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'csubj': {'Investigating'}, 'dobj': {'strategies', 'influence'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'lens', 'specificknowledge', 'MDL', 'readers'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1997', '2018', '2003', 'Alexander'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'Parkinson', 'Dinsmore'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'domain', 'text'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
2245 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Their findings revealed how quality morethan quantity of high-school students’ strategy use was at issue 15 5 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADP, NOUN] {'poss': {'Their', 'students'}, 'nsubj': {'quantity', 'findings'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'amod': {'quality', 'high', 'morethan'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'compound': {'strategy', 'school'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'issue'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}} Medium High Medium
2246 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Further, certain studentsrelied more on their knowledge base than others, and it mattered whether the text theyread was expository or persuasive in form 23 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'certain', 'it', 'theyread'}, 'ROOT': {'studentsrelied'}, 'dobj': {'more'}, 'prep': {'on', 'than', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'form', 'base', 'others'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'persuasive', 'mattered'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'attr': {'expository'}} Long High Medium
2247 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Scheiter, Schubert, and Sch €uler, 2018 also focused on the role of knowledge in strategic processing 16 6 {'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SYM': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, SYM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Scheiter'}, 'punct': {',', '€'}, 'npadvmod': {'Schubert'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'Sch'}, 'conj': {'uler'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'knowledge', 'role'}, 'amod': {'strategic'}} Medium High Low
2248 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing These researchers wanted to determine whether a substantialDepth and regulation of strategies 155 13 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM] {'det': {'a', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'wanted'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'determine'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'ccomp': {'substantialDepth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regulation'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'strategies'}, 'nummod': {'155'}} Medium High Medium
2249 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing amount of domain knowledge would override university students’ use of a particular technique shown to be effective with elementary students’ reading of multimedia texts.The Eye Movement Modeling Examples (EMME) technique they implemented involvesshowing participants videos of the eye gaze patterns of skilled learners studying texts containing pictures or graphs as a visual model 53 17 {'NOUN': 22, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'amount', 'they'}, 'prep': {'with', 'as', 'of'}, 'compound': {'eye', 'multimedia', 'Modeling', 'Eye', 'gaze', 'domain', 'Movement', 'university'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'texts', 'knowledge', 'learners', 'model', 'technique', 'patterns'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'technique', 'override'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', '.', ')'}, 'dobj': {'use', 'pictures', 'texts', 'videos'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'elementary', 'skilled', 'visual'}, 'acl': {'studying', 'shown', 'containing'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'involvesshowing'}, 'acomp': {'effective'}, 'nmod': {'Examples'}, 'appos': {'EMME'}, 'relcl': {'implemented'}, 'dative': {'participants'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'graphs'}} Long High Low
2250 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing As they hypothesized, these authors found that those with a substantial base of content knowledge did not follow the recommendedeye-tracking pattern when integrating text and visual media 27 13 {'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'those', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'hypothesized', 'integrating'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'substantial', 'visual'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'base'}, 'compound': {'content', 'tracking'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'follow'}, 'npadvmod': {'recommendedeye'}, 'dobj': {'text', 'pattern'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'media'}} Long High High
2251 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing There is a positive association between depth and frequency of strategy use, on the one hand, and regulatory behaviours and academic outcomes on the other 25 14 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'regulatory', 'positive', 'academic'}, 'attr': {'association'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'other', 'hand', 'use', 'depth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'frequency', 'outcomes'}, 'compound': {'strategy'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'dep': {'behaviours'}} Long High Low
2252 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Perhaps the most salient point of convergence for the authors in this Special Issue is the reasonable presumption that it is desirable for students of all ages and backgrounds to manifest those thoughts and behaviours indicative of deeper processing with regularity, regardless of the task or domain with which they are engaged 52 29 {'ADV': 3, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 8, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADV, DET, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'regardless', 'indicative', 'Perhaps', 'most'}, 'det': {'all', 'the', 'this', 'those'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'salient'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'point', 'it'}, 'prep': {'with', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'which', 'regularity', 'Issue', 'task', 'ages', 'authors', 'convergence'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'reasonable', 'deeper'}, 'attr': {'presumption'}, 'mark': {'for', 'that'}, 'acl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'desirable'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'engaged', 'backgrounds', 'behaviours'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'manifest'}, 'dobj': {'thoughts'}, 'punct': {','}, 'auxpass': {'are'}} Long High High
2253 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Moreover, there is theacknowledgement that such depth of processing is intertwined with the regulation ormonitoring of performance and tied to better learning or task outcomes 25 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADV, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'better'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'theacknowledgement', 'outcomes'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'nsubjpass': {'depth'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'performance', 'ormonitoring', 'learning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'acl': {'intertwined'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'regulation'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'tied', 'task'}} Long High Medium
2254 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Dinsmore and Zoellner (2018) tackled this very idea directly in their investigation of the interplay between deeper or more surface-level cognitive strategies and metacogni-tive strategies and college students’ performance in a science simulation task 34 14 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Dinsmore'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'students', 'strategies', 'more', 'Zoellner'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')', '’'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'ROOT': {'tackled'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'very', 'surface', 'deeper', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'idea'}, 'advmod': {'directly'}, 'prep': {'between', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'interplay', 'investigation', 'strategies'}, 'nmod': {'level'}, 'compound': {'metacogni', 'science', 'college', 'simulation', 'tive'}} Long High Low
2255 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing What theiranalyses revealed was that considering only the depth and frequency of cognitive strategies did not adequately explain the outcomes 20 10 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, NOUN, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'What', 'the'}, 'csubj': {'considering', 'theiranalyses'}, 'acl': {'revealed'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'adequately'}, 'dobj': {'outcomes', 'depth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'frequency'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'strategies'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'explain'}} Long High Medium
2256 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Ultimately, what they determined through smallest space analysis was that students’ outcomes on a climate simulation taskwas best captured by cognitive and metacognitive dimensions of functioning and certain clusters of strategies that manifest within that multidimensional space 37 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'best', 'Ultimately'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'they'}, 'csubj': {'determined'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'within', 'students', 'of'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'smallest', 'multidimensional', 'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'climate', 'space'}, 'pobj': {'dimensions', 'analysis', 'simulation', 'functioning', 'space', 'strategies'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'outcomes'}, 'det': {'a', 'that'}, 'auxpass': {'taskwas'}, 'ccomp': {'captured'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'metacognitive', 'clusters'}, 'relcl': {'manifest'}} Long High Medium
2257 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing (2018) used think-aloud data from high-school and college students to explore the relations between the depth and frequency of cognitive strategyuse and the frequency of regulatory behaviour 27 12 {'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 3} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2018'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'compound': {'think', 'aloud'}, 'dobj': {'relations', 'data'}, 'prep': {'between', 'of', 'from'}, 'amod': {'regulatory', 'high', 'cognitive'}, 'nmod': {'school'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'frequency', 'college'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'behaviour', 'strategyuse', 'depth'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'explore'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Low
2258 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing concluded that focusing only on depth or frequency of strategy use was insufficient to represent the nature of effective learning in those studies 23 11 {'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2} [VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'concluded'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'focusing'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'use', 'depth', 'studies'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'frequency'}, 'compound': {'strategy'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'insufficient'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'represent'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'dobj': {'nature'}, 'amod': {'effective'}} Long High Medium
2259 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing This association between the cognitive and metacognitive dimensions of learning and academicperformance that Deekens et al 16 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'association'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'amod': {'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'metacognitive', 'academicperformance'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'dimensions'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'appos': {'Deekens', 'et'}, 'punct': {'al'}} Medium High Medium
2260 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing and Dinsmore and Zoellner empirically investigated is theoretically addressed by Winne (2018) 12 4 {'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1} [CCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADV, VERB, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'Dinsmore'}, 'conj': {'Zoellner'}, 'advmod': {'empirically', 'theoretically'}, 'ROOT': {'investigated'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'addressed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'Winne'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2018'}} Medium High Low
2261 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Specifically, Winne draws on his decades ofresearch on SRL to illustrate how depth and levels of strategic processing play out acrossthe phases of his model of self-regulated learning 28 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'Winne', 'levels'}, 'ROOT': {'draws'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'decades', 'learning', 'SRL', 'model'}, 'dobj': {'ofresearch', 'phases', 'depth'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'illustrate'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'regulated'}, 'conj': {'play'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'det': {'acrossthe'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}} Long High Medium
2262 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing He also deconstructs the notion of depthof processing as it is frequently used in the literature –an issue I will revisit in this commentary 24 15 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'He'}, 'advmod': {'frequently', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'deconstructs'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'notion'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'depthof'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'commentary', 'literature'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'used'}, 'punct': {'–'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'relcl': {'revisit'}} Long High Medium
2263 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Additional insights Beyond these key principles shared by the contributors, I want to briefly touch uponadditional insights I was able to extract from the collective works comprising this SpecialIssue 29 12 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, PROPN] {'amod': {'uponadditional', 'Additional', 'collective', 'key'}, 'dep': {'insights'}, 'prep': {'Beyond', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'contributors', 'works', 'principles'}, 'acl': {'shared', 'comprising'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'touch', 'briefly', 'extract'}, 'dobj': {'SpecialIssue', 'insights'}, 'relcl': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'able'}} Long High Low
2264 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing I offer these here as important reminders of what are currently held as ‘truths’ aboutthe process of learning 18 9 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1} [PRON, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'dobj': {'these'}, 'advmod': {'currently', 'here'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'important'}, 'pobj': {'truths', 'process', 'reminders'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'pcomp': {'held', 'learning'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’'}, 'det': {'aboutthe'}} Medium High Low
2265 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Simply stated, I would summarize those insights as follows: Learning is ultimately a complex, multifaceted, and dynamic process that cannot be fully represented by any one theoretical framework, set of beliefs, or cluster of processes.156 Patricia A 37 18 {'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'ultimately', 'Simply', 'fully'}, 'advcl': {'follows', 'stated'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'Learning'}, 'aux': {'would', 'can'}, 'ccomp': {'summarize'}, 'det': {'a', 'those', 'any'}, 'dobj': {'insights'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'complex'}, 'preconj': {'multifaceted'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'cluster', 'dynamic'}, 'attr': {'process'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'represented'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'A', 'framework', 'beliefs'}, 'acl': {'set'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'processes.156', 'Patricia'}} Long High Medium
2266 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing The more that educational psychologists or learning scientist come to understand of the process of learning or about learners, the more they appreciate that they will never beable to capture the nature of this fundamental human activity in its entirety 40 23 {'PRON': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, ADV, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'The', 'the', 'more'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'fundamental', 'educational', 'human'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'psychologists'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'conj': {'about', 'scientist'}, 'advcl': {'understand', 'come'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'entirety', 'learning', 'learners', 'process', 'activity'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'appreciate'}, 'neg': {'never'}, 'ccomp': {'beable'}, 'xcomp': {'capture'}, 'dobj': {'nature'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High High
2267 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing At best, theycan attempt to richly and accurately describe certain dimensions or mechanisms of that process in such a way as to enlighten students, teachers, educational leaders, and policymakers 29 12 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'At', 'accurately', 'best', 'richly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'certain', 'theycan', 'educational'}, 'ROOT': {'attempt'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'xcomp': {'describe'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'dimensions'}, 'conj': {'mechanisms', 'teachers', 'leaders', 'policymakers'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'that'}, 'pobj': {'process', 'way'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'enlighten'}} Long High Medium
2268 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Certainly, ILS, the MDL, and SRL are theoretical frameworks that highlightimportant facets of learning and academic development, but they are by no means all-encompassing 24 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, VERB] {'advmod': {'all', 'Certainly'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'that', 'ILS'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'appos': {'MDL'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'SRL', 'are', 'development'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'academic', 'highlightimportant'}, 'attr': {'frameworks'}, 'relcl': {'facets'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'means'}, 'acomp': {'encompassing'}} Long High Low
2269 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing This fact was made apparent in each article by the constraints, challenges,and limitations the authors dutifully acknowledged 17 9 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB] {'det': {'each', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'fact'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'oprd': {'apparent'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'constraints', 'article'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'challenges', 'limitations', 'acknowledged'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'advmod': {'dutifully'}} Medium High Low
2270 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing There are diverse ways to unearth and examine what learners ‘do’ or ‘think they are doing’ 16 10 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'diverse'}, 'attr': {'ways'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'unearth'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'examine', 'think'}, 'det': {'what'}, 'dobj': {'learners'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’'}, 'ccomp': {'do', 'doing'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}} Medium High Low
2271 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing When Wilson (1998) forwarded the concept of consilience, he argued that it was surely possible that researchers using very diverse methodologies and approaching aproblem from different theoretical frameworks can arrive at similar conclusions 33 14 {'SCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'very', 'surely'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'he', 'it', 'Wilson'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1998'}, 'advcl': {'using', 'forwarded'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'methodologies', 'concept', 'aproblem'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'consilience', 'conclusions', 'frameworks'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'arrive', 'was'}, 'acomp': {'possible'}, 'amod': {'different', 'theoretical', 'similar', 'diverse'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'approaching'}, 'aux': {'can'}} Long High High
2272 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Whether thesescholars relied on data from think-alouds, questionnaires, simulation programmes, retrospective interviews; gathered real-time physiobiological indicators or regulatory trace data; or used variable-centred or person-centred analyses, their findings intersectto some degree 31 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 17, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'Whether'}, 'nsubj': {'thesescholars', 'findings'}, 'csubj': {'relied'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'data', 'questionnaires'}, 'nmod': {'alouds', 'think', 'time'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '-'}, 'compound': {'trace', 'simulation'}, 'conj': {'centred', 'used', 'data', 'programmes'}, 'amod': {'retrospective', 'centred', 'real', 'physiobiological', 'regulatory'}, 'appos': {'interviews'}, 'ccomp': {'gathered'}, 'dobj': {'indicators', 'analyses', 'degree'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'npadvmod': {'variable', 'person'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ROOT': {'intersectto'}, 'det': {'some'}} Long High Medium
2273 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing There are relevant distinctions to be made among the processes involved in learning and academic performance 16 9 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'academic'}, 'attr': {'distinctions'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'made'}, 'prep': {'among', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'processes'}, 'acl': {'involved'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance'}} Medium High Low
2274 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Throughout this Special Issue, contributors found it empirically necessary to identify different forms or levels of learning processes 18 6 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'Throughout', 'of'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'compound': {'Special'}, 'pobj': {'processes', 'Issue'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'contributors', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'advmod': {'empirically'}, 'ccomp': {'necessary'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'amod': {'different', 'learning'}, 'dobj': {'forms'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'levels'}} Medium High Low
2275 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Thus, readers will encounter references to processes that are deep versus surface or shallow; cognitive versus metacognitive versus regulatory; routine versus intentional; and general versus domain-specific 26 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'readers', 'that'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'encounter'}, 'dobj': {'references'}, 'prep': {'to', 'versus'}, 'pobj': {'metacognitive', 'surface', 'specific', 'processes'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'deep'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'shallow', 'routine', 'general', 'cognitive'}, 'amod': {'regulatory', 'intentional'}, 'compound': {'domain'}} Long High Low
2276 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Thislitany of terms is significant in that it conveys that effective learning and academicperformance entail layers or categories of procedures that differ in theoretically andpractically important ways that demand empirical consideration 31 12 {'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2} [ADJ, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Thislitany', 'that', 'it'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'procedures', 'terms'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'significant'}, 'mark': {'that', 'in'}, 'advcl': {'conveys'}, 'amod': {'important', 'effective', 'empirical'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'consideration'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'academicperformance', 'entail'}, 'conj': {'layers', 'categories'}, 'relcl': {'differ', 'demand'}, 'advmod': {'andpractically', 'theoretically'}} Long High High
2277 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Thus, it matterswhether the learner is executing a particular mental procedure in task performance(cognitive) or monitoring whether that procedure is functioning effectively (metacog-nitive or self-regulatory) 25 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'effectively'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'procedure', 'it', 'learner'}, 'ROOT': {'matterswhether'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'functioning', 'executing'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'mental'}, 'dobj': {'procedure'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'compound': {'task'}, 'pobj': {'performance(cognitive'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'monitoring', 'regulatory'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'npadvmod': {'metacog', 'self'}, 'advcl': {'nitive'}} Long High Medium
2278 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing It matters whether students are enacting procedures that allow them to make sense of a problem or task (surface) or to critically analyse its form or content (deep) 28 14 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'students', 'them', 'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'matters'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'make', 'enacting'}, 'dobj': {'form', 'procedures', 'sense'}, 'relcl': {'allow'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'problem'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'nmod': {'task'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'conj': {'content', 'surface', 'analyse'}, 'advmod': {'critically'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'amod': {'deep'}} Long High Medium
2279 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Effective learning and academic performance require the orchestration of skills and strategies at varying levels or in different categories 19 7 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 3} [ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'different', 'varying', 'academic', 'Effective'}, 'nsubj': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'strategies', 'in'}, 'ROOT': {'require'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'orchestration'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'categories', 'levels'}} Medium High Low
2280 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing While it is crucial to acknowledge procedural distinctions that manifest in learning and academic performance, it is equally important to appreciate that it is the orchestration of these procedures that ultimately leads to effective outcomes (Dinsmore & Alexander, 2012) 39 18 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'that', 'While'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'important', 'crucial'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'appreciate', 'acknowledge'}, 'amod': {'procedural', 'effective', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'distinctions'}, 'relcl': {'leads', 'manifest'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'procedures', 'outcomes'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'Alexander'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'ultimately', 'equally'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'attr': {'orchestration'}, 'appos': {'Dinsmore'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012'}} Long High High
2281 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing For instance, it would be easy to construe that deep strategies are somehowsuperior to surface strategies or that cognitive and metacognitive processes functionseparately 23 11 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV] {'prep': {'For', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'strategies'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'strategies'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'easy', 'somehowsuperior'}, 'xcomp': {'construe'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'cognitive'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'compound': {'surface'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'det': {'that'}, 'conj': {'metacognitive', 'processes'}, 'advmod': {'functionseparately'}} Long High Medium
2282 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Yet, all learners at all levels of expertise employ both surface and deepstrategies according to the MDL (Alexander, 1997, 2003), and there is a continual interplaybetween cognitive and metacognitive processes as the models and research in self-regulated learning establish (Hadwin & Winne, 2001; Winne, 1982).Depth and regulation of strategies 157 50 20 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 11, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM] {'advmod': {'Yet'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'the', 'both'}, 'nsubj': {'learners'}, 'prep': {'at', 'according', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'establish', 'levels', 'MDL', 'expertise', 'strategies'}, 'ROOT': {'employ'}, 'dobj': {'surface'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'metacognitive', 'Winne', 'is', 'deepstrategies', 'research'}, 'appos': {'1982).Depth', '1997', 'Hadwin', '2003', 'Alexander'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'amod': {'learning', 'continual', 'regulated', 'cognitive'}, 'nmod': {'interplaybetween'}, 'attr': {'processes'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', '2001'}, 'nummod': {'157'}} Long High Low
2283 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Lingering concerns I would not be performing my role as commentator for this Special Issue well if I simplyidentified the shared principles and important insights that the authors of these articleshave contributed to the knowledge base on levels and regulation of strategies and approaches to learning 46 24 {'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'INTJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, INTJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'amod': {'Lingering', 'important', 'shared'}, 'dep': {'concerns'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'authors'}, 'aux': {'would', 'be'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'performing'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'principles'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'commentator', 'levels', 'Issue', 'articleshave', 'base', 'strategies'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'knowledge'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'simplyidentified'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'approaches', 'insights'}, 'acl': {'contributed'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High High
2284 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing I must also look critically at these intersecting literatures and what remains as barriers to achieving even greater understanding of learning and academicperformance 23 12 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'what'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'advmod': {'critically', 'also', 'even'}, 'ROOT': {'look'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of', 'to', 'as'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'amod': {'intersecting', 'greater'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'literatures', 'barriers'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'academicperformance', 'remains'}, 'pcomp': {'achieving'}, 'dobj': {'understanding'}} Long High Low
2285 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing These barriers are not confined to any one theoretical framework orprogramme of research 13 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'any', 'These'}, 'nsubjpass': {'barriers'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'confined'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'amod': {'theoretical'}, 'compound': {'framework'}, 'pobj': {'research', 'orprogramme'}} Medium High Low
2286 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Rather, these conundrums impede progress for all researchers onthis journey to understand human learning and academic development, and they havedone so for decades 23 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Rather', 'so'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'all', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'onthis', 'conundrums'}, 'ROOT': {'impede'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'journey', 'progress'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'researchers', 'decades'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'understand'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'human'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'havedone', 'development'}} Long High Low
2287 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing A muddled distinction between strategic and skilful behaviour Strategies are the centrepiece for this Special Issue and a key component in the theoretical frameworks referenced (e.g., ILS, MDL, and SRL) 30 12 {'DET': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADV': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT] {'det': {'A', 'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'muddled', 'strategic', 'theoretical', 'key'}, 'nsubj': {'distinction'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in', 'between'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'component', 'SRL', 'skilful', 'MDL'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'behaviour'}, 'pobj': {'frameworks', 'Strategies', 'Issue'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'centrepiece'}, 'acl': {'referenced'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'ILS'}} Long High Low
2288 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Further, strategic processing is a concept that is often discussed within the instructional literature asessential for normally developing and id entified populations (Graham, Harris, & Mason, 2005; Pressley & Harris, 2008) acro ss grades and academic domains 37 12 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 10, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'INTJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, INTJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'normally', 'often', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'developing', 'academic'}, 'nsubj': {'processing'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'concept'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'discussed'}, 'prep': {'for', 'within'}, 'compound': {'instructional', 'entified', 'd', 'literature', 'ss', 'acro', 'i'}, 'pobj': {'populations', 'asessential'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'appos': {'2008', 'Graham', '2005', 'grades'}, 'conj': {'Mason', 'Harris', 'domains', 'Pressley'}} Long High Low
2289 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Yet, wh a tex ac tl yco unt sa sas tr a teg yan dwh at does not remain problematic 20 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 10, 'INTJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, INTJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ] {'advmod': {'Yet'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'tr', 'at', 'wh'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'ac', 'teg', 'sa', 'tex', 'unt', 'yco', 'tl', 'yan'}, 'pobj': {'sas'}, 'dobj': {'dwh'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'remain'}, 'acomp': {'problematic'}} Long High Low
2290 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing That is why there are those who have sought to differentiate these procedures from skills(Afflerbach, Pearson, & Paris, 2008; Alexan der, Grossnickle Peterson, Dumas, & Hattan, in press) 28 12 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 8, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'That', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'why'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'attr': {'those'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'sought'}, 'xcomp': {'differentiate'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'dobj': {'procedures'}, 'prep': {'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'press', 'skills(Afflerbach'}, 'punct': {',', ';', ')'}, 'conj': {'Peterson', 'Pearson', 'Paris', 'Dumas', 'der', 'Hattan'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'compound': {'Grossnickle', 'Alexan'}} Long High Medium
2291 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing For example, in our perspective on strategy research, Karen Harris, Steve Graham, and I (1998) claimed that strategies have six specific attributes 22 9 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NUM, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'perspective', 'research', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'Steve', 'specific', 'strategy', 'Karen'}, 'nsubj': {'Harris', 'strategies'}, 'appos': {'Graham', '1998'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'claimed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'nummod': {'six'}, 'dobj': {'attributes'}} Long High Medium
2292 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing ‘Specifically, strategies can beunderstood as procedural ,purposeful ,effortful ,willful ,essential , and facilitative ’ (p 15 3 {'PUNCT': 9, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'punct': {'‘', '(', ',', '’'}, 'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'nsubj': {'strategies'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'beunderstood'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'amod': {'procedural'}, 'conj': {'essential', 'facilitative', 'effortful', 'purposeful', 'willful'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Medium High Low
2293 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing This characterization was used to delineate the parameters between strategies and skills 12 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'characterization'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'delineate'}, 'dobj': {'parameters'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'pobj': {'strategies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skills'}} Medium High Low
2294 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Although there are indeed certain characteristics that strategies and skills share (e.g., they both forms of procedural knowledge), there are at least two significant differences 25 14 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADV, NUM, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'indeed', 'e.g.', 'at', 'least'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'procedural', 'significant'}, 'attr': {'characteristics', 'differences'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'nmod': {'strategies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skills'}, 'relcl': {'share'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'det': {'both'}, 'appos': {'forms'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'nummod': {'two'}} Long High High
2295 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Thesedifferences pertain to the automaticity of performance and to learner awareness orintentionality ....In effect, skills are procedures that have been routinized 21 10 {'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'ROOT': {'are', 'Thesedifferences'}, 'dobj': {'pertain'}, 'prep': {'In', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'orintentionality', 'performance', 'effect', 'automaticity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'to'}, 'amod': {'learner'}, 'compound': {'awareness'}, 'punct': {',', '....'}, 'nsubj': {'skills', 'that'}, 'attr': {'procedures'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ccomp': {'routinized'}} Long High Low
2296 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing That is, students hone these techniques to a level of automaticity, enabling them to perform a given task fluidly and effectively 21 10 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV] {'advmod': {'That', 'is'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'hone'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'task', 'techniques', 'fluidly', 'them'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'level', 'automaticity'}, 'advcl': {'enabling'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'perform'}, 'amod': {'given'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'effectively'}} Long High Low
2297 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Skills are the ‘habits’ of performance, or what a learner typically does (James,1890) 13 7 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1} [NOUN, AUX, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'learner', 'Skills'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'attr': {'habits'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'performance'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'advmod': {'typically'}, 'conj': {'does'}, 'npadvmod': {'James,1890'}} Medium High Low
2298 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing 135) Others have similarly differentiated between strategies and skills (Afflerbach et al 12 4 {'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [X, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'meta': {'135'}, 'punct': {'(', 'al', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Others'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'similarly'}, 'ROOT': {'differentiated'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'pobj': {'strategies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skills'}, 'compound': {'Afflerbach'}, 'appos': {'et'}} Medium High Low
2299 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing , 2008; Paris, Lipson, & Wixson, 1983) and have also bemoaned the confounding of these terms within the educational literature 20 8 {'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {',', '2008', 'bemoaned'}, 'punct': {',', ';', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Paris'}, 'conj': {'Wixson', 'Lipson'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'appos': {'1983'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'confounding'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'literature', 'terms'}, 'amod': {'educational'}} Long High Low
2300 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Such problems may arise from researchers’ failure to explicitly define these terms or treat them as synonyms 17 8 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN] {'amod': {'Such'}, 'nsubj': {'problems'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'arise'}, 'prep': {'as', 'from'}, 'nmod': {'researchers'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'synonyms', 'failure'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly'}, 'acl': {'define'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'dobj': {'them', 'terms'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'treat'}} Medium High Low
2301 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Thus, it would appear that theconfounding of strategic and skilful processing remains a barrier for those investigatingthe levels and regulation of strategies, and approaches to learning, albeit it for differentreasons 30 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'theconfounding'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'appear'}, 'mark': {'albeit', 'that'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'strategic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'skilful', 'approaches'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'differentreasons', 'levels', 'learning', 'it', 'strategies'}, 'ccomp': {'remains'}, 'det': {'a', 'those'}, 'attr': {'barrier'}, 'compound': {'investigatingthe'}} Long High High
2302 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing For instance, in the case of research into ILS, where individuals attempt to accurately represent the typical way they engage academically, there is no mechanism to ascertain whether respondents are describing automated routines or more intentional actions 37 17 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'case', 'instance', 'research', 'ILS'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'academically', 'accurately', 'where', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'respondents', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'ascertain', 'engage', 'attempt'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'represent'}, 'amod': {'automated', 'intentional', 'typical'}, 'dobj': {'routines', 'way'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'mechanism'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'ccomp': {'describing'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'actions'}} Long High High
2303 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Perhaps that is why Fryer and Vermunt (2018) wisely chose McKeachie, Pintrich, andLin’s (1985,p 14 6 {'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 2} [ADV, PRON, AUX, SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'andLin', 'Perhaps', 'why', 'wisely'}, 'nsubj': {'Fryer', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Vermunt', 'Pintrich'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'ccomp': {'chose'}, 'dobj': {'McKeachie'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'parataxis': {'1985,p'}} Medium High Medium
2304 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing 154) purposely broad definition of learning strategies as ‘cognitions or158 Patricia A 12 3 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [NUM, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, PROPN] {'meta': {'154'}, 'punct': {'‘', ')'}, 'advmod': {'purposely'}, 'amod': {'broad'}, 'ROOT': {'definition'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'strategies'}, 'pobj': {'cognitions'}, 'compound': {'Patricia', 'or158'}, 'appos': {'A'}} Medium High Low
2305 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing behaviours that influence the encoding process and facilitate acquisition and retrieval of new knowledge’ to guide their work 18 7 {'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1} [VERB, PRON, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'behaviours'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'relcl': {'influence'}, 'compound': {'facilitate', 'encoding'}, 'dobj': {'work', 'process'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'acquisition', 'retrieval'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'new'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'guide'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Medium High Low
2306 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing chose this definition precisely to sidestep the complications of trying to adhere to the theoretical distinctions between strategies and skills in instructional practice 23 10 {'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'chose'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'complications', 'definition'}, 'advmod': {'precisely'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'sidestep', 'adhere'}, 'prep': {'in', 'to', 'of', 'between'}, 'pcomp': {'trying'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'theoretical'}, 'pobj': {'strategies', 'practice', 'distinctions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skills'}} Long High Low
2307 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Within the MDL, the clarity that exists theoretically between strategies and skill is likewise problematized when it comes to discerning what isroutine versus intentional enactment in actual performance 28 12 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'Within', 'versus', 'to', 'in', 'between'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'strategies', 'performance', 'MDL', 'enactment'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'clarity'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that', 'what'}, 'relcl': {'exists'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'likewise', 'theoretically'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skill'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'problematized'}, 'advcl': {'comes'}, 'pcomp': {'discerning'}, 'ccomp': {'isroutine'}, 'amod': {'actual', 'intentional'}} Long High Medium
2308 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing The empirical tools that areavailable simply do not allow for that critical determination in most cases 16 8 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, ADV, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'that'}, 'amod': {'most', 'empirical', 'critical'}, 'nsubj': {'tools', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'areavailable'}, 'advmod': {'simply'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'allow'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'determination'}} Medium High Low
2309 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Thus, beyondplacing a learner in a novel situation, like the climate simulation used by Dinsmore andZoellner (2018), there is little assurance that what one is witnessing is either a well-honedroutine or a purposeful and effortful response to a specific problem 40 22 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, AUX, CCONJ, DET, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'csubj': {'witnessing', 'beyondplacing'}, 'det': {'a', 'what', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'learner'}, 'prep': {'like', 'to', 'in'}, 'amod': {'novel', 'purposeful', 'well', 'little'}, 'pobj': {'situation', 'simulation', 'problem', 'andZoellner'}, 'compound': {'climate', 'specific', 'Dinsmore'}, 'acl': {'is', 'used'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'assurance', 'honedroutine'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'one'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'effortful', 'response'}} Long High Medium
2310 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Different specifications as to what counts as surface or deep strategies It is not only the problem of distinguishing between strategies and skills that hampers progress in the study of learning and academic performance, but also the issue of reliablyidentifying surface versus deep processes 44 22 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 9, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'deep', 'reliablyidentifying', 'academic', 'Different'}, 'attr': {'specifications', 'problem'}, 'prep': {'versus', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'between'}, 'nsubj': {'hampers', 'what', 'It'}, 'pcomp': {'counts', 'distinguishing'}, 'pobj': {'processes', 'learning', 'surface', 'study', 'strategies'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'conj': {'skills', 'performance', 'issue', 'strategies'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'progress'}, 'punct': {','}} Long High Low
2311 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing As I read the articles in this issue, what I found were similar designations applied to different procedures 18 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'advcl': {'read'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'articles', 'what'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'procedures'}, 'punct': {','}, 'csubj': {'found'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'amod': {'different', 'similar'}, 'attr': {'designations'}, 'acl': {'applied'}} Medium High Medium
2312 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing What constituted a surface- level strategy in one study was considered a deep strategy in another 16 8 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON] {'nsubj': {'What'}, 'csubjpass': {'constituted'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'surface-'}, 'compound': {'level'}, 'nsubjpass': {'strategy'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'another', 'study'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'oprd': {'strategy'}} Medium High Low
2313 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing The article by Parkinson and Dinsmore (2018) draws directly from the MDL in the manner in which surface-level and deep strategies are defined and identified in their studyof high-school students’ reading of expository or persuasive texts 36 16 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'article'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'reading', 'texts', 'manner', 'MDL', 'Parkinson'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'deep', 'identified', 'Dinsmore', 'persuasive'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')', '’'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'ROOT': {'draws'}, 'advmod': {'directly'}, 'nmod': {'surface', 'level', 'expository'}, 'nsubjpass': {'strategies'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'defined'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'amod': {'high', 'studyof'}, 'compound': {'school'}} Long High Low
2314 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Specifically, Parkinsonand Dinsmore defined surface-level strategies as processes aimed at making sense of theproblem, such as underlining or rereading text 20 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'surface', 'level', 'Parkinsonand'}, 'nsubj': {'Dinsmore'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'dobj': {'sense', 'strategies'}, 'prep': {'as', 'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'processes', 'theproblem', 'text'}, 'acl': {'aimed'}, 'pcomp': {'making', 'underlining'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'rereading'}} Long High Low
2315 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Deep strategies, by comparison, weredefined as those used to integrate or transform –and I would add evaluate –the text or the content being conveyed by the text 27 15 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'amod': {'Deep'}, 'ROOT': {'strategies'}, 'punct': {',', '–'}, 'prep': {'by', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'comparison', 'those', 'text'}, 'acl': {'used', 'conveyed', 'weredefined'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'integrate'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'content', 'transform', 'add'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'dobj': {'evaluate'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'text'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
2316 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing In a somewhat related vein, Fryer and Vermunt (2018) discussed surface and deep approaches to learning more in terms of learners’ goals or aims than in relation toprocedures they are using to accomplish a task 35 16 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'than', 'In'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'advmod': {'somewhat'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'related'}, 'pobj': {'goals', 'vein', 'terms', 'toprocedures'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Fryer', 'they'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'approaches', 'aims', 'Vermunt'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'ROOT': {'discussed'}, 'dobj': {'task', 'surface', 'more'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'poss': {'learners'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'relation'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'using'}, 'xcomp': {'accomplish'}} Long High Low
2317 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Thus, surface approaches focus onremembering what is required for a task and deep approaches are more about achievingunderstanding 18 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'surface'}, 'ROOT': {'approaches'}, 'dobj': {'focus'}, 'acl': {'onremembering'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'required'}, 'prep': {'about', 'for'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'achievingunderstanding'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'deep'}, 'conj': {'are', 'approaches'}, 'acomp': {'more'}} Medium High Low
2318 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing From the sample items they provide for surface (e.g., I concentrate onlearning just those bits of information I have to know to pass.) and deep approaches (e.g., Ioften find myself thinking about ideas from my course when I’m doing other things.), I saw some correspondence to performance and mastery goals in the achievement motivation literature (Midgley, Kaplan, & Middleton, 2001) 60 28 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 17, 'PRON': 7, 'VERB': 9, 'PUNCT': 14, 'ADV': 3, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'from', 'From', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'for'}, 'det': {'some', 'the', 'those'}, 'compound': {'achievement', 'mastery', 'sample', 'motivation', 'Ioften'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'literature', 'information', 'items', 'surface', 'performance', 'ideas'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'find', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'have', 'provide'}, 'punct': {'(', '.', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'e.g.', 'when'}, 'ROOT': {'saw', 'concentrate'}, 'xcomp': {'pass', 'know', 'onlearning'}, 'dobj': {'bits', 'correspondence', 'things'}, 'aux': {'’m', 'to'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'other'}, 'npadvmod': {'approaches'}, 'appos': {'Midgley', 'myself', '2001'}, 'parataxis': {'thinking'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'advcl': {'doing'}, 'conj': {'goals', 'Kaplan', 'Middleton'}} Long High Medium
2319 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing To these two views on level or depth of processing, Winne (2018) offers yet another that reflects the perceived difficulty of instructional objectives for a given task 27 13 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'To', 'for', 'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'objectives', 'task', 'views', 'level'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'Winne', 'depth'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'ROOT': {'offers'}, 'advmod': {'yet'}, 'dobj': {'another', 'difficulty'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'reflects'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'perceived', 'given'}} Long High Low
2320 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing This view isperhaps best exemplified by the taxonomy of educational objectives in the cognitivedomain first articulated by Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, and Krathwohl (1956) andsubsequently updated by Anderson et al 30 9 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'view'}, 'ROOT': {'isperhaps'}, 'advmod': {'andsubsequently', 'best', 'first'}, 'dobj': {'exemplified'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Anderson', 'taxonomy', 'objectives', 'Bloom', 'cognitivedomain'}, 'amod': {'educational'}, 'acl': {'articulated'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {',', '(', 'al', ')'}, 'conj': {'Krathwohl', 'Furst', 'Engelhart', 'Hill'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'1956'}, 'advcl': {'updated'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
2321 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Broadly speaking, what this concep- tualization does is assign a level of cognitive demand to the processing specified as an instructional aim 22 10 {'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Broadly'}, 'advcl': {'speaking'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dobj': {'level', 'what'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'concep-', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'tualization'}, 'csubj': {'does'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'xcomp': {'assign'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'aim', 'demand', 'specified'}, 'compound': {'processing'}} Long High Low
2322 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing So, the ‘comprehension’ (understanding) level is held as deeper than the ‘knowledge’ (memorization) level, but less cognitively demanding than the goal ofsynthesizing 22 10 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 10, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'cognitively', 'less', 'So'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'knowledge', 'memorization', 'comprehension'}, 'amod': {'deeper', 'understanding'}, 'nsubjpass': {'level'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'held'}, 'prep': {'than', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'level'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'demanding'}, 'mark': {'than'}, 'nsubj': {'goal'}, 'ccomp': {'ofsynthesizing'}} Long High Medium
2323 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing This discussion also points out that confusion remains about notions of leveland depth that interfere with continued progress 18 8 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'This'}, 'nsubj': {'discussion', 'that', 'confusion'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'points'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'remains'}, 'prep': {'with', 'about', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'progress', 'notions', 'depth'}, 'amod': {'continued', 'leveland'}, 'relcl': {'interfere'}} Medium High Medium
2324 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Overreliance on self-report measures and spotty connections to academic outcomesDepth and regulation of strategies 159 15 5 {'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, X, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Overreliance'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'self', 'report'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'outcomesDepth', 'measures', 'strategies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'spotty', 'academic'}, 'conj': {'connections', 'regulation'}, 'nummod': {'159'}} Medium High Low
2325 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Two other barriers that have long impeded research into levels and regulation of strategic processing and approaches to learning pertain to data sources and outcomemeasures 25 11 {'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3} [NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'Two'}, 'amod': {'other', 'strategic'}, 'ROOT': {'barriers'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'long'}, 'relcl': {'impeded'}, 'dobj': {'pertain', 'research'}, 'prep': {'into', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'sources', 'levels'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'outcomemeasures', 'regulation', 'approaches'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'compound': {'data'}} Long High Low
2326 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing For one, those engaged in this research too often must rely solely on therecollections, reflections, explanations, and interpretations of participants 20 11 {'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'participants', 'research', 'therecollections'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'those'}, 'acl': {'engaged'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'advmod': {'solely', 'often', 'too'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'rely'}, 'conj': {'interpretations', 'reflections', 'explanations'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
2327 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing The limita- tions of self-report data, whether gathered through think-alouds, interviews, question- naires, or focus reports, have been well documented (Tourangeau, 2000; White, 1988).Although there are steps that can be taken to increase their reliability (Ericsson & Simon,1998), the total reliance on self-report data remains problematic 46 17 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 17, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 15, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'total', 'limita-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'tions', 'that'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'of'}, 'compound': {'self', 'question-', 'report', 'focus'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'pobj': {'data', 'interviews'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'acl': {'remains', 'gathered'}, 'nmod': {'alouds', 'think'}, 'conj': {'naires', 'Simon,1998', 'reports'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'been'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'ROOT': {'documented'}, 'dep': {'Tourangeau'}, 'appos': {'1988).Although', '2000', 'White', 'Ericsson'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'steps'}, 'relcl': {'taken'}, 'advcl': {'increase'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'reliability'}, 'nsubj': {'reliance'}, 'acomp': {'problematic'}} Long High Medium
2328 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing For another, when researchers, like those contributing to this Special Issue, are ultimately concerned with the facilitation of students’ learning and academic develop-ment, it is reasonable to expect that the studies they conduct include academic outcomes.Further, those outcome measures should relate to valued conceptual and procedural content, and the design of studies should allow for more causal rather than correlational judgements 61 30 {'ADP': 9, 'PRON': 4, 'PUNCT': 9, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 9, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADP, PRON, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'like', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'another', 'causal', 'those', 'Issue', 'learning', 'facilitation'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.'}, 'advmod': {'rather', 'ultimately', 'when', 'Further'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'measures', 'they', 'it', 'design', 'researchers'}, 'acl': {'contributing'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'develop', 'outcome'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'reasonable', 'concerned'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than'}, 'amod': {'correlational', 'conceptual', 'academic', 'more'}, 'conj': {'procedural', 'allow', 'ment'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'relate'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'expect'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'conduct'}, 'ccomp': {'include'}, 'dobj': {'judgements', 'content', 'outcomes'}, 'pcomp': {'valued'}} Long High High
2329 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing In essence, if students’ levels and regulation of strategies or their espousedapproaches to learning do not lead to improved learning or academic performance, thenwhy should they ultimately matter to those expected to enact or manifest them 36 18 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'those', 'essence', 'strategies'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubj': {'levels', 'they'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'espousedapproaches', 'regulation', 'performance', 'manifest'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'lead'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'improved'}, 'advmod': {'thenwhy', 'ultimately'}, 'ROOT': {'matter'}, 'acl': {'expected'}, 'xcomp': {'enact'}, 'dobj': {'them'}} Long High High
2330 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Thankfully, for the contributors to this Special Issue, indicators of learning appear integral to their research designs –from solving climate simulation problems and answering questions about expository and persuasive text to performance on tests on celldivision or the circulatory system 40 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 9, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thankfully'}, 'punct': {',', '–'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'for', 'to', 'of', 'about'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'expository', 'tests', 'contributors', 'celldivision', 'Issue', 'learning', 'performance', 'designs'}, 'compound': {'climate', 'Special', 'simulation', 'research'}, 'nsubj': {'indicators'}, 'ROOT': {'appear'}, 'oprd': {'integral'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'solving'}, 'dobj': {'problems', 'questions', 'system'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'answering', 'text'}, 'amod': {'persuasive', 'circulatory'}} Long High Low
2331 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Thus, until researchers routinely show evidence of learning and performance effects, this unnecessary obstruction will remain 16 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'routinely'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'until'}, 'nsubj': {'obstruction', 'researchers'}, 'advcl': {'show'}, 'dobj': {'evidence'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'nmod': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'performance'}, 'pobj': {'effects'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'amod': {'unnecessary'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'remain'}} Medium High Medium
2332 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing More attention to the role of learner characteristics As discussed, it is widely accepted that internal factors play a significant role in strategic and regulatory behaviours and approaches to learning 30 13 {'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'amod': {'significant', 'internal', 'strategic', 'More', 'learner'}, 'nsubjpass': {'attention', 'it'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'role', 'characteristics', 'behaviours'}, 'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'discussed'}, 'punct': {','}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'widely'}, 'ROOT': {'accepted'}, 'nsubj': {'factors'}, 'ccomp': {'play'}, 'dobj': {'role'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regulatory', 'approaches'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High High
2333 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing For instance, in thisSpecial Issue, this is evident in terms of the role of topic or domain knowledge in the depthand frequency of strategy use (Parkinson & Dinsmore, 2018; Scheiter, et al 32 12 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN] {'prep': {'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'terms', 'role', 'frequency', 'Issue', 'knowledge', 'use'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', 'al'}, 'amod': {'thisSpecial'}, 'nsubj': {'this'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'topic'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'Dinsmore'}, 'compound': {'strategy', 'depthand'}, 'appos': {'Parkinson', 'Scheiter'}, 'nummod': {'2018'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
2334 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing In the light of this fact, it is surprising how often those undertaking research on cognitive orregulatory behaviours or approaches to learning fail to systematically gather data onparticipants and use those data in their analyses 35 17 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'In'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'fact', 'analyses', 'light', 'behaviours'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'surprising'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'systematically', 'how'}, 'compound': {'data', 'undertaking', 'orregulatory'}, 'dobj': {'onparticipants', 'fail', 'data', 'research'}, 'amod': {'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'use', 'approaches'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'gather'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2335 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Minimally, prior knowledge measuresshould be routinely gathered, along with indicators of task/domain familiarity or motivations 15 5 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'routinely', 'Minimally'}, 'punct': {',', '/'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'aux': {'measuresshould'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'gathered'}, 'prep': {'with', 'along', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'indicators', 'familiarity'}, 'nmod': {'task'}, 'compound': {'domain'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'motivations'}} Medium High Low
2336 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Moreover, beyond data on students’ knowledge of or motivations towards the task, topic, or domain, it may be pertinent to measure such executive functions as workingmemory or relational reasoning that could significantly influence performance on certaincognitive tasks 37 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'significantly', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'beyond', 'towards', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'data', 'task', 'knowledge', 'reasoning', 'tasks'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'motivations', 'topic', 'domain', 'relational'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'aux': {'could', 'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'pertinent'}, 'xcomp': {'measure'}, 'amod': {'certaincognitive', 'such', 'executive'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'functions'}, 'nmod': {'workingmemory'}, 'relcl': {'influence'}} Long High Low
2337 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing For example, such executive functions may well have contributed toparticipants’ performance on the climate simulation task in the Dinsmore and Zoellner(2018) study or the strategic processing of the high-school students in Parkinson andDinsmore (2018) investigation, over and above knowledge and interest 41 19 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'of', 'For', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'Dinsmore', 'andDinsmore', 'students', 'example', 'task', 'knowledge'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'high', 'strategic', 'such', 'executive'}, 'nsubj': {'functions'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'ROOT': {'contributed'}, 'nmod': {'toparticipants'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'performance'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'climate', 'Parkinson', 'simulation', 'school'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'Zoellner(2018', 'interest', 'investigation', 'above'}, 'dep': {'study'}, 'appos': {'2018'}} Long High Low
2338 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Consequently, the more that researchers know about the participants in their studies, the better positioned they are to interpret their outcomes 21 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, ADJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Consequently', 'the', 'more', 'better'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dobj': {'positioned', 'that', 'outcomes'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'they'}, 'parataxis': {'know'}, 'prep': {'about', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'participants'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'interpret'}} Long High Medium
2339 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing (2018) reached when their EMME intervention did not have the predicted effects on learning outcomes 15 7 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'intervention', '2018'}, 'ROOT': {'reached'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'EMME'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'have'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'predicted'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'outcomes'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Medium
2340 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing As they reported, ‘weaker studentsshowed even poorer recall of the information after having watched EMME, whereas recallperformance of stronger students was unaffected by the experimental manipulation’(p 26 11 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, AUX, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As', 'whereas'}, 'nsubj': {'recallperformance', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'was', 'reported'}, 'punct': {',', '‘'}, 'advmod': {'weaker', 'even'}, 'ROOT': {'studentsshowed'}, 'amod': {'stronger', 'poorer', 'experimental'}, 'dobj': {'recall', 'EMME'}, 'prep': {'after', 'by', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'manipulation’(p', 'information'}, 'aux': {'having'}, 'pcomp': {'watched'}, 'acomp': {'unaffected'}} Long High High
2341 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing If these researchers had not wisely measured students’ general scientific literacy160 Patricia A 13 5 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'wisely'}, 'amod': {'general', 'measured'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ROOT': {'scientific'}, 'compound': {'Patricia', 'literacy160'}, 'appos': {'A'}} Medium High Medium
2342 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing and their knowledge of cell division, the absence of a learning effect would have remained a puzzlement 17 9 {'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2} [CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'cell'}, 'pobj': {'effect', 'division'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'absence'}, 'amod': {'learning'}, 'aux': {'would', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'remained'}, 'attr': {'puzzlement'}} Medium High Low
2343 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing A good deal of other- or coregulation within the self-regulation literature Although I have directed many of my comments to research on levels of strategic processing and approaches to learning, there is one barrier that is particular to theliterature on SRL 41 23 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'good'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that', 'deal'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'other-', 'comments', 'literature', 'levels', 'theliterature', 'learning', 'SRL'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'approaches', 'coregulation'}, 'compound': {'self', 'regulation'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'Although'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'directed'}, 'dobj': {'many'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'xcomp': {'research'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'attr': {'barrier'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'particular'}} Long High Medium
2344 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing This concern, which others have recognized (Dinsmore, Alexander, &Loughlin, 2008; Winters & Alexander, 2011; Winters, Greene, & Costich, 2008), represents a conceptual and operational confound 25 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 13, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NUM': 3, 'ADJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'concern', 'others'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'dobj': {'which', 'confound'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'recognized'}, 'advmod': {'Dinsmore'}, 'conj': {'operational', 'Costich', 'Loughlin', 'Greene', 'Winters', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'npadvmod': {'2011'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'amod': {'conceptual'}} Long High Low
2345 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Specifically, in much of the research that purports to explore the relation of self-regulation to learning and academicperformance, there are explicit questions or prompts requiring monitoring or regulationposed by a researcher, teacher, or peer 34 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'researcher', 'regulation', 'much', 'research'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'purports'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'explore'}, 'dobj': {'monitoring', 'relation'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'prompts', 'academicperformance', 'teacher', 'peer', 'regulationposed'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'explicit'}, 'attr': {'questions'}, 'acl': {'requiring'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
2346 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Such scaffolds have also been incorporated incomputer-based learning environments or CBLEs (Azevedo, Cromley, Winters, Moos, &Greene, 2005) 17 5 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'based', 'Such'}, 'nsubjpass': {'scaffolds'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'incorporated'}, 'npadvmod': {'incomputer'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'environments'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Moos', 'CBLEs', 'Greene', 'Winters', 'Cromley'}, 'appos': {'Azevedo', '2005'}} Medium High Low
2347 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing (2005) study, Microsoft Encarta materials on the circulatory system, like those used by Deekens et al 16 5 {'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'punct': {'(', 'al', ',', ')'}, 'nummod': {'2005'}, 'ROOT': {'study'}, 'compound': {'Encarta', 'Microsoft'}, 'appos': {'materials'}, 'prep': {'like', 'on'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'circulatory'}, 'pobj': {'Deekens', 'system', 'those'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Medium High Low
2348 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing (2018), were modified to test the effects of three kinds of scaffolds embedded in the CBLE 16 8 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'punct': {'(', '2018', ',', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'modified'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'test'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'effects'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'pobj': {'kinds', 'scaffolds', 'CBLE'}, 'acl': {'embedded'}} Medium High Low
2349 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing What is relevant to this commentary is that these researchers discussed their procedures and outcomes in termsofself-regulation, despite the fact that their participants displayed no self-initiated regulation 27 14 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'SCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'What', 'researchers', 'participants'}, 'csubj': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'relevant'}, 'prep': {'despite', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'regulation', 'commentary', 'fact'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'discussed'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'regulation', 'procedures'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'outcomes'}, 'compound': {'termsofself'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'acl': {'displayed'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'amod': {'initiated'}} Long High High
2350 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Thus, if researchers are going to want to investigate the role of regulatoryprocesses in learning and academic performance, then they need to be more precise in theforms of regulation operating in those environments (e.g., self, other, peer) 37 19 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'then', 'e.g.', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'they'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'going'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'investigate', 'want'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'dobj': {'role'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'regulation', 'learning', 'environments', 'regulatoryprocesses', 'theforms'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'other', 'academic'}, 'conj': {'performance'}, 'ROOT': {'need'}, 'acomp': {'precise'}, 'acl': {'operating'}, 'dep': {'self'}, 'appos': {'peer'}} Long High Medium
2351 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Future directions I would like to bring this commentary to a close by humbly suggesting viable ways toaddress the barriers just described 22 9 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB] {'amod': {'viable', 'Future'}, 'nsubj': {'directions', 'I', 'barriers'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'like'}, 'xcomp': {'bring'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'ways', 'toaddress', 'commentary'}, 'prep': {'by', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'close'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'humbly'}, 'pcomp': {'suggesting'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}} Long High Low
2352 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing I do so because I think that decreasing or removing these obstacles that have long been impediments will not only facilitate progress along the paths already established, but may also open new avenues of inquiry 35 21 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'ADV': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that', 'impediments'}, 'ROOT': {'do'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'so', 'long', 'already'}, 'mark': {'that', 'because'}, 'advcl': {'think'}, 'csubj': {'decreasing'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'open', 'removing'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'avenues', 'progress', 'obstacles'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'will'}, 'relcl': {'been'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'facilitate'}, 'prep': {'along', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'inquiry', 'paths'}, 'acl': {'established'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'new'}} Long High High
2353 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Moreover, Iexpressly direct my suggestions to the Special Issue contributors and others activelyengaged in research pertaining to strategies and approaches to learning, because Istrongly feel that these scholars possess the expertise and experience required toundertake the innovations needed to enact these recommendations 42 18 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Istrongly', 'Moreover', 'Iexpressly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'direct'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'dobj': {'innovations', 'recommendations', 'suggestions', 'expertise'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'compound': {'Special', 'Issue'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'contributors', 'research', 'strategies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'experience', 'approaches', 'others'}, 'acl': {'pertaining', 'required', 'needed', 'activelyengaged'}, 'mark': {'that', 'because'}, 'advcl': {'enact', 'feel'}, 'nsubj': {'scholars'}, 'ccomp': {'possess'}, 'dep': {'toundertake'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High High
2354 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing In addition, thosewho identify with such frameworks as the MDL, ILS, and SRL can pave the way on some ofthe ontological and methodological issues entailed in these recommendations, then it is more likely that others within their communities of practice will follow 42 23 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'within', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'communities', 'frameworks', 'recommendations', 'issues', 'MDL', 'addition', 'practice'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'thosewho', 'SRL', 'it', 'others'}, 'ccomp': {'follow', 'identify'}, 'amod': {'ontological', 'such', 'ofthe'}, 'det': {'the', 'some', 'these'}, 'conj': {'pave', 'methodological', 'ILS'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'can', 'will'}, 'dobj': {'way'}, 'acl': {'entailed'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2355 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing More clearly establish the conceptual boundaries between skilful and strategic performance and seek out or devise measures and procedures that align with the resulting conceptual- izations 26 11 {'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'clearly', 'More'}, 'ROOT': {'establish'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'conceptual-', 'skilful', 'conceptual', 'resulting'}, 'dobj': {'boundaries', 'measures'}, 'prep': {'with', 'between'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'strategic', 'procedures', 'seek', 'devise'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'izations'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'align'}} Long High Low
2356 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Just the act of explicating the constructs that guide this research and achieving some degree of consensus as to their meaning will be a major advancement for studies thatinvolve cognitive and metacognitive or regulatory strategies 35 18 {'ADV': 1, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4} [ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Just'}, 'det': {'a', 'some', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'act', 'that'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'explicating'}, 'dobj': {'degree', 'research', 'constructs'}, 'relcl': {'guide'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'metacognitive', 'regulatory', 'achieving'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'meaning', 'consensus'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'amod': {'major', 'cognitive'}, 'attr': {'advancement', 'strategies'}, 'acl': {'thatinvolve'}} Long High Low
2357 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing This would especially be thecase if individuals consistently referenced these terms in the design and reporting of theirresearch 18 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'This'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'advmod': {'especially', 'consistently'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'thecase'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals'}, 'advcl': {'referenced'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'terms'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'theirresearch', 'design'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reporting'}} Medium High Medium
2358 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Moreover, understanding how routinized versus intentional procedures situate within the work on approaches to learning, which focuses on general orientations more than specific processes, should also prove enlightening.Depth and regulation of strategies 161 33 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'also', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'advcl': {'situate', 'understanding'}, 'ccomp': {'routinized'}, 'mark': {'versus'}, 'amod': {'general', 'more', 'intentional'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'procedures'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to', 'of', 'than'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'processes', 'orientations', 'learning', 'work', 'approaches', 'strategies'}, 'relcl': {'focuses'}, 'compound': {'specific'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'prove', 'Depth'}, 'oprd': {'enlightening'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regulation'}, 'nummod': {'161'}} Long High High
2359 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Employing or creating experimental tools and procedures that work in concert with those conceptualdefinitions is another 16 8 {'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PRON] {'csubj': {'Employing'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'creating', 'procedures'}, 'amod': {'experimental'}, 'dobj': {'tools'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'work'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'concert', 'conceptualdefinitions'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'another'}} Medium High Low
2360 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing There is unquestionably a need for those with the knowledgeand creativity to devise alternative techniques and tasks, develop novel measures, and construct new learning environments that permit researchers to disentangle typical from adaptive responses to academic tasks 37 14 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'unquestionably'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'need'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'with', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'responses', 'tasks', 'those', 'creativity'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'adaptive', 'knowledgeand'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'devise'}, 'amod': {'novel', 'alternative', 'academic', 'new'}, 'dobj': {'researchers', 'techniques', 'environments', 'measures'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'tasks', 'construct', 'develop'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'permit'}, 'xcomp': {'disentangle'}, 'acomp': {'typical'}} Long High Low
2361 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing For example, were researchers able to establish anindividual’s procedural baseline for a familiar and easy reading task and then track thatindividual’s processing for a reading task that was novel or appreciably more difficult, theywould have an inkling of how that individual performs both skilfully and strategically.Certainly, there must be creative ways yet to be discovered that would allow for thedistinctions between skills and strategies that are theoretically significant to be accuratelyidentified in practice 73 39 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 17, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 9, 'ADJ': 11, 'PART': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADV': 7, 'PRON': 5, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, NOUN, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PART, AUX, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'of', 'for', 'For', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'thedistinctions', 'skills', 'example', 'task', 'practice'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'ROOT': {'be', 'were'}, 'nsubj': {'individual', 'researchers', 'that'}, 'amod': {'creative', 'procedural', 'anindividual', 'novel', 'able', 'familiar', 'thatindividual'}, 'aux': {'theywould', 'would', 'to', 'must'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'establish', 'discovered'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'dobj': {'processing', 'inkling', 'baseline'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'that'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'reading', 'easy', 'strategies', 'track', 'strategically', 'have', 'more'}, 'advmod': {'yet', 'Certainly', 'skilfully', 'appreciably', 'theoretically', 'then', 'how'}, 'compound': {'reading'}, 'relcl': {'was', 'are'}, 'attr': {'ways', 'difficult'}, 'pcomp': {'performs'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'allow'}, 'acomp': {'accuratelyidentified', 'significant'}} Long High Medium
2362 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Aim for greater consensus as to what the various levels or classes of strategies signify and focus on those differences in subsequent studies 23 12 {'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Aim'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'amod': {'various', 'greater', 'subsequent'}, 'pobj': {'differences', 'studies', 'strategies', 'consensus'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'levels'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'classes', 'focus'}, 'pcomp': {'signify'}} Long High Low
2363 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Just as I am calling for greater consistency in the use of the designations strategy and skill, I am recommending that those who engage in research where the levels or depth of strategic process are relevant to find common ground as to what the notion of depthmeans and what actions might typically fall at various levels 56 32 {'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 10, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 14, 'DET': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Just', 'where', 'typically'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'actions', 'notion', 'who', 'I', 'levels'}, 'aux': {'might', 'am'}, 'advcl': {'calling'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'amod': {'greater', 'strategic', 'various', 'find', 'common'}, 'pobj': {'depthmeans', 'ground', 'consistency', 'levels', 'use', 'process', 'strategy', 'research'}, 'det': {'what', 'the'}, 'compound': {'designations'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'skill', 'depth'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'recommending'}, 'ccomp': {'those'}, 'relcl': {'are', 'engage'}, 'acomp': {'relevant'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'fall'}} Long High High
2364 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Although I can appreciate theargument that Winne (2018) forwards regarding the multiple ways in which depth can be calculated (i.e., the aim of the process, the perceived difficulty of the cognitive target, or the demands of the task), I do consider that multiplicity as bypassing the necessity forconsistency 48 25 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 9, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'can', 'do'}, 'advcl': {'appreciate'}, 'dobj': {'theargument', 'forconsistency', 'multiplicity'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'that'}, 'preconj': {'Winne'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2018'}, 'ccomp': {'forwards'}, 'prep': {'as', 'regarding', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'perceived', 'multiple', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'which', 'task', 'process', 'target'}, 'nsubjpass': {'depth'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'calculated'}, 'dep': {'aim'}, 'conj': {'demands', 'difficulty'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'pcomp': {'bypassing'}, 'compound': {'necessity'}} Long High High
2365 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing If anything, the added complexity Winne outlines heightens the need toconsider the typography of ‘depth’ carefully and label its multiple dimensions accord-ingly 22 8 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV] {'mark': {'If'}, 'advcl': {'anything'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '‘', '’'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'added', 'multiple'}, 'nsubj': {'complexity'}, 'appos': {'Winne', 'typography'}, 'ROOT': {'outlines'}, 'dobj': {'dimensions', 'heightens'}, 'compound': {'need'}, 'ccomp': {'toconsider'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'depth'}, 'advmod': {'ingly', 'carefully'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'label'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'npadvmod': {'accord'}} Long High Medium
2366 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Beyond the issues of levels, there are other categorical labels appearing in this Special Issue that might also benefit from definitional scrutiny 22 12 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'from', 'Beyond', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'scrutiny', 'levels', 'issues', 'Issue'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'other', 'definitional', 'categorical'}, 'attr': {'labels'}, 'acl': {'appearing'}, 'compound': {'Special'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'relcl': {'benefit'}} Long High Low
2367 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing For instance, it would seem thatthe literature has already tackled the cognitive versus metacognitive and regulatory designations (Dinsmore & Alexander, 2012; Dinsmore et al ., 2008; Garner, 1987) 28 8 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 8, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'versus'}, 'pobj': {'metacognitive', 'instance'}, 'punct': {'.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'literature'}, 'aux': {'would', 'has'}, 'ROOT': {'seem', 'Garner'}, 'det': {'the', 'thatthe'}, 'advmod': {'already'}, 'ccomp': {'tackled'}, 'dobj': {'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'amod': {'regulatory'}, 'conj': {'Dinsmore', 'Alexander', 'designations'}, 'npadvmod': {'1987', '2012', '2008'}, 'nmod': {'Dinsmore'}, 'compound': {'et'}, 'appos': {'al'}} Long High Low
2368 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Of course,the relation between metacognition and self-regulation and between self-regulation andself-regulated learning, which have been cause for concern in the past, may still demandattention and oversight from those best positioned to understand whatever thesubtleties of those relations 37 21 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of', 'best', 'still'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'those', 'whatever'}, 'nsubj': {'relation'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'past', 'relations', 'learning', 'positioned', 'concern', 'metacognition'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'oversight', 'between'}, 'nmod': {'regulation'}, 'npadvmod': {'andself'}, 'amod': {'regulated'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'cause'}, 'ROOT': {'demandattention'}, 'xcomp': {'understand'}, 'dobj': {'thesubtleties'}} Long High Low
2369 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Base findings on more than self-report data and include measures of learning and academic performance whenever possible 17 7 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ] {'amod': {'academic', 'Base'}, 'ROOT': {'findings'}, 'prep': {'on', 'than', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'data', 'more'}, 'compound': {'self', 'report'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'include'}, 'dobj': {'measures'}, 'advmod': {'whenever'}, 'advcl': {'possible'}} Medium High Medium
2370 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Perhaps one of the clearest recommendations I would forward to this research community is to strive to incorporate data that are not solely reliant on the recollections,reflections, explanations, and interpretations of study participants 33 18 {'ADV': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, NUM, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'forward', 'Perhaps', 'solely'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'one', 'that'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'clearest'}, 'pobj': {'recommendations', 'community', 'recollections', 'participants'}, 'relcl': {'would', 'are'}, 'compound': {'study', 'research'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'incorporate', 'strive'}, 'dobj': {'data'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'reliant'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'interpretations', 'reflections', 'explanations'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
2371 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing I do not mean tosuggest that well-established questionnaires or measures, like the ILS, or often employedtechniques, like think-alouds, are problematic 20 10 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'mean'}, 'xcomp': {'tosuggest'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'well'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'established'}, 'pobj': {'alouds', 'ILS', 'questionnaires'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'employedtechniques', 'measures'}, 'prep': {'like'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'think'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'problematic'}} Long High Medium
2372 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing To the contrary, these are valuable tools forthose engaged in research on levels and regulation of strategies and approaches to learning 21 10 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'prep': {'To', 'on', 'to', 'in', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'levels', 'contrary', 'research', 'strategies'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'these'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'valuable'}, 'attr': {'tools'}, 'aux': {'forthose'}, 'relcl': {'engaged'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'approaches'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
2373 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Rather, what I am recommending is that these tools should be combined with other more objective measures 17 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'should', 'am'}, 'csubj': {'recommending'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'tools'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'combined'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'amod': {'other', 'objective', 'more'}, 'pobj': {'measures'}} Medium High Medium
2374 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Additionally, as researchers consider the various measures they will make central to their studies, I strongly recommend that relevant learning and achievement outcomes162 Patricia A 25 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'strongly', 'Additionally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'researchers', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'consider'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'various', 'relevant'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'measures'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'relcl': {'make'}, 'acomp': {'central'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'studies'}, 'ROOT': {'recommend'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'achievement'}, 'compound': {'Patricia', 'outcomes162'}, 'npadvmod': {'A'}} Long High High
2375 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing What aspects of learning and academic performance are measured and the specific form those outcomes take is not at issue, provided that they are wellmatched to the study goals and are psychometrically sound 33 18 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, PART, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'det': {'What', 'the', 'those'}, 'nsubjpass': {'aspects', 'they'}, 'prep': {'provided', 'at', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'goals', 'issue'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'academic'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'is', 'form', 'are'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'measured'}, 'nsubj': {'specific', 'outcomes'}, 'relcl': {'take'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'pcomp': {'wellmatched'}, 'compound': {'study'}, 'advmod': {'psychometrically'}, 'acomp': {'sound'}} Long High Medium
2376 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Thus, these outcomes can bedomain-general or domain-specific, commercially produced or researcher developed, and focused on immediate and direct effects or delayed and transfer effects 24 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 6, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'commercially'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nsubj': {'researcher', 'outcomes'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'bedomain'}, 'amod': {'delayed', 'immediate', 'general'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'compound': {'domain'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'specific'}, 'dep': {'produced'}, 'conj': {'developed', 'direct', 'transfer', 'focused'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'effects'}} Long High Low
2377 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Build rich profiles on study participants that can be potentially applied in person-centred analyses or in the interpretation of variable-centred analyses 21 9 {'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Build'}, 'amod': {'centred', 'rich'}, 'dobj': {'profiles'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'study'}, 'pobj': {'interpretation', 'analyses', 'participants'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'potentially'}, 'relcl': {'applied'}, 'npadvmod': {'variable', 'person'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Low
2378 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing It is a truism to say that learners are an essential component in any study of learning and academic performance 20 12 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'learners', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'any'}, 'attr': {'component', 'truism'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'say'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'amod': {'essential', 'academic'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'study'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance'}} Long High Medium
2379 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Yet, as just discussed, researchers often provide limited data ontheir participants even though those data could be pivotal to the questions theyinvestigate 22 11 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'just', 'often', 'even', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as', 'though'}, 'advcl': {'be', 'discussed'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'data'}, 'ROOT': {'provide'}, 'amod': {'limited', 'ontheir'}, 'dobj': {'data', 'participants'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'acomp': {'pivotal'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'questions'}, 'conj': {'theyinvestigate'}} Long High High
2380 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing In the future, therefore, I am strongly recommending that researchers carefully weigh what characteristics of the individuals should be part of the design calculus 24 14 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'what', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'future', 'individuals', 'calculus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'strongly', 'therefore', 'carefully'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'researchers', 'characteristics'}, 'aux': {'should', 'am'}, 'ROOT': {'recommending'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'be', 'weigh'}, 'attr': {'part'}, 'compound': {'design'}} Long High Medium
2381 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing When it comes to questions of learning and academic development, knowledgeof the domain or topic, relevant experiences, learner goals and interests, domain-specificabilities, general cognitive capacity, working memory, and relational reasoning are amongthe data points that merit consideration 37 11 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 18, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'advcl': {'comes'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'questions'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'amod': {'general', 'working', 'relevant', 'relational', 'learner', 'academic', 'cognitive'}, 'conj': {'goals', 'topic', 'specificabilities', 'interests', 'are', 'development', 'reasoning', 'experiences', 'capacity', 'memory'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'knowledgeof'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'domain'}, 'compound': {'domain', 'merit', 'amongthe', 'data'}, 'attr': {'points'}, 'ccomp': {'consideration'}} Long High High
2382 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Along with commonly gathered information onage, gender, and ethnicity, such individual difference factors would allow researchers tobetter interpret the patterns within their data in variable-centred analysis (Parkinson &Dinsmore, 2018; Scheiter et al 32 9 {'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, ADP, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'prep': {'with', 'within', 'Along', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'commonly'}, 'dep': {'gathered'}, 'compound': {'difference', 'Scheiter', 'information'}, 'dobj': {'et', 'onage', 'patterns'}, 'punct': {'-', 'al', '(', ',', ';'}, 'conj': {'Dinsmore', 'gender', 'ethnicity'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'centred', 'such'}, 'nsubj': {'tobetter', 'researchers', 'factors'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'allow'}, 'ccomp': {'interpret'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'analysis', 'data'}, 'npadvmod': {'variable'}, 'appos': {'Parkinson'}, 'nummod': {'2018'}} Long High Low
2383 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Moreover, rich data on learners could be applied in person-centred analyses, including cluster analysis and latent profile analysis (Fryer & Vermunt, 2018) 22 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'centred', 'rich'}, 'nsubjpass': {'data'}, 'prep': {'on', 'including', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'analyses', 'analysis'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'applied'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018', 'person'}, 'compound': {'cluster', 'profile', 'latent'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Fryer', 'analysis', 'Vermunt'}} Long High Low
2384 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Self-regulation is unquestionably a foundational process in learning and academic performance, and the empirical literature on self-regulated learning is clearly substantialand informative 22 8 {'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADJ] {'compound': {'Self'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'regulation', 'literature'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'clearly', 'unquestionably'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'foundational', 'empirical', 'regulated', 'academic', 'substantialand'}, 'attr': {'process'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'is'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'acomp': {'informative'}} Long High Low
2385 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Within that literature, there are those who have tackled the question ofthe development of self-regulation (Demetriou, 2000; Pressley, 1995) 19 9 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'Within', 'of'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'Demetriou', 'literature'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'those'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'tackled'}, 'compound': {'self', 'ofthe', 'question'}, 'dobj': {'development'}, 'nmod': {'regulation'}, 'appos': {'2000', '1995'}, 'conj': {'Pressley'}} Medium High Low
2386 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing What thesescholars consider are questions of when in the course of a students’ academic life (e.g., ageor grade level) and under what conditions (e.g., knowledge base, prior experiences, levelof self-efficacy, and supportive instructional environment) are learners likely to manifestself-regulatory behaviours 40 14 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 16, 'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 12, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, NOUN, VERB, AUX, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'What', 'what', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'base', 'thesescholars'}, 'advcl': {'consider'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'learners', 'questions'}, 'prep': {'under', 'e.g.', 'to', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'when'}, 'pcomp': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'students', 'conditions', 'behaviours', 'level'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'supportive', 'likely', 'regulatory', 'prior', 'academic'}, 'appos': {'life'}, 'compound': {'grade', 'knowledge', 'levelof', 'self', 'ageor'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'efficacy', 'experiences', 'environment'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'npadvmod': {'manifestself'}} Long High Medium
2387 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing What is less well understood, however, is how learners transition from other regulation to self-regulation 15 10 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'how', 'well', 'less', 'however'}, 'csubj': {'understood'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'compound': {'learners', 'self'}, 'nsubj': {'transition'}, 'prep': {'to', 'from'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'pobj': {'regulation'}} Medium High Medium
2388 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing What I am recommending, therefore, are studies that focus on this developmental trajectory 13 8 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'aux': {'am'}, 'csubj': {'recommending'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'therefore'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'studies'}, 'relcl': {'focus'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'amod': {'developmental'}, 'pobj': {'trajectory'}} Medium High Low
2389 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing That is, how do students of varying ages or backgrounds take the externalprompts and scaffolds embedded within classroom or computer-based environments orprovided by teachers, peers, or others and internalize them; make them their own 34 20 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'CCONJ': 5, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, PRON, ADJ] {'advmod': {'That', 'is', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '-'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'them'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'amod': {'based', 'varying'}, 'pobj': {'ages', 'teachers', 'classroom'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'peers', 'others', 'internalize', 'backgrounds', 'environments', 'scaffolds'}, 'ccomp': {'take', 'own'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'externalprompts', 'them'}, 'acl': {'embedded', 'orprovided'}, 'npadvmod': {'computer'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'ROOT': {'make'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2390 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Whendoes external scaffolding become unnecessary or even distracting for learners who havedeveloped the ability and tendency to self-scaffold or who come to a learning task with theknowledge and interest to engage in self-monitoring 33 16 {'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB] {'npadvmod': {'Whendoes', 'self'}, 'amod': {'learning', 'external'}, 'nsubj': {'scaffolding', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'become'}, 'acomp': {'unnecessary'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'come', 'tendency', 'distracting'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'learners', 'monitoring', 'theknowledge', 'scaffold'}, 'relcl': {'havedeveloped'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'ability'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'engage'}} Long High Low
2391 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing Concluding thoughts What I hope I have achieved in this commentary is a successful mapping of thecommon ground shared by the scholars represented in this Special Issue 27 13 {'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [VERB, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN] {'compound': {'Special', 'thecommon', 'Concluding'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'thoughts'}, 'dobj': {'What'}, 'csubj': {'hope'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ccomp': {'achieved'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'ground', 'commentary', 'scholars', 'Issue'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'successful'}, 'attr': {'mapping'}, 'acl': {'represented', 'shared'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
2392 Looking down the road- Future directions for research on depth and regulation of strategic processing This common ground arises from converging evidence found within the diverse theoreticalDepth and regulation of strategies 163 17 6 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'diverse', 'common'}, 'nsubj': {'ground'}, 'ROOT': {'arises'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'from'}, 'compound': {'converging'}, 'pobj': {'theoreticalDepth', 'evidence', 'strategies'}, 'acl': {'found'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regulation'}, 'nummod': {'163'}} Medium High Low
2393 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education the calculus and physics; or medical residents who conclude that the case they are diagnosing cannot be classified as juvenile diabetes are all exhibiting relational reasoning 31 15 {'PROPN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'Relational', 'Tertiary'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'Reasoning', 'who'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Education', 'diabetes'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'calculus'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'physics', 'residents'}, 'punct': {';'}, 'amod': {'medical', 'juvenile', 'relational'}, 'relcl': {'conclude', 'diagnosing'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'case'}, 'aux': {'can', 'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'classified'}, 'advmod': {'all'}, 'ROOT': {'exhibiting'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning'}} Long High Medium
2394 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained (2014) distinguish the higher- order patterns associated with relational reasoning from simpler, linear patterns like number sequences (e.g., 3, 8, 13, 18 ____) by noting that these higher-order patterns must be based on relations-among-relations (e.g., 3: 21: 4: ____) 39 10 {'PUNCT': 23, 'NUM': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SYM': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, SYM, NUM, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', ','}, 'meta': {'2014'}, 'ROOT': {'distinguish'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'higher-', 'linear', 'relational', 'simpler', 'higher'}, 'compound': {'number', 'order'}, 'dobj': {'_', 'patterns'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'like', 'by', '4', 'with', 'among'}, 'pobj': {'relations', 'sequences', '_', 'reasoning', 'patterns'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'18', '_', '3'}, 'appos': {'8', '_', '13'}, 'pcomp': {'noting'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'patterns'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'based'}, 'nummod': {'21', '_', '3'}} Long High Medium
2395 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In essence, the identification of multiple associations must occur for any of the aforementioned “insights” to emerge 17 9 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB] {'prep': {'for', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'any', 'associations', 'essence', 'insights'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'identification'}, 'amod': {'aforementioned', 'multiple'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'occur'}, 'relcl': {'emerge'}} Medium High Low
2396 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Alexander and Baggetta (2014) also differentiate between relational thinking and relational reasoning , because thinking relationally may transpire without awareness or intentionality on the part of the individual 28 13 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADV, AUX, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Baggetta', 'reasoning', 'intentionality'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2014'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'relationally'}, 'ROOT': {'differentiate'}, 'prep': {'on', 'without', 'of', 'between'}, 'amod': {'relational'}, 'pobj': {'individual', 'awareness', 'part', 'thinking'}, 'compound': {'relational'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'csubj': {'thinking'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'advcl': {'transpire'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Medium
2397 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained When a young child intuitively recognizes that an unfamiliar animal (chihuahua) is, in fact, a dog, that child has recognized a link between some new creature and the idea of “dog.” Yet that realization was more or less unconscious and involved little cognitive effort 44 22 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 8, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 4} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'Yet', 'intuitively', 'more'}, 'det': {'an', 'some', 'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'unfamiliar', 'little', 'new', 'young', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'animal', 'realization', 'child'}, 'advcl': {'recognizes'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'punct': {'.', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'chihuahua'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'prep': {'between', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'creature', 'dog', 'fact'}, 'attr': {'dog'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'recognized', 'was'}, 'dobj': {'link', 'effort'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'idea', 'involved', 'less'}, 'acomp': {'unconscious'}} Long High High
2398 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational reasoning, in contrast, requires the effortful and intentional harnessing of information that can result in an intricate association between objects, ideas, or events that extend and deepen understanding (Alexander and Baggetta, 2014) 33 13 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Relational'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'that'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'between', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'objects', 'contrast', 'association', 'information'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'intricate', 'effortful'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Baggetta', 'intentional', 'deepen', 'ideas', 'events'}, 'dobj': {'understanding', 'harnessing'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'result', 'extend'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2014'}} Long High Low
2399 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Scientists puzzling over whether Pluto was a planet or not had to wrestle with the presence or absence of determinative attributes before concluding that this astronomical body should be classified as a “dwarf planet.” These scientists’ intentions and the level of effort it took to appropriately classify Pluto clearly position this example as relational reasoning 55 27 {'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2} [NOUN, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PROPN, AUX, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, PROPN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'position', 'Scientists'}, 'acl': {'puzzling'}, 'prep': {'before', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'over'}, 'mark': {'that', 'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'Pluto', 'intentions', 'it'}, 'pcomp': {'concluding', 'was'}, 'det': {'a', 'These', 'the', 'this'}, 'attr': {'planet'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'level', 'had', 'absence'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'classify', 'wrestle'}, 'pobj': {'planet', 'presence', 'reasoning', 'effort', 'attributes'}, 'amod': {'determinative', 'relational', 'astronomical'}, 'nsubjpass': {'body'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'classified'}, 'punct': {'.', '”', '“'}, 'compound': {'dwarf'}, 'poss': {'scientists'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'relcl': {'took'}, 'advmod': {'appropriately', 'clearly'}, 'dobj': {'Pluto', 'example'}} Long High High
2400 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Although our focus in this article is squarely on relational reasoning, we want to make clear that relational thinking is also essential for human functioning (Alexander, 2019) 27 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubj': {'thinking', 'we', 'focus'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'in'}, 'det': {'that', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'functioning', 'reasoning', 'article'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'squarely'}, 'amod': {'human', 'relational'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'clear'}, 'acomp': {'essential'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}} Long High Medium
2401 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Further, the more intuitive or System 1 thinking works in concert with the more effortful System 2 processes implicated in relational reasoning (Stanovich, 2010) 24 9 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'NUM': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'more', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'intuitive', 'effortful', 'relational'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'System'}, 'nummod': {'1', '2'}, 'compound': {'thinking'}, 'ROOT': {'works'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'concert', 'reasoning', 'processes'}, 'nmod': {'System'}, 'acl': {'implicated'}, 'appos': {'Stanovich'}, 'npadvmod': {'2010'}} Long High Low
2402 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained What is core to relational thinking and relational reasoning is their dependency on the perception of and attention to similarities and dissimilarities among objects, ideas, or events—some subtle and some dramatic; some concrete and some abstract (James, 1893; Cattell, 1940) 40 20 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 6, 'DET': 5, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'What', 'reasoning', 'core'}, 'csubj': {'is'}, 'prep': {'on', 'among', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'relational'}, 'pobj': {'similarities', 'objects', 'perception', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'concrete', 'dramatic', 'dissimilarities', 'relational', 'abstract', 'attention', 'ideas', 'events'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'attr': {'dependency'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'punct': {')', '—', '(', ',', ';'}, 'dep': {'subtle'}, 'appos': {'Cattell', 'James'}, 'npadvmod': {'1893', '1940'}} Long High Low
2403 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained As we will see, the nature of these similarities and dissimilarities is what defines the forms of relational reasoning 19 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'nature', 'what', 'we'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'advcl': {'see'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'similarities', 'reasoning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'dissimilarities'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'defines'}, 'dobj': {'forms'}, 'amod': {'relational'}} Medium High Medium
2404 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational Reasoning Classified and Categorized Within the neuroscience, developmental, cognitive science, and psychological literature, relational reasoning is conceptualized in a fairly consistent manner that corresponds to the definition we proffered earlier 31 11 {'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV] {'compound': {'Relational', 'Reasoning'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reasoning', 'Classified'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'literature', 'Categorized', 'science'}, 'prep': {'Within', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'manner', 'neuroscience', 'definition'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'developmental', 'psychological', 'consistent', 'relational', 'cognitive'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'conceptualized'}, 'advmod': {'earlier', 'fairly'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'relcl': {'proffered', 'corresponds'}} Long High Low
2405 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Differences within those literature including how relational reasoning is positioned within the neurological architecture, its development over the lifespan, and its operationalization in empirical research have direct relevance to the assessment and training of relational reasoning in higher education (Dumas et al., 2013; Alexander, 2016) 45 18 {'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'npadvmod': {'Differences', 'et'}, 'prep': {'including', 'within', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'over'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'architecture', 'literature', 'education', 'assessment', 'reasoning', 'lifespan', 'research'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'amod': {'direct', 'empirical', 'neurological', 'relational', 'higher'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reasoning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'positioned'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'nsubj': {'operationalization', 'development'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'relevance'}, 'conj': {'training', '.', 'al'}, 'appos': {'2013', 'Alexander', 'Dumas', '2016'}} Long High Medium
2406 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For example, there are those who regard relational reasoning ability as a higher- order executive function that continues to develop into early adulthood with the myelination of the prefrontal cortex, a region associated with complex problem solving and decision making(Dumontheil et al., 2010; Krawczyk et al., 2011; Diamond, 2013) 49 17 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'into', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'problem', 'cortex', 'myelination', 'example', 'function', 'adulthood'}, 'punct': {',', ';', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'those'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'continues', 'regard'}, 'amod': {'higher-', 'prefrontal', 'relational', 'early', 'complex'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'order', 'executive', 'et'}, 'dobj': {'making(Dumontheil', 'ability'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'develop'}, 'appos': {'Diamond', 'al', '.', '2013', 'et', '2010', 'region', '2011'}, 'acl': {'associated', 'solving'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Krawczyk', 'decision', '.'}} Long High Low
2407 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Therefore, based on their neurophysiological development, those enrolled in colleges and universities seem well positioned to benefit from relational reasoning assessment and training 23 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PART, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'well', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'based', 'on', 'from', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'neurophysiological', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'assessment', 'colleges', 'development'}, 'nsubj': {'those'}, 'ROOT': {'enrolled'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'seem', 'training', 'universities'}, 'oprd': {'positioned'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'benefit'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}} Long High Low
2408 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained There is also some dispute in the literature over the degree to which relational reasoning ability is affected by social and educational experiences, as well as by neurophysiological changes (Carlson, 2009; Bunge and Leib, 2020) 35 18 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'also'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'attr': {'dispute'}, 'prep': {'over', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'literature', 'experiences', 'degree', 'changes'}, 'amod': {'social', 'neurophysiological', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ability'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'affected'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'Leib', 'Bunge', 'educational'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2020', 'Carlson', '2009'}} Long High Low
2409 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Decoupling neurological and biological factors from what is concomitantly occurring socially and educationally continually proves challenging 16 5 {'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 4} [VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, VERB, VERB] {'ROOT': {'Decoupling'}, 'amod': {'neurological'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'biological', 'proves'}, 'dobj': {'factors'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'nsubj': {'what'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'concomitantly', 'educationally', 'continually', 'socially'}, 'pcomp': {'occurring'}, 'oprd': {'challenging'}} Medium High Low
2410 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The lack of a single measure of relational reasoning that can be reliably used with differently aged participants further complicates this matter 22 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'this'}, 'ROOT': {'lack'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'aged', 'single', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'measure', 'reasoning'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'differently', 'reliably', 'further'}, 'relcl': {'used'}, 'nsubj': {'participants'}, 'pcomp': {'complicates'}, 'npadvmod': {'matter'}} Long High Low
2411 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Recently, Chae and Alexander (2021a) found themselves in a unique position to shed some light on this conundrum when they were able to test the relational reasoning capabilities of three groups of South Koreans who varied significantly in age and in the course of their formal education 47 23 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Recently', 'significantly', 'when'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Chae', 'they', 'who'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'in'}, 'appos': {'2021a'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'dobj': {'capabilities', 'themselves', 'light'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'this', 'the', 'some'}, 'amod': {'unique', 'formal', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'Koreans', 'conundrum', 'course', 'age', 'education', 'position', 'groups'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'shed', 'varied'}, 'advcl': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'test'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'South'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2412 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained These researchers administered the same fluid ability measure, the Test of Relational Reasoning-Junior (TORRjr; Alexander and The Disciplined Reading and Learning Research Laboratory [DRLRL], 2018), to young adolescents in school, older adults (ages 50+) whose schooling happened in a typical timeframe, and older adults (ages 45 +) now completing their middle-school or high-school education 54 17 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 8, 'PUNCT': 16, 'PROPN': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, X, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'schooling', 'researchers', 'adults'}, 'ROOT': {'completing', 'administered'}, 'amod': {'typical', 'high', 'same', 'young', 'fluid', 'older', 'middle'}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'Reasoning', 'Disciplined', 'ability', 'Learning', 'Research'}, 'dobj': {'measure', 'education'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ']', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'TORRjr', '+', 'ages', 'Test'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'timeframe', 'school', 'Junior', 'adolescents'}, 'conj': {'school', 'adults', 'Reading', 'Laboratory', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'nmod': {'[', 'school'}, 'dep': {'DRLRL'}, 'nummod': {'50', '45'}, 'poss': {'whose', 'their'}, 'relcl': {'happened'}, 'advmod': {'now'}} Long High Low
2413 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained These researchers hypothesized that if social and educational factors are not significant forces in relational reasoning development, then the two groups of older adults should perform comparably 27 12 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'groups', 'factors'}, 'ROOT': {'hypothesized'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'amod': {'social', 'older', 'significant', 'relational'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'educational'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'forces'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'pobj': {'adults', 'development'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'comparably', 'then'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ccomp': {'perform'}} Long High High
2414 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained On the other hand, if social and educational experiences do play an important role in relational reasoning development, then the older adults who did not attend school until decades later should perform the worst of the three groups—which is precisely what Chae and Alexander (2021a) found 46 23 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, PRON, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB] {'prep': {'On', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'important', 'other', 'social', 'relational', 'older'}, 'pobj': {'hand', 'groups', 'development'}, 'punct': {',', ')', '(', '—'}, 'mark': {'if', 'until'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'educational', 'Alexander'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'who', 'adults', 'decades', 'experiences', 'Chae'}, 'aux': {'did', 'should', 'do'}, 'advcl': {'found', 'play'}, 'dobj': {'worst', 'role', 'what', 'school'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'advmod': {'precisely', 'then', 'later'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'is', 'attend'}, 'ROOT': {'perform'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'appos': {'2021a'}} Long High High
2415 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained This outcome implies that college students who are not only nearing their neurophysiological prime but who also are furthering their education should have ample opportunities to reason independently and collaboratively 30 16 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADV, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV] {'det': {'This'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'outcome', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'implies'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'college'}, 'aux': {'should', 'are', 'to'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'independently', 'also'}, 'relcl': {'nearing'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'ample', 'neurophysiological'}, 'dobj': {'prime', 'education', 'opportunities'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'furthering', 'collaboratively'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'acl': {'reason'}} Long High Medium
2416 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational Reasoning Forms Despite the largely shared conceptualization of relational reasoning that populates the literature, the manner in which this cognitive capability has been operationalized is far more contentious (Alexander et al., 2016a; Baggetta and Alexander, 2016) 37 13 {'PROPN': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Relational', 'Reasoning', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'Forms', 'al'}, 'prep': {'of', 'Despite', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'advmod': {'far', 'more', 'largely'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'cognitive', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'conceptualization', 'reasoning'}, 'nsubj': {'manner', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'operationalized', 'populates'}, 'dobj': {'literature'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'capability'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'contentious'}, 'nmod': {'et'}, 'attr': {'.'}, 'appos': {'2016a', '2016'}, 'dep': {'Baggetta'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Alexander'}} Long High Medium
2417 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For the most part, the operationalization of relational reasoning has focused only on analogical reasoning or the discernment of patterns of similarity (Dumas et al., 2013) 26 13 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'most', 'analogical', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'patterns', 'similarity', 'part'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'operationalization'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'discernment'}, 'npadvmod': {'Dumas', 'et'}, 'dobj': {'al', '.'}, 'appos': {'2013'}} Long High Low
2418 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Similarly, the assessment of relational reasoning has largely been relegated to one measure, the Raven’s Matrices (Raven, 1941), a fluid ability measure composed entirely of figural analogy problems 28 10 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PART, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'entirely', 'Similarly', 'largely'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'assessment'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'figural', 'fluid', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'problems', 'measure'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'relegated'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'poss': {'Raven'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'appos': {'1941', 'measure', 'Matrices', 'Raven'}, 'compound': {'analogy', 'ability'}, 'acl': {'composed'}} Long High Low
2419 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Consequently, minimal data have been gathered on salient patterns that also place differential emphasis on dissimilarities 16 6 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Consequently', 'also'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'minimal', 'differential'}, 'nsubjpass': {'data'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'gathered'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'compound': {'salient'}, 'pobj': {'dissimilarities', 'patterns'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'place'}, 'dobj': {'emphasis'}} Medium High Low
2420 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained To address this significant shortcoming, Alexander and The Disciplined Reading and Learning Research Laboratory [DRLRL] (2012) and Alexander et al 20 6 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 10, 'CCONJ': 3, 'X': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, X, PROPN, X, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'aux': {'To'}, 'ROOT': {'address'}, 'det': {'The', 'this'}, 'amod': {'significant'}, 'dobj': {'et', 'DRLRL', 'shortcoming'}, 'punct': {'al', ')', '(', ']', ','}, 'npadvmod': {'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'Learning', 'Disciplined', 'Alexander', 'Research'}, 'conj': {'Laboratory', 'Reading'}, 'nmod': {'['}, 'appos': {'2012'}} Long High Low
2421 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained (2016a) set out to devise a fluid measure that gauged individuals’ ability to recognize multiple relational forms 17 5 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PART': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1} [PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2016a', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'set'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'devise'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'fluid', 'multiple'}, 'dobj': {'measure', 'ability', 'forms'}, 'relcl': {'gauged'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'acl': {'recognize'}, 'compound': {'relational'}} Medium High Low
2422 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Drawing on cross-disciplinary literature, including philosophy, mathematics, logic, and intellectual Frontiers in Education | www.frontiersin.org 2 May 2022 | Volume 7 | Article 883370 24 4 {'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 4, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, X, NUM, AUX, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Drawing', 'Volume'}, 'prep': {'on', 'including', 'in'}, 'amod': {'disciplinary', '-', 'intellectual', 'cross'}, 'pobj': {'Education', '2', 'literature', 'philosophy'}, 'punct': {',', 'www.frontiersin.org'}, 'conj': {'Frontiers', 'logic', 'mathematics'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'|'}, 'nmod': {'May'}, 'nummod': {'883370', '2022', '7'}, 'compound': {'|'}, 'appos': {'Article'}} Long High Low
2423 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education assessment (e.g., James, 1893; Cattell, 1940; Russell and Lackey, 1973), four relational forms were identified: analogies (similarity), anomalies (aberrance), antimonies (exclusivity), and antitheses (opposition) 29 5 {'PROPN': 8, 'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 21, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Education', 'Relational', 'Tertiary'}, 'nsubj': {'forms', 'Reasoning'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'assessment'}, 'punct': {':', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'James'}, 'appos': {'1893', 'opposition', '1940', 'aberrance', 'exclusivity', 'Cattell', '1973', 'similarity'}, 'conj': {'Russell', 'antimonies', 'Lackey', 'antitheses', 'anomalies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'amod': {'relational'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'identified'}, 'attr': {'analogies'}} Long High Low
2424 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained With these forms identified, the process began to construct novel, figural items that could reliably and validly capture those relational manifestations 21 8 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'With'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'forms', 'process', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'identified'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'began'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'construct'}, 'dobj': {'novel', 'manifestations'}, 'amod': {'figural', 'relational'}, 'conj': {'items', 'validly'}, 'advmod': {'reliably'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'relcl': {'capture'}} Long High Medium
2425 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The outcome of this multi-year effort was the Test of Relational Reasoning (TORR; Alexander and The Disciplined Reading and Learning Research Laboratory [DRLRL], 2014) 24 9 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 11, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'X': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, X, PROPN, X, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'outcome'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'-', 'multi'}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'year', 'Disciplined', 'Learning', 'Research'}, 'pobj': {'effort', 'Reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'was', 'DRLRL'}, 'attr': {'Test'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ']', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'Laboratory', 'Alexander', 'TORR'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Reading'}, 'nmod': {'['}, 'nummod': {'2014'}} Long High Low
2426 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The TORR is a psychometrically sound standardized instrument suitable for adolescents and adults that has been shown to be invariant for females and males from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds (Dumas and Alexander, 2016, 2018) 35 15 {'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 2} [DET, PROPN, AUX, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'TORR'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'psychometrically'}, 'amod': {'standardized', 'suitable', 'diverse', 'cultural', 'sound'}, 'attr': {'instrument'}, 'prep': {'for', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'females', 'backgrounds', 'adolescents'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'adults', 'males', 'ethnic', 'Alexander', '2016'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'shown'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'invariant'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Dumas'}} Long High Low
2427 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The TORR consists of four 8-item scales, each representing one form (see Figure 1 ) 15 6 {'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 1} [DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'each', 'TORR'}, 'ROOT': {'consists'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'nummod': {'8', 'four', 'one', '1'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'item'}, 'pobj': {'scales'}, 'advcl': {'representing'}, 'dobj': {'Figure', 'form'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}} Medium High Low
2428 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The analogical reasoning scale, as with the Ravens, is composed of figural problems displayed in a 3 ×3 matrix 19 8 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'figural', 'analogical'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', '×3'}, 'nsubjpass': {'scale'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Ravens', 'matrix', 'problems'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'composed'}, 'acl': {'displayed'}, 'nummod': {'3'}} Medium High Low
2429 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Respondents are directed to find the option that conforms to the pattern indicated 13 6 {'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'nsubjpass': {'Respondents'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'directed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'find'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'option'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'conforms'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'pattern'}, 'conj': {'indicated'}} Medium High Low
2430 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The anomalous reasoning problems the identification of the figure within a given set that deviates from the others 18 10 {'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'that'}, 'amod': {'given', 'anomalous'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'problems'}, 'appos': {'identification', 'deviates'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'figure', 'set', 'others'}} Medium High Low
2431 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Antinomous reasoning is defined as the ability to recognize a true binary distinction, where ideas, objects, or events either fit within a specific category or not (e.g., living versus non-living objects) 31 12 {'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'amod': {'-', 'true', 'Antinomous', 'binary', 'living', 'non'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reasoning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'prep': {'as', 'within', 'versus'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'category', 'ability', 'objects'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'recognize'}, 'dobj': {'distinction'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'where', 'fit'}, 'relcl': {'ideas'}, 'conj': {'living', 'events', 'objects'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'compound': {'specific'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Medium
2432 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For each antinomous reasoning item, respondents are shown a set of related figures 13 5 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'each'}, 'amod': {'antinomous', 'related'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'pobj': {'figures', 'item'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'respondents'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'shown'}, 'dobj': {'set'}} Medium High Low
2433 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained They are then directed to find the set from among the options that can have no figure in common with the given set 23 15 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'They'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'ROOT': {'directed'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'find'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'figure', 'set'}, 'prep': {'in', 'with', 'among', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'set', 'options'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'amod': {'given', 'common'}} Long High Low
2434 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained While comparisons made on the antinomous reasoning scale represent binary or dichotomous distinctions, those on the antithetical reasoning scale capture opposing but continuous differences (e.g., tall versus short) 28 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT] {'mark': {'While'}, 'nsubj': {'those', 'comparisons'}, 'acl': {'made'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'antithetical', 'binary', 'antinomous', 'opposing', 'short', 'tall'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'scale'}, 'pobj': {'capture', 'scale'}, 'advcl': {'represent'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'dichotomous', 'continuous'}, 'dobj': {'distinctions'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'differences'}, 'nmod': {'e.g.'}, 'advmod': {'versus'}} Long High Medium
2435 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The antithesis items, therefore, depict certain features of a given figure (x) being switched to create a new figure (y) 20 7 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'compound': {'antithesis'}, 'nsubj': {'items'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'therefore'}, 'ROOT': {'depict'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'given', 'new'}, 'dobj': {'figure', 'features'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'figure'}, 'appos': {'x', 'y'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'switched'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'create'}} Long High Low
2436 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Respondents are asked to select the option that represents the reverse of the process conveyed in the given problem 19 9 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Respondents'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'select'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'option'}, 'nsubj': {'reverse', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'represents', 'conveyed'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'process', 'problem'}, 'amod': {'given'}} Medium High Low
2437 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Developmental Trends by Form The value of assessing multiple forms of relational reasoning rather than relying solely on the measurement of analogical reasoning extends beyond achieving a more accurate conceptual- operational mapping of this foundational ability 36 14 {'PROPN': 3, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'ADV': 3} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Developmental'}, 'nsubj': {'Trends', 'value'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'of', 'beyond'}, 'pobj': {'Form', 'reasoning', 'ability', 'measurement'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'pcomp': {'achieving', 'assessing'}, 'amod': {'operational', 'foundational', 'conceptual-', 'analogical', 'multiple', 'accurate', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'forms', 'mapping'}, 'advmod': {'more', 'solely', 'rather'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'acl': {'relying'}, 'ROOT': {'extends'}} Long High Low
2438 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Particularly as it pertains to the assessment and training of tertiary students, there is evidence that these forms reveal important trends by age and by domain of study 28 14 {'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Particularly'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'forms', 'it'}, 'advcl': {'pertains'}, 'prep': {'by', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'age', 'assessment', 'domain', 'study'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'by', 'training'}, 'amod': {'important', 'tertiary'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'evidence'}, 'acl': {'reveal'}, 'dobj': {'trends'}} Long High High
2439 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained While we will reserve discussion of relational reasoning forms and academic domains for later in this article, here we want to highlight findings that speak to performance trends by form for samples that run the gamut from young children to senior citizens 42 19 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'advcl': {'reserve'}, 'dobj': {'discussion', 'gamut', 'findings'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'by', 'of', 'for'}, 'amod': {'young', 'academic', 'senior', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'reasoning'}, 'pobj': {'samples', 'forms', 'children', 'trends', 'form', 'citizens', 'article'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'domains'}, 'pcomp': {'later'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'here'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'xcomp': {'highlight'}, 'relcl': {'run', 'speak'}} Long High Medium
2440 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The studies to which we will refer all assessed analogical, anomalous, antinomous, and antithetical reasoning, albeit by means of diverse methodologies 21 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'all', 'The'}, 'ROOT': {'studies'}, 'prep': {'albeit', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'methodologies', 'means'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'relcl': {'refer'}, 'amod': {'assessed', 'diverse', 'analogical'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'antithetical', 'antinomous', 'anomalous'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
2441 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained (2016, 2020) analyzed longitudinal data on relational reasoning collected from New Zealand students in kindergarten through Grade 12 18 4 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 3} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2016'}, 'appos': {'2020'}, 'ROOT': {'analyzed'}, 'amod': {'longitudinal', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'data'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'kindergarten', 'reasoning', 'Grade'}, 'acl': {'collected'}, 'compound': {'New', 'Zealand'}, 'nummod': {'12'}} Medium High Low
2442 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The children and youth were participants in a project designed to promote their technological literacy 15 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'children'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'youth'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'participants'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'project'}, 'acl': {'designed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'promote'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'technological'}, 'dobj': {'literacy'}} Medium High Low
2443 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained (2016, 2020) documented was a salient shift in the reasoning forms that were more or less prevalent in the language of younger and older students as they discussed the more and less familiar tools.Specifically, even though students at each grade level engaged in analogical, anomalous, antinomous, and antithetical reasoning to some extent, younger students relied primarily on analogical and anomalous reasoning 61 29 {'PUNCT': 9, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 6, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADJ': 12, 'SCONJ': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, AUX, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '.', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that', 'they', '2016'}, 'appos': {'2020'}, 'csubj': {'documented'}, 'ROOT': {'was', 'relied'}, 'det': {'a', 'some', 'the', 'each'}, 'compound': {'grade', 'salient', 'reasoning'}, 'attr': {'shift'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'at'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'language', 'students', 'extent', 'reasoning', 'level'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'primarily', 'Specifically', 'less', 'even', 'more'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'antithetical', 'antinomous', 'less', 'anomalous', 'older', 'familiar'}, 'acomp': {'prevalent'}, 'amod': {'more', 'younger', 'analogical'}, 'mark': {'as', 'though'}, 'advcl': {'engaged', 'discussed'}, 'dobj': {'tools'}} Long High High
2444 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The older students, conversely, made greater use of antinomous and antithetical reasoning when analyzing the two technological tools 18 7 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'antinomous', 'greater', 'technological', 'older'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'conversely', 'when'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'dobj': {'use', 'tools'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'antithetical'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning'}, 'advcl': {'analyzing'}, 'nummod': {'two'}} Medium High Medium
2445 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Interestingly, when presented with a familiar tool, younger students were able to show some ability to reason antinomously and antithetically, while older students found far less reason to reason analogically or anomalously (Jablansky et al., 2016, 2020) 37 13 {'ADV': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'analogically', 'when', 'antinomously', 'far', 'Interestingly'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advcl': {'found', 'presented'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'det': {'a', 'some'}, 'amod': {'older', 'less', 'younger', 'familiar'}, 'pobj': {'tool'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'show'}, 'dobj': {'.', 'ability', 'reason'}, 'acl': {'reason'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'anomalously', 'antithetically'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'relcl': {'reason'}, 'npadvmod': {'Jablansky', 'al', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2020', '2016'}} Long High High
2446 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained These findings suggest that while reasoning relationally may require some relevant background knowledge if experiences are too familiar or routine there may be limited impetus to reason relationally 28 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV] {'det': {'some', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'experiences', 'findings'}, 'ROOT': {'suggest'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that', 'while'}, 'advmod': {'too', 'relationally'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'require', 'are'}, 'amod': {'limited', 'relevant'}, 'compound': {'background'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'acomp': {'familiar'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'routine'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'impetus'}, 'relcl': {'reason'}} Long High High
2447 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained (2021) also had the opportunity to examine relational reasoning performance in students at different grade levels 16 6 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2021'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'opportunity'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'examine'}, 'amod': {'relational'}, 'compound': {'grade', 'reasoning', 'different'}, 'prep': {'at', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'levels'}} Medium High Low
2448 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For both investigations, students completed the TORRjr translated into Korean or Chinese, respectively 13 5 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, ADV] {'prep': {'into', 'For'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'investigations', 'Korean'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'completed'}, 'dobj': {'TORRjr'}, 'acl': {'translated'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'Chinese'}, 'advmod': {'respectively'}} Medium High Low
2449 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained These studies showed shifts in reasoning performance by form that paralleled the longitudinal study by Jablansky et al 18 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'showed'}, 'dobj': {'study', 'shifts'}, 'prep': {'by', 'in'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'pobj': {'Jablansky', 'performance', 'form'}, 'relcl': {'paralleled'}, 'amod': {'longitudinal'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'punct': {'al'}} Medium High Low
2450 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Younger students performed higher for analogical and anomalous reasoning than for antinomous and antithetical reasoning, whereas older students performed higher for antinomous and antithetical reasoning 25 8 {'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'older', 'antinomous', 'Younger', 'analogical'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'performed'}, 'advmod': {'higher'}, 'prep': {'than', 'for'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'antithetical', 'anomalous'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'advcl': {'performed'}} Long High Medium
2451 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Finally, the investigation by Chae and Alexander (2021a) that looked at the relational reasoning among adolescents and typically schooled and atypically schooled older adults reinforced the pattern seen across this collection of studies by suggesting that analogies may represent the easiest mode of relational pattern for participants of all ages 50 21 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 9, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'atypically', 'Finally', 'typically'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'all', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'analogies', 'investigation', 'that'}, 'prep': {'for', 'by', 'among', 'of', 'at', 'across'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'adolescents', 'ages', 'reasoning', 'Chae', 'collection', 'participants', 'pattern'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'schooled'}, 'appos': {'2021a'}, 'relcl': {'looked'}, 'amod': {'easiest', 'older', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'mode', 'adults', 'pattern'}, 'ROOT': {'reinforced'}, 'acl': {'seen'}, 'pcomp': {'suggesting'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'represent'}, 'compound': {'relational'}} Long High Medium
2452 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Even the atypically schooled adults in the Chae and Alexander (2021a) study, whose overall performance was significantly below that of the young adolescents and typically schooled adults, scored near the midpoint on the analogy scale 35 15 {'ADV': 4, 'DET': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'typically', 'significantly', 'atypically', 'Even'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'overall', 'young', 'schooled'}, 'nsubj': {'performance', 'adults'}, 'prep': {'on', 'near', 'below', 'in', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'scale', 'adolescents', 'Chae', 'midpoint', 'that'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'schooled'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nmod': {'2021a'}, 'appos': {'study'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'dobj': {'adults'}, 'advcl': {'scored'}, 'compound': {'analogy'}} Long High Low
2453 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Further, the young adolescents and typically schooled adults scored comparably on the TORRjr 13 5 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'advmod': {'comparably', 'typically', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'young', 'schooled'}, 'ROOT': {'adolescents'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'adults'}, 'acl': {'scored'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'TORRjr'}} Medium High Low
2454 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained However, the current students performed significantly better than these older adults on the antinomy scale, while the reverse was true for the anomaly scale where the older, typically schooled adult prevailed 31 13 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'significantly', 'where', 'typically', 'better', 'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'older', 'current'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'older', 'reverse'}, 'ROOT': {'performed'}, 'prep': {'on', 'than', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'adults', 'scale'}, 'compound': {'antinomy', 'anomaly'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'true'}, 'relcl': {'schooled'}, 'dobj': {'adult'}, 'conj': {'prevailed'}} Long High High
2455 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Overall, these developmental trends would suggest that, based on their age and educational background, tertiary students would be expected to possess the ability to reason analogically, anomalously, antinomously, and antithetical to at least an adequate degree 36 16 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, ADP, ADJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'analogically', 'least', 'Overall', 'antinomously', 'anomalously', 'at'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'tertiary', 'developmental', 'adequate'}, 'nsubj': {'trends'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'suggest'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'based', 'on', 'to'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nmod': {'age'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'antithetical', 'educational'}, 'pobj': {'background', 'degree'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'expected'}, 'xcomp': {'possess'}, 'dobj': {'ability'}, 'acl': {'reason'}} Long High Medium
2456 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Of course, we would expect that there would be variability in performance across the scales, with somewhat greater difficulty exhibited for the antinomous and antithetical items over the analogy and anomaly items prior to any training 36 19 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of', 'prior', 'somewhat'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'difficulty', 'we'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'expect'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'variability'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'for', 'across', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'performance', 'scales', 'training'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'amod': {'antinomous', 'greater'}, 'pcomp': {'exhibited'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'antithetical', 'anomaly'}, 'nmod': {'analogy'}} Long High Medium
2457 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained IMPORTANCE OF RELATIONAL REASONING IN TERTIARY EDUCATION As we indicated in the prior overview of relational reasoning, students populating colleges and universities are well positioned to benefit from the assessment and training of this essential cognitive ability 37 16 {'PROPN': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'dep': {'IMPORTANCE'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'IN', 'of', 'OF'}, 'pobj': {'ability', 'assessment', 'reasoning', 'EDUCATION', 'overview', 'RELATIONAL'}, 'ROOT': {'REASONING', 'are'}, 'compound': {'TERTIARY'}, 'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'indicated'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'cognitive', 'prior', 'essential', 'relational'}, 'punct': {','}, 'acl': {'populating'}, 'dobj': {'colleges'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'training', 'universities'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'acomp': {'positioned'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'benefit'}} Long High Medium
2458 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For one thing, the myelination of the prefrontal cortex, the brain region central to problem-solving, decision- making, and self-regulation, is nearing an end (Dumontheil et al., 2010; Krawczyk, 2012) 29 10 {'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 12, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 5} [ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, X, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'of'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'cortex', 'solving', 'thing'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'dep': {'myelination'}, 'amod': {'prefrontal'}, 'compound': {'self', 'brain'}, 'nsubj': {'making', 'region'}, 'ROOT': {'central'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'problem', 'et'}, 'cc': {'and', 'decision-'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'nearing'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'dobj': {'end'}, 'appos': {'2010', '2012', 'Krawczyk', 'Dumontheil'}} Long High Low
2459 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For another, these tertiary students Frontiers in Education | www.frontiersin.org 3 May 2022 | Volume 7 | Article 883370 19 5 {'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 4, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, PRON, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, X, NUM, AUX, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'prep': {'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Education', 'another'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'these'}, 'amod': {'tertiary'}, 'nmod': {'students', 'May'}, 'appos': {'Article', 'www.frontiersin.org', 'Frontiers', '3'}, 'npadvmod': {'|'}, 'nummod': {'883370', '2022', '7'}, 'compound': {'|'}, 'ROOT': {'Volume'}} Medium High Low
2460 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education are expanding their knowledge and are routinely engaged in academic and social interactions that may require them to reason relationally (Carlson, 2009; Bunge and Leib, 2020) 31 12 {'PROPN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, PART, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Relational', 'Tertiary'}, 'nsubj': {'Reasoning', 'that'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'Education', 'interactions'}, 'aux': {'may', 'are', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'expanding'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'them'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'routinely', 'relationally'}, 'conj': {'engaged', 'social', 'Bunge', 'Leib'}, 'amod': {'academic'}, 'relcl': {'require'}, 'xcomp': {'reason'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Carlson'}, 'appos': {'2009', '2020'}} Long High Low
2461 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Moreover, during this period of their lives, college students are determining which career paths to pursue and then preparing for those careers 22 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'then', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'for', 'during', 'of'}, 'det': {'which', 'those', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'period', 'lives', 'careers'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'career', 'college'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'determining'}, 'dobj': {'paths'}, 'ccomp': {'pursue'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'preparing'}} Long High Low
2462 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational reasoning assessment and training can be invaluable for examining the higher-order thinking abilities of these students (Alexander, 2016) 19 7 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Relational', 'higher'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'order', 'thinking'}, 'nsubj': {'assessment'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'training'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'invaluable'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'examining'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'dobj': {'abilities'}, 'pobj': {'students'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2016'}} Medium High Low
2463 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Their scores on the TORR can serve as an initial profile of their relational reasoning strengths or areas of need 20 10 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'poss': {'Their', 'their'}, 'nsubj': {'scores'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'strengths', 'profile', 'need', 'TORR'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'serve'}, 'amod': {'initial', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'areas'}} Long High Low
2464 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Further, students’ specific reasoning profiles can be compared to those who are already studying or practicing in their chosen fields (Dumas et al., 2014; Fountain, 2016; Jablansky, 2020) 28 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'already', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'specific', 'reasoning'}, 'nsubjpass': {'profiles'}, 'aux': {'can', 'are'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'compared'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'fields', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'studying'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'Jablansky', 'al', '.', 'practicing'}, 'amod': {'chosen'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'Dumas', '2020', 'Fountain', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
2465 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained It is important to keep in mind that relational reasoning, as with any cognitive or intellectual capacity, is malleable (Hsu et al., 2014; Alexander et al., 2016b) 27 11 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'al'}, 'acomp': {'important', 'malleable'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'keep'}, 'prep': {'as', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'capacity'}, 'det': {'any', 'that'}, 'amod': {'cognitive', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning'}, 'punct': {'.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'is', '.', 'intellectual'}, 'attr': {'Hsu'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2014', '2016b'}, 'compound': {'Alexander', 'et'}} Long High Low
2466 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Thus, performance for the different forms of relational analysis can be improved through training, relevant experiences, and repeated practice 19 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'performance'}, 'prep': {'through', 'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'different'}, 'pobj': {'training', 'forms', 'analysis'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'repeated', 'relational'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'improved'}, 'conj': {'experiences'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'practice'}} Medium High Low
2467 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Consequently, as we will discuss in the final section of this article, it is only a first step to assess the relational reasoning abilities of college and university students 29 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'Consequently'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'advcl': {'discuss'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'final', 'first', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'section', 'article'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'step'}, 'relcl': {'assess'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'dobj': {'abilities'}, 'nmod': {'college'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'university'}} Long High Medium
2468 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained It is quite another to use those resulting data to help these students hone their abilities to reason analogically, anomalously, antinomously, and antithetically 23 11 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV] {'nsubj': {'students', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'predet': {'quite'}, 'attr': {'another'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'help', 'use'}, 'det': {'these', 'those'}, 'amod': {'resulting'}, 'dobj': {'data', 'abilities'}, 'ccomp': {'hone'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'reason'}, 'advmod': {'analogically', 'anomalously', 'antinomously', 'antithetically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
2469 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational Reasoning in Domains and Disciplines Those engaged in relational reasoning research have investigated the degree to which this ability predicts performance in specific academic domains (mathematics or literacy) or fields of practice (medical diagnosis or engineering design) 38 14 {'PROPN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 4} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Relational', 'reasoning', 'engineering'}, 'nmod': {'specific', 'Reasoning'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'practice', 'domains', 'Domains', 'research'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'punct': {'(', ')', 'Disciplines'}, 'nsubj': {'Those', 'ability'}, 'acl': {'engaged'}, 'amod': {'medical', 'academic', 'relational'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'investigated'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'degree'}, 'relcl': {'predicts'}, 'appos': {'mathematics'}, 'conj': {'literacy', 'fields', 'design', 'diagnosis'}} Long High Low
2470 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Within higher education, academic domains correspond roughly to fields of study around which content and learning experiences are organized and delivered 21 8 {'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'around', 'Within', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'study', 'education', 'fields', 'content'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'domains'}, 'ROOT': {'correspond'}, 'advmod': {'roughly'}, 'det': {'which'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'delivered'}, 'nsubjpass': {'experiences'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'organized'}} Long High Low
2471 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For example, mathematics curricula and courses are often sequenced to capture the increasing complexity of underlying concepts and procedures (Schmidt et al., 2005) 23 8 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, X, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'concepts', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'Schmidt', 'mathematics'}, 'nsubjpass': {'curricula'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'procedures', 'courses'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'ROOT': {'sequenced'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'capture'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'underlying', 'increasing'}, 'dobj': {'complexity'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2005'}} Long High Low
2472 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Thus, precalculus is taken before calculus, and a statistics course on general linear models likely precedes a course on multivariate mixed models 22 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'likely', 'course'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'precalculus'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'taken'}, 'prep': {'on', 'before'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'calculus'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'nsubj': {'statistics'}, 'amod': {'multivariate', 'mixed', 'general'}, 'compound': {'linear'}, 'conj': {'precedes'}, 'dobj': {'course'}} Long High Low
2473 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Other domains such as history or literature may have content structured chronologically or by genres (Orrill and Shapiro, 2005) 19 9 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Other', 'such'}, 'nsubj': {'content', 'domains'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'pobj': {'history', 'genres'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'by', 'Shapiro', 'literature'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'ccomp': {'structured'}, 'advmod': {'chronologically'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Orrill'}, 'npadvmod': {'2005'}} Medium High Low
2474 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained There can be noticeable differences in how students experience the content that has implications for relational reasoning, as well 19 11 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV] {'expl': {'There'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'amod': {'noticeable', 'relational'}, 'attr': {'differences'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'how'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that'}, 'pcomp': {'experience'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'implications'}, 'relcl': {'has'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning'}, 'punct': {','}} Medium High Medium
2475 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In some fields like mechanical engineering or architecture, where professionals often work in teams, university students may work on projects with other students under the guidance of knowledgeable instructors (Dumas et al., 2016; Kavousi et al., 2020) 37 13 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'under', 'like', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'In'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'guidance', 'students', 'fields', 'teams', 'engineering', 'instructors', 'projects'}, 'amod': {'other', 'mechanical', 'knowledgeable'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'.', 'al', 'architecture'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'where'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'professionals'}, 'relcl': {'work'}, 'compound': {'university'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'work', 'Kavousi'}, 'appos': {'et', '2020', 'Dumas', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Medium
2476 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Further, laboratory experiences or simulations can be integral to domains where tertiary students learn specific techniques or procedures viewed as central to a future career, as in nursing training or chemistry 31 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'where', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'specific', 'nursing', 'laboratory'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'experiences'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'simulations', 'chemistry', 'procedures'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'integral'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'career', 'training', 'domains'}, 'amod': {'future', 'tertiary', 'central'}, 'relcl': {'learn'}, 'dobj': {'techniques'}, 'acl': {'viewed'}, 'det': {'a'}} Long High Medium
2477 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In contrast, other fields such as journalism or history may be more focused on individual learning and production with fewer structured group collaborations 23 11 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'as', 'In', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'group', 'contrast', 'journalism'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'structured', 'other', 'individual', 'such', 'fewer'}, 'nsubj': {'fields'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'production', 'history'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'acomp': {'focused'}, 'advcl': {'collaborations'}} Long High Low
2478 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Also, the kinds of prototypic problems that populate courses from different domains can differ markedly 15 6 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV] {'advmod': {'markedly', 'Also'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'kinds', 'that'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'compound': {'prototypic', 'different'}, 'pobj': {'problems', 'domains'}, 'relcl': {'populate'}, 'dobj': {'courses'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'differ'}} Medium High Low
2479 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For instance, there may be more reliance on memorization, recall, and well- structured problems (i.e., clearly has a right/wrong answer) forstudents in the biological sciences, and more interpretative and evaluative tasks (i.e., ill-structured problems) for students in the social sciences (Alexander, 2006; Reed, 2016) 44 17 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 16, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 10, 'CCONJ': 3, 'X': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, X, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, SYM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'for', 'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'instance', 'memorization', 'sciences'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';', '/'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'be', 'has'}, 'amod': {'structured', 'interpretative', 'social', 'ill', 'right', 'biological', 'wrong', 'more'}, 'attr': {'reliance'}, 'conj': {'Reed', 'evaluative', 'tasks', 'well-', 'recall'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'problems'}, 'advmod': {'clearly', 'i.e.', 'more'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nmod': {'answer'}, 'dobj': {'forstudents'}, 'appos': {'problems', 'Alexander', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'2006'}} Long High Low
2480 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Such variations in the structure or delivery of content can mean that certain forms of relational reasoning occur more often than others or unfold in a different pattern (Dumas et al., 2014; Jablansky, 2020) 34 15 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'certain', 'Such', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'forms', 'variations'}, 'prep': {'than', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'others', 'structure', 'reasoning', 'pattern'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'Jablansky', 'delivery', '.', 'unfold'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'mean'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'occur'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'more'}, 'compound': {'different'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2014', '2020', 'Dumas'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}} Long High Medium
2481 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained However, it can be presumed that all forms of relational reasoning have a role to play in learning and performance within tertiary education 23 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'presumed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'all'}, 'nsubj': {'forms'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'tertiary', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'reasoning', 'education'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'role'}, 'relcl': {'play'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance'}} Long High Medium
2482 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Here we will look at the studies that have explored the association between relational reasoning overall and by form in selected fields of study and professional practice 27 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here', 'overall'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'have', 'will'}, 'ROOT': {'look'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of', 'in', 'between'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'form', 'fields', 'reasoning', 'practice'}, 'relcl': {'explored'}, 'dobj': {'association'}, 'compound': {'relational'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'by', 'professional'}, 'amod': {'selected'}, 'nmod': {'study'}} Long High Low
2483 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Given the enormity of domains that tertiary students can pursue, we have chosen to organize this brief exploration around four branches of science; the natural sciences that deal with nature in some fashion; the social sciences , which focus on people, society, and culture; the applied sciences such as engineering, statistics, architecture, and medicine; and the formal sciences that include theoretical mathematics, logic, philosophy, and theoretical linguistics 67 28 {'VERB': 7, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 23, 'ADP': 7, 'PRON': 5, 'ADJ': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 14, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 4} [VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'around', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'Given'}, 'det': {'some', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'enormity', 'people', 'science', 'branches', 'domains', 'nature', 'fashion', 'engineering'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'mathematics', 'exploration'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'tertiary', 'applied', 'social', 'such', 'formal', 'brief', 'natural'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'which', 'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'pursue', 'focus', 'include', 'deal'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}, 'ccomp': {'chosen'}, 'xcomp': {'organize'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'ROOT': {'sciences'}, 'conj': {'architecture', 'culture', 'sciences', 'statistics', 'linguistics', 'medicine', 'logic', 'philosophy', 'society'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
2484 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Before delving into where relational reasoning comes into play within each of these areas of study, we want to forward an important caveat 23 12 {'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'within', 'of', 'Before'}, 'pcomp': {'comes', 'delving'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'amod': {'important', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'we'}, 'pobj': {'areas', 'each', 'study', 'play'}, 'det': {'an', 'these'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'forward'}, 'dobj': {'caveat'}} Long High Medium
2485 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Specifically, the four categories of domains we identify herein and the variety of studies that aligned with each of those areas represent only one possible configuration that could be considered 30 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'only', 'Specifically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nummod': {'four', 'one'}, 'nsubj': {'categories', 'we', 'that'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'areas', 'domains', 'each'}, 'relcl': {'aligned', 'considered', 'identify'}, 'dobj': {'configuration', 'herein'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'variety'}, 'ROOT': {'represent'}, 'amod': {'possible'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Low
2486 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained There are innumerable classifications of academic domains that have been proposed and even the courses identified within those organizational schemes can vary 22 12 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'organizational', 'academic', 'innumerable'}, 'attr': {'classifications'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'schemes', 'domains'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'proposed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'courses'}, 'acl': {'identified'}, 'conj': {'vary'}} Long High Low
2487 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Our decision to focus on these four domain areas was driven, in part, by our desire to keep the comparisons and contrasts among the areas as simple as possible, while still allowing for the utility of relational reasoning to be adequately described 42 25 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'poss': {'our', 'Our'}, 'nsubjpass': {'decision'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'keep', 'focus'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'in', 'among', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'compound': {'domain'}, 'pobj': {'areas', 'utility', 'desire', 'part', 'reasoning'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'was'}, 'ROOT': {'driven'}, 'punct': {','}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'dobj': {'comparisons'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'contrasts'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'adequately', 'still'}, 'amod': {'simple', 'possible', 'relational'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'allowing'}, 'ccomp': {'described'}} Long High Medium
2488 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Natural Sciences As noted, natural sciences deal with the physical world and all that exists therein 16 7 {'PROPN': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADV] {'compound': {'Natural'}, 'dep': {'Sciences'}, 'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'noted'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'natural', 'physical'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'sciences'}, 'ROOT': {'deal'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'world'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'all'}, 'relcl': {'exists'}, 'advmod': {'therein'}} Medium High Medium
2489 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Those studying or working in the natural sciences are generally concerned with carefully observing, accurately describing, systematically classifying, or predicting phenomena (Harris, 2014) 23 7 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Those'}, 'acl': {'studying'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'describing', 'classifying', 'working', 'predicting'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'natural'}, 'pobj': {'sciences'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'carefully', 'accurately', 'generally', 'systematically'}, 'acomp': {'concerned'}, 'pcomp': {'observing'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'dobj': {'phenomena'}, 'appos': {'Harris'}, 'npadvmod': {'2014'}} Long High Low
2490 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The execution of these core processes necessitates that those studying or working in the natural sciences rely on empirical evidence derived through observation or direct experience that can be substantiated or disproven through experimentation that adheres to the scientific method 40 19 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'The', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'execution', 'that', 'those'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'to', 'in', 'of'}, 'compound': {'scientific', 'core'}, 'pobj': {'processes', 'observation', 'experimentation', 'method', 'sciences', 'evidence'}, 'ROOT': {'necessitates'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'studying', 'derived'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'experience', 'working', 'disproven'}, 'amod': {'natural', 'direct', 'empirical'}, 'ccomp': {'rely'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'adheres', 'substantiated'}} Long High Medium
2491 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained There are many ways in which the forms of relational reasoning are integral to learning and performance in the natural sciences and, thus, to tertiary students studying in these fields 30 17 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'many', 'natural', 'tertiary', 'relational'}, 'attr': {'ways'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'students', 'fields', 'sciences', 'reasoning'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'forms'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'integral'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'thus'}, 'acl': {'studying'}} Long High Low
2492 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For example, in his treatise on analogical arguments, philosopher Bartha (2019) contends that analogies have long been a critical feature of scientific reasoning and a contributor to scientific discoveries 29 12 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'treatise', 'discoveries', 'example', 'reasoning', 'arguments'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'analogical'}, 'compound': {'scientific', 'philosopher'}, 'nsubj': {'Bartha', 'analogies'}, 'appos': {'2019'}, 'ROOT': {'contends'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'long'}, 'ccomp': {'been'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'feature'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'contributor'}} Long High Medium
2493 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained To support this contention, Bartha quotes Joseph Priestley, a renowned 18th century expert in chemistry and electricity who is created with the discovery of oxygen, who claimed that “analogy is our best guide in all philosophical investigations; and all discoveries, which were not made by mere accident, have been made by the help of it” (Priestley, 1767,p 57 30 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 5, 'SCONJ': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'aux': {'To', 'have'}, 'advcl': {'support'}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'contention'}, 'punct': {'(', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'Priestley', 'Bartha', 'analogy', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'quotes'}, 'compound': {'century', 'Joseph'}, 'amod': {'best', 'mere', 'renowned', 'philosophical', '18th'}, 'appos': {'1767,p', 'expert'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'investigations', 'help', 'chemistry', 'it', 'oxygen', 'discovery', 'accident'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'discoveries', 'electricity'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which', 'who'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'been', 'were'}, 'relcl': {'made', 'created', 'claimed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'made', 'is'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'attr': {'guide'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'npadvmod': {'Priestley'}} Long High Medium
2494 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Similar claims for the power of analogical reasoning populate the history of science (Hofstadter, 1979; Dunbar and Blanchette, 2001; Gentner, 2002) 21 6 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Similar', 'analogical'}, 'nsubj': {'claims'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'power', 'science'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'populate'}, 'dobj': {'history'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Hofstadter', '2002', '2001'}, 'npadvmod': {'1979'}, 'conj': {'Dunbar', 'Gentner', 'Blanchette'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
2495 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Frontiers in Education | www.frontiersin.org 4 May 2022 | Volume 7 | Article 883370 14 2 {'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 5, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, NUM, AUX, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Volume', 'Frontiers'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'Education'}, 'advmod': {'|'}, 'punct': {'4', 'www.frontiersin.org'}, 'nmod': {'May'}, 'nummod': {'883370', '2022', '7'}, 'compound': {'|'}, 'appos': {'Article'}} Medium Low Low
2496 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education Despite the value that analogical reasoning holds in the natural sciences, it cannot stand alone to explain what must transpire when observing, describing, classifying, or predicting phenomena in this domain 35 16 {'PROPN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'compound': {'Relational', 'Tertiary'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'it', 'Reasoning', 'what'}, 'prep': {'Despite', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Education', 'domain', 'value', 'sciences'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'natural', 'analogical'}, 'relcl': {'holds'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'can', 'to', 'must'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'stand'}, 'advmod': {'alone', 'when'}, 'advcl': {'observing', 'explain'}, 'ccomp': {'transpire'}, 'conj': {'describing', 'classifying', 'predicting'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'dobj': {'phenomena'}} Long High High
2497 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained As observations are made and empirical evidence gathered, scientists must attend to critical dissimilarities that emerge, as well 18 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADV] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubjpass': {'observations'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'made'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'empirical', 'critical'}, 'nsubj': {'evidence', 'that', 'scientists'}, 'conj': {'gathered'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'attend'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'dissimilarities'}, 'relcl': {'emerge'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}} Medium High Medium
2498 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For one, anomalous reasoning is an essential tool for scientists or students in the natural sciences, because it results in the perception or identification of salient discrepancies or deviations from the expected or typical (Chinn and Brewer, 1993; Chinn and Malhotra, 2002) 42 20 {'ADP': 6, 'NUM': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'from', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'discrepancies', 'sciences', 'Chinn', 'one', 'scientists', 'perception'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'natural', 'essential', 'expected', 'anomalous'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'attr': {'tool'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'typical', 'students', 'Malhotra', 'deviations', 'Chinn', 'identification', 'Brewer'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'results'}, 'compound': {'salient'}, 'appos': {'1993', '2002'}} Long High Medium
2499 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The presence of anomalies can be difficult to explain, and they can even bring tentative hypotheses or accepted theories into question 21 11 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'presence'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'anomalies', 'question'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'difficult'}, 'advcl': {'explain'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'conj': {'accepted', 'bring'}, 'amod': {'tentative'}, 'dobj': {'hypotheses', 'theories'}} Long High Low
2500 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Under certain circumstances, anomalies can become the catalyst for alternative hypotheses or theories 13 6 {'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'Under'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'alternative'}, 'pobj': {'hypotheses', 'circumstances'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'anomalies'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'become'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'catalyst'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'theories'}} Medium High Low
2501 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Whether anomalies are treated as noise in a data set or give rise to new hypotheses or theories, may be dependent on scientists’ ability to construct a cogent and compelling explanation for their existence (Lightman and Gingerich, 1992) 38 18 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'Whether'}, 'nsubjpass': {'anomalies'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'treated'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'in', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'set', 'ability', 'hypotheses', 'existence', 'noise'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'data'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'compelling', 'Gingerich', 'give', 'theories'}, 'dobj': {'explanation', 'rise'}, 'amod': {'cogent', 'new'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'dependent'}, 'nmod': {'scientists'}, 'acl': {'construct'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'Lightman'}, 'npadvmod': {'1992'}} Long High Medium
2502 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The act of labeling, classifying, or categorizing natural phenomena likewise demands more than noticing and cataloging similarities 17 6 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'act'}, 'prep': {'than', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'labeling'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'cataloging', 'classifying', 'categorizing'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'amod': {'natural'}, 'dobj': {'similarities', 'phenomena', 'more'}, 'advmod': {'likewise'}, 'ROOT': {'demands'}, 'pcomp': {'noticing'}} Medium High Low
2503 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Without analysis of meaningful differences within and between phenomena, their true nature would not be captured 16 9 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'within', 'Without', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'differences', 'analysis', 'phenomena'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'true'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'between'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubjpass': {'nature'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'captured'}} Medium High Low
2504 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In some instances, those differences take the form of scales that capture levels of a particular feature such as scales for water hardness or softness, wind speed, or soil types 30 14 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'as', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'those', 'the', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'feature', 'scales', 'hardness', 'instances'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'differences', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'form', 'levels'}, 'relcl': {'capture'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'such'}, 'compound': {'water', 'wind', 'soil'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'softness', 'types', 'speed'}} Long High Low
2505 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Although the data on which they are based are continuous, these scales are often banded and labeled, which involves antinomous reasoning to determine distinct groupings 25 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'data'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'which'}, 'nsubjpass': {'scales', 'they'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'based'}, 'advcl': {'are', 'involves', 'determine'}, 'acomp': {'continuous'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'ROOT': {'banded'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'labeled'}, 'amod': {'distinct', 'antinomous'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning', 'groupings'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Medium
2506 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In other instances, the categories are meant to capture ontological distinctions that are considered discrete, as with the Hertzsprung–Russell system for classifying stars or the five biological kingdoms into which all living things are sorted 35 17 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'into', 'with', 'for', 'In', 'as'}, 'amod': {'other', 'biological', 'ontological', 'living'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'system', 'instances'}, 'punct': {',', '–'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'categories', 'that', 'things'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'capture'}, 'dobj': {'stars', 'distinctions'}, 'relcl': {'considered', 'sorted'}, 'oprd': {'discrete'}, 'nmod': {'five', 'Hertzsprung'}, 'compound': {'Russell'}, 'pcomp': {'classifying'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'kingdoms'}} Long High Low
2507 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The precise categories that are formed in these instances arise through antinomous reasoning 13 6 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'these'}, 'amod': {'precise', 'antinomous'}, 'nsubj': {'categories'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'formed'}, 'prep': {'through', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'instances'}, 'ROOT': {'arise'}} Medium High Low
2508 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Social Sciences The primary distinction between the natural sciences and social sciences—the study of nature versus humans—translates into significant differences in what is studied and how studies are undertaken (Nowotny, 2005) 31 13 {'PROPN': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Social'}, 'nsubj': {'distinction', 'Sciences'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'social', 'primary', 'natural', 'significant'}, 'prep': {'versus', 'in', 'into', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'differences', 'nature', 'humans', 'sciences'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'undertaken', 'sciences'}, 'punct': {'(', ')', ',', '—'}, 'appos': {'study'}, 'ROOT': {'translates'}, 'nsubjpass': {'studies', 'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'are'}, 'pcomp': {'studied'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'npadvmod': {'Nowotny', '2005'}} Long High Medium
2509 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Consequently, the forms of relational reasoning can manifest in varied ways and to varying degrees in each domain 18 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Consequently'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'nsubj': {'forms'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'varying', 'varied', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'reasoning', 'degrees', 'domain'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'manifest'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'to'}} Medium High Low
2510 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For one, much of what concerns social scientists are not directly measurable as is the case in natural sciences (Borsboom and Mellenbergh, 2002) 23 12 {'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'sciences'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'case', 'much', 'what'}, 'pcomp': {'concerns'}, 'amod': {'social', 'natural'}, 'dobj': {'scientists'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'directly'}, 'acomp': {'measurable'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'Borsboom'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Mellenbergh'}, 'npadvmod': {'2002'}} Long High Medium
2511 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained There are certainly explicit behaviors of individuals and groups that can be documented and analyzed 15 8 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'certainly'}, 'amod': {'explicit'}, 'attr': {'behaviors'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'individuals'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'analyzed', 'groups'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'documented'}} Medium High Low
2512 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Nonetheless, the questions often posed by social scientists are about the unseen or underlying forces, factors, or conditions that give rise to those behaviors 24 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'often', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'questions', 'that'}, 'acl': {'posed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'social', 'unseen'}, 'pobj': {'forces', 'scientists', 'behaviors'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'prep': {'about'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'underlying', 'conditions', 'factors'}, 'relcl': {'give'}, 'dobj': {'rise'}, 'dative': {'to'}} Long High Low
2513 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained As a result, there is potentially much more that must be inferred from gathered data 15 10 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'As', 'from'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'data', 'result'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'potentially', 'much'}, 'attr': {'more'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'inferred'}, 'amod': {'gathered'}} Medium High Low
2514 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The techniques and measures that must be created as well as the data analytic approaches can be quantitative, qualitative, or some combination of both (Mertens, 2019) 26 15 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'some'}, 'nsubj': {'techniques', 'approaches'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as', 'or'}, 'conj': {'combination', 'measures', 'qualitative'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can', 'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'created'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'nmod': {'data'}, 'amod': {'analytic'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'quantitative'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'both', 'Mertens'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}} Long High Low
2515 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In light of this characterization of social sciences, how do the forms of relational reasoning come into play 18 9 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'light', 'sciences', 'characterization', 'reasoning', 'play'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'social', 'relational'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'nsubj': {'forms'}, 'ROOT': {'come'}} Medium High Medium
2516 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained We can look back at the opening discussion about the nature of relational reasoning for guidance on this matter 19 11 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'look'}, 'advmod': {'back'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'for', 'of', 'about'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'opening'}, 'pobj': {'matter', 'guidance', 'discussion', 'reasoning', 'nature'}, 'amod': {'relational'}} Medium High Low
2517 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For instance, all manner of human reasoning lies buried in the mind of an individual or some societal group (James, 1893) 21 9 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'individual', 'mind', 'reasoning', 'instance'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'an', 'all', 'the', 'some'}, 'nsubj': {'manner'}, 'amod': {'societal', 'human'}, 'ROOT': {'lies'}, 'acl': {'buried'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'group'}, 'appos': {'James'}, 'npadvmod': {'1893'}} Long High Low
2518 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Therefore, discerning patterns ofsimilarity or dissimilarity requires social scientists to be attentive to any external markers that can suggest what is transpiring consciously or unconsciously within the individual, group, or society (Harris, 2014) 33 14 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'consciously', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'csubj': {'discerning'}, 'compound': {'patterns'}, 'nsubj': {'ofsimilarity', 'that', 'what'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'unconsciously', 'group', 'dissimilarity', 'society'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'amod': {'social', 'external'}, 'dobj': {'scientists'}, 'aux': {'can', 'is', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'attentive'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'markers', 'Harris'}, 'relcl': {'suggest'}, 'ccomp': {'transpiring'}, 'nmod': {'individual'}, 'appos': {'2014'}} Long High Low
2519 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The words individuals or groups utter, the behaviors they display, the decisions or choices they make, and even biophysiological indicators can prove invaluable to recognizing meaningful patterns (West et al., 2008; Kaplan and Berman, 2010) 35 13 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'words', 'behaviors', 'they'}, 'appos': {'2008', 'individuals', 'West', '2010'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'Berman', 'Kaplan', '.', 'decisions', 'choices', 'indicators', 'groups'}, 'advcl': {'utter'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'relcl': {'make', 'display'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'biophysiological'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'prove'}, 'oprd': {'invaluable'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pcomp': {'recognizing'}, 'dobj': {'patterns'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}} Long High Low
2520 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained When it comes to the forms of relational reasoning, analogical reasoning allows those in these fields to recognize important consistencies or commonalities across individuals, societies, or cultures 27 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'it', 'those'}, 'advcl': {'comes'}, 'prep': {'across', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'forms', 'fields', 'reasoning'}, 'amod': {'important', 'analogical', 'relational'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'allows'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'recognize'}, 'dobj': {'consistencies'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'societies', 'commonalities', 'cultures'}} Long High Medium
2521 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Developmental theories, for example, are predicated on assumed shared characteristics among individuals of similar age (Halford, 1992) 17 5 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'assumed', 'shared', 'similar', 'Developmental'}, 'nsubjpass': {'theories'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of', 'among'}, 'pobj': {'age', 'individuals', 'characteristics', 'example'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'predicated'}, 'appos': {'Halford'}, 'npadvmod': {'1992'}} Medium High Low
2522 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Similarly, socioeconomic models look for predictable outcomes based on the level of wealth or poverty experienced at the level of the individual, group, or society (Hackman and Farah, 2009) 29 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Similarly'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'socioeconomic', 'predictable'}, 'nsubj': {'models'}, 'ROOT': {'look'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'wealth', 'level', 'outcomes', 'individual'}, 'acl': {'based', 'experienced'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'group', 'Hackman', 'Farah', 'poverty', 'society'}, 'npadvmod': {'2009'}} Long High Low
2523 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Thus, what analogical reasoning can offer in such instances is a framework or starting point that captures common or typical conditions, as we discussed in terms of neurophysiological maturation and relational reasoning capability 33 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'what'}, 'amod': {'neurophysiological', 'such', 'common', 'analogical'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'csubj': {'offer'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'capability', 'terms', 'instances'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'framework'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'starting'}, 'conj': {'point', 'relational', 'typical'}, 'relcl': {'captures'}, 'dobj': {'conditions'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'discussed'}, 'nmod': {'maturation'}} Long High Medium
2524 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained As in the natural sciences, analogical reasoning is an important process for tertiary students pursuing careers in the social sciences to hone 22 9 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB] {'prep': {'for', 'As', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'important', 'tertiary', 'social', 'analogical', 'natural'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'sciences'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'process'}, 'acl': {'pursuing'}, 'dobj': {'careers'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'hone'}} Long High Low
2525 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Of course, unearthing similarities in people’s thoughts, actions, or experiences is only a portion of what social scientists seek to investigate 21 10 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB] {'advmod': {'course', 'only', 'Of'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'social', 'unearthing'}, 'nsubj': {'similarities', 'scientists'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'people'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'pobj': {'thoughts'}, 'conj': {'experiences', 'actions'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'portion'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'seek'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'investigate'}} Long High Low
2526 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained They are also invested in understanding how individuals, groups, or societies differ from one another and the nature of those differences (Fischer and Silvern, 1985; Beattie, 2002) 27 14 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 3} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, DET, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'They'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'how'}, 'ROOT': {'invested'}, 'prep': {'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'understanding'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'societies', 'Silvern', 'nature', 'groups'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'ccomp': {'differ'}, 'pobj': {'differences', 'one'}, 'det': {'another', 'the', 'those'}, 'appos': {'Beattie', 'Fischer', '2002'}, 'npadvmod': {'1985'}} Long High Medium
2527 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Fields like special education, clinical psychology, criminology, expertise, and many others are focused on those who exhibit ways of thinking and acting that deviate in non- trivial ways from what is regarded as the norm (Samuel and Widiger, 2008; Sullivan and Bal, 2013) 43 18 {'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'DET': 2, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, X, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Fields', 'what'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'like', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'amod': {'many', 'trivial', 'special', 'clinical', 'non-'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'education', 'norm', 'those', 'thinking'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Widiger', 'Bal', 'criminology', 'expertise', 'acting', 'others', 'psychology'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'are'}, 'ROOT': {'Sullivan', 'focused'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'exhibit'}, 'dobj': {'ways', 'deviate'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'pcomp': {'regarded'}, 'appos': {'2008', 'Samuel'}, 'npadvmod': {'2013'}} Long High Low
2528 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In effect, there is something that is perceived as anomalous about these individuals or groups that social scientists may set out to explain through their research and perhaps to ameliorate or amplify those differences through treatments or interventions 38 23 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'about', 'as', 'In', 'through'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'treatments', 'effect', 'research'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'something'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'set', 'perceived'}, 'amod': {'social', 'anomalous'}, 'det': {'these', 'those'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'amplify', 'interventions', 'groups', 'ameliorate'}, 'dobj': {'differences', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'scientists'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'advcl': {'explain'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'perhaps'}} Long High Low
2529 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Further, while classifying and categorizing occurs in the social sciences as in the natural sciences, there is a major distinction between these fields that must be appreciated 27 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'classifying', 'occurs'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'categorizing'}, 'prep': {'between', 'as', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'social', 'major', 'natural'}, 'pobj': {'fields', 'sciences'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'distinction'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'appreciated'}} Long High Medium
2530 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Specifically, because of the nature of the data or evidence that can be gathered in the natural sciences, there is the potential to uncover true dichotomies (Alexander, in press a) 30 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PRON, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'because'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'press', 'nature', 'data', 'sciences'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'evidence'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'gathered'}, 'amod': {'natural', 'true'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'potential', 'a'}, 'acl': {'uncover'}, 'dobj': {'dichotomies'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}} Long High Medium
2531 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Through antinomous reasoning, compelling, and seemingly incontrovertible evidence, discrete categories such as living and non-living matter or animals and plants can emerge in the natural sciences 26 10 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'in', 'Through'}, 'amod': {'-', 'antinomous', 'discrete', 'such', 'living', 'natural', 'incontrovertible'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'sciences', 'matter'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'compelling', 'evidence', 'non', 'plants', 'animals'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'advmod': {'seemingly'}, 'nsubj': {'categories'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'emerge'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Low
2532 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In the social sciences, however, ontological distinctions of this type are rare 12 6 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'social', 'ontological'}, 'pobj': {'type', 'sciences'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'however'}, 'nsubj': {'distinctions'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'rare'}} Medium High Low
2533 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For most of the social sciences, there are more designations that are generated on the basis of continuous or variable characterization (Lehtinen, 2012; Alexander, in press a) 27 15 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PRON, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'basis', 'sciences', 'characterization', 'press', 'a', 'most'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'social', 'continuous', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'designations'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'generated'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'variable'}, 'appos': {'Lehtinen'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012'}, 'dep': {'Alexander'}} Long High Low
2534 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained When sociologists consider political, socioeconomic, racial, and class distinctions, there are no unambiguous categories that result, and many distinctions between individuals, groups, or societies shift over time 27 11 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'nsubj': {'sociologists', 'that', 'distinctions'}, 'advcl': {'consider'}, 'amod': {'many', 'political', 'unambiguous'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'socioeconomic', 'racial', 'class', 'shift', 'societies', 'groups'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'dobj': {'distinctions'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'det': {'no'}, 'attr': {'categories'}, 'relcl': {'result'}, 'prep': {'over', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'time'}} Long High Medium
2535 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For example, bigenderism that once prevailed has given way to more fluid gender distinctions— more antithetical than antinomous in form (Gilbert, 2009) 22 9 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'than', 'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'form', 'example', 'distinctions'}, 'punct': {',', ')', '(', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'bigenderism', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'once', 'more'}, 'relcl': {'prevailed'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'given'}, 'dobj': {'way'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'amod': {'fluid', 'antinomous'}, 'compound': {'gender'}, 'advcl': {'antithetical'}, 'appos': {'Gilbert'}, 'npadvmod': {'2009'}} Long High Low
2536 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Therefore, it seems critical that those engaged in describing and Frontiers in Education | www.frontiersin.org 5 May 2022 | Volume 7 | Article 883370 24 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 4, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, X, NUM, AUX, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'advmod': {'|', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'those'}, 'ROOT': {'seems'}, 'oprd': {'critical'}, 'prep': {'that', 'in'}, 'acl': {'engaged'}, 'pobj': {'Education', 'describing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Frontiers'}, 'nmod': {'May', 'www.frontiersin.org'}, 'meta': {'5'}, 'nummod': {'883370', '2022', '7'}, 'compound': {'|'}, 'npadvmod': {'Volume'}, 'appos': {'Article'}} Long High Medium
2537 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education classifying humans for the purpose of the study should recognize that antithetical reasoning is more central to their fields than antinomous reasoning 27 12 {'PROPN': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Relational', 'Tertiary'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'Reasoning'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'than'}, 'pobj': {'fields', 'purpose', 'reasoning', 'Education', 'study'}, 'csubj': {'classifying'}, 'dobj': {'humans'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'recognize'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'antithetical', 'antinomous'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'acomp': {'central'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2538 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Applied Sciences Within tertiary education and professional practice, there are fields that are devoted to the application of knowledge and procedures garnered from research in the natural and social sciences to critical real-world problems 34 15 {'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'world', 'Applied'}, 'dep': {'Sciences'}, 'prep': {'Within', 'from', 'to', 'in', 'of'}, 'amod': {'tertiary', 'critical', 'professional', 'real', 'natural'}, 'pobj': {'application', 'education', 'sciences', 'knowledge', 'problems', 'research'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'social', 'procedures', 'practice'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'fields'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'devoted'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'garnered'}} Long High Low
2539 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained This focus on the use of existing knowledge and procedures to deal with pressing problems—be they structural, aesthetic, moral, physical, educational, social, or cultural—is why these domains are referred to as applied sciences 34 16 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 8, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'focus'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'use', 'problems', 'sciences'}, 'amod': {'structural', 'existing', 'applied', 'pressing'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'cultural', 'aesthetic', 'moral', 'social', 'educational', 'procedures', 'physical'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'deal'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'ccomp': {'be', 'referred'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'why'}, 'nsubjpass': {'domains'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}} Long High Medium
2540 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Fields that fall in this category include medicine and health, engineering, teaching, counseling and clinical psychology, computer science, and applied statistics/mathematics 21 6 {'NOUN': 12, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'SYM': 1} [NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, SYM, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Fields', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'fall'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'category'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'dobj': {'medicine'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'counseling', 'science', 'health', 'psychology', 'teaching', 'engineering'}, 'punct': {',', 'statistics', '/'}, 'amod': {'applied', 'clinical'}, 'compound': {'computer'}, 'appos': {'mathematics'}} Long High Low
2541 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained As this litany suggests, domains that are regarded as applied can be extremely challenging and can require years of preparation and practice to master (Patel et al., 1999) 28 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'As'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'nsubj': {'litany', 'domains'}, 'advcl': {'suggests'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'regarded'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'preparation', 'master', 'al', 'applied'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'extremely'}, 'acomp': {'challenging'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'require', '.', 'practice'}, 'dobj': {'years'}, 'appos': {'Patel', '1999'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Medium
2542 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Among the essentials for performing well in any applied science are a breadth and depth of domain-specific knowledge and procedural capabilities (Alexander, 2003, in press b) 26 12 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'Among', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'any', 'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'essentials', 'b', 'science'}, 'pcomp': {'performing'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'amod': {'procedural', 'applied'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'breadth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'capabilities', 'depth'}, 'compound': {'domain', 'press', 'specific'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2003', 'Alexander'}} Long High Low
2543 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For example, a breadth of engineering knowledge might include what one knows about the many fields of engineering, whereas a depth of civil engineering knowledge might relate to what one knows specifically about bridge construction 35 18 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'about', 'For', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'construction', 'fields', 'example', 'knowledge', 'engineering'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'breadth', 'depth'}, 'compound': {'bridge', 'engineering'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'ccomp': {'knows'}, 'amod': {'many', 'civil'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'advcl': {'relate'}, 'pcomp': {'knows'}, 'advmod': {'specifically'}} Long High Medium
2544 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained What goes hand in hand with such domain-specific competencies are more general competencies such as the ability to reason, think critically, make sound decisions, and collaborate with others (Alexander, 2004, in press b) 33 15 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'What'}, 'csubj': {'goes'}, 'npadvmod': {'hand'}, 'prep': {'with', 'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'ability', 'others', 'hand', 'competencies', 'b'}, 'amod': {'such', 'sound', 'more', 'general'}, 'compound': {'domain', 'press', 'specific'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'competencies'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'reason'}, 'conj': {'make', 'collaborate', 'think'}, 'advmod': {'critically'}, 'dobj': {'decisions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'2004', 'Alexander'}} Long High Low
2545 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Those in the applied sciences must also be able to recognize, analyze, and classify the nature of problems they will likely encounter, not only in terms of their surface features but also their underlying structure (Albanese and Dast, 2014) 39 21 {'PRON': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PART, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Those', 'they'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'underlying', 'applied'}, 'pobj': {'problems', 'features', 'terms', 'sciences'}, 'aux': {'will', 'to', 'must'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'likely', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'recognize'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Dast', 'structure', 'analyze', 'classify'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'dobj': {'nature'}, 'relcl': {'encounter'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'surface'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'Albanese'}} Long High Low
2546 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Moreover, those in these applied fields have to envision viable techniques or approaches to addressing those problems in order to be successful (Dumas et al., 2016) 26 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'those'}, 'prep': {'et', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'these', 'those'}, 'amod': {'viable', 'applied'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'fields'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'envision'}, 'dobj': {'techniques', 'problems'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'.', 'approaches'}, 'pcomp': {'addressing'}, 'acl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'successful'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'Dumas'}, 'appos': {'2016'}} Long High Low
2547 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Finally, among the critical competencies associated with the applied sciences are strategies for monitoring the situation and evaluating the effectiveness of the actions being taken, which includes a judgment of one’s own performance (McConnell et al., 2012) 37 18 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PART, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'of', 'among'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'own', 'applied', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'competencies', 'actions', 'sciences'}, 'acl': {'associated', 'taken'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'strategies'}, 'pcomp': {'monitoring'}, 'dobj': {'situation', 'judgment', 'effectiveness'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'evaluating'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'relcl': {'includes'}, 'poss': {'one'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'appos': {'2012', 'McConnell'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Low
2548 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained With this general picture of the applied sciences in place, we will now turn our attention to the significance of relational reasoning in these fields 25 14 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'With', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'amod': {'applied', 'relational', 'general'}, 'pobj': {'fields', 'significance', 'sciences', 'reasoning', 'place', 'picture'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'advmod': {'now'}, 'ROOT': {'turn'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'dobj': {'attention'}} Long High Low
2549 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Within the applied sciences, in particular, there have been numerous empirical studies of relational reasoning’s contributions to professional performance, especially in medicine, health, and engineering 25 11 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'Within', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'numerous', 'applied', 'professional', 'empirical', 'relational', 'particular'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'medicine', 'contributions', 'sciences'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'attr': {'studies'}, 'poss': {'reasoning'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'advmod': {'especially'}, 'conj': {'health', 'engineering'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
2550 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Medicine and Health Research studies have shown that relational reasoning provides professionals in medicine and health with the necessary tools to solve complex problems in their field 27 10 {'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ] {'nmod': {'Medicine'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Health', 'health'}, 'compound': {'Research'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'reasoning'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'shown'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'necessary', 'complex', 'relational'}, 'ccomp': {'provides'}, 'dobj': {'problems', 'professionals'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'tools', 'medicine', 'field'}, 'relcl': {'solve'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
2551 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained (2014) captured many instances of relational reasoning that punctuated the exchanges between an expert attending physician and the residents he was mentoring 22 10 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2014', 'he', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'captured'}, 'amod': {'many', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'exchanges', 'physician', 'instances'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'expert'}, 'relcl': {'mentoring', 'punctuated'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'acl': {'attending'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'residents'}, 'aux': {'was'}} Long High Low
2552 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Those exchanges occurred as the residents were analyzing details of their patients’ conditions in order to make accurate diagnoses 19 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'Those', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'exchanges', 'residents'}, 'ROOT': {'occurred'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'aux': {'to', 'were'}, 'advcl': {'analyzing'}, 'dobj': {'diagnoses', 'details'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'patients', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'conditions', 'order'}, 'acl': {'make'}, 'amod': {'accurate'}} Medium High Medium
2553 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained (2014) found that while all four forms of relational reasoningwere present in the doctors’ real-time problem-solving, those forms unfolded in a patterned way 23 10 {'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2014', 'forms'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that', 'while'}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'the', 'those'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'advcl': {'forms'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'solving', 'way', 'relational'}, 'advmod': {'reasoningwere'}, 'amod': {'real', 'present', 'patterned'}, 'poss': {'doctors'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'time'}, 'npadvmod': {'problem'}, 'ccomp': {'unfolded'}} Long High High
2554 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For instance, when the residents were first presenting their cases, they relied heavily on anomalous reasoning to delineate patients’ atypical symptoms 21 8 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'instance'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'heavily', 'first'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'residents'}, 'aux': {'to', 'were'}, 'advcl': {'delineate', 'presenting'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'cases', 'symptoms', 'patients'}, 'ROOT': {'relied'}, 'amod': {'atypical', 'anomalous'}} Long High Medium
2555 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained This delineation eventually gave way to analogical reasoning, as the residents began to speculate on what conditions those symptoms may suggest 21 9 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'those', 'what', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'delineation', 'symptoms', 'residents'}, 'advmod': {'eventually'}, 'ROOT': {'gave'}, 'dobj': {'conditions', 'way'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'amod': {'analogical'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'began'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'speculate'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pcomp': {'suggest'}} Long High Medium
2556 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained At this point in the process, antinomous reasoning was introduced as the attending physician or one of the residents noted that some essential features in the case made the proposed diagnosis untenable 32 17 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADJ] {'prep': {'At', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'some', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'physician', 'residents', 'point', 'process', 'case'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'attending', 'essential', 'antinomous', 'proposed'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reasoning'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'introduced'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'one'}, 'advcl': {'noted'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'diagnosis', 'features'}, 'ccomp': {'made', 'untenable'}} Long High Medium
2557 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Critical thinking and decision-making within health professions are imperative as doctors and nurses engage in diagnosing and treating patients 19 7 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3} [ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'amod': {'Critical'}, 'nsubj': {'doctors', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'health', 'decision'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'conj': {'treating', 'making', 'nurses'}, 'prep': {'within', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'professions'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'imperative'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'engage'}, 'pcomp': {'diagnosing'}, 'dobj': {'patients'}} Medium High Medium
2558 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained A study of maternity nursing students and practicing nurses by Fountain (2016), for instance, revealed that relational reasoning was a significant contributor to their critical thinking, beyond domain knowledge, individual interest, and years of experience 35 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'a'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'study'}, 'prep': {'beyond', 'to', 'by', 'of', 'for'}, 'compound': {'domain', 'nursing', 'maternity'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'students', 'thinking', 'knowledge', 'experience', 'Fountain'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'years', 'interest', 'practicing'}, 'dobj': {'nurses'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2016'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'critical', 'significant', 'relational'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'attr': {'contributor'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2559 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Even though relational reasoning was a significant predictor of critical thinking skills, Fountain (2016) found that there were no significant differences in the four forms of relational reasoning between more or less experienced nurses 34 17 {'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'Even'}, 'mark': {'though', 'that'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'experienced', 'significant', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the'}, 'attr': {'differences', 'predictor'}, 'prep': {'between', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'thinking'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'forms', 'nurses', 'reasoning'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'less', 'Fountain'}, 'appos': {'2016'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High High
2560 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained This finding was interpreted by the researcher as evidence that professional experience alone was not sufficient to advance relational reasoning abilities among the nurses 24 12 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, AUX, PART, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'finding'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'interpreted'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'researcher', 'evidence', 'nurses'}, 'prep': {'as', 'among'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'professional', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'experience'}, 'advmod': {'alone'}, 'acl': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'sufficient'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'advance'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'dobj': {'abilities'}} Long High Medium
2561 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Engineering Engineering is a frequently studied domain by relational reasoning researchers (Dumas et al., 2016; Jablansky et al., 2020) 19 3 {'PROPN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, AUX, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Engineering', 'reasoning'}, 'nsubj': {'Engineering'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'advmod': {'frequently'}, 'amod': {'studied', 'relational'}, 'attr': {'domain'}, 'prep': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'researchers'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'et', '2020', 'Dumas', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'Jablansky', 'al', 'et'}, 'conj': {'al', '.'}} Medium High Low
2562 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained What makes this domain appealing for these researchers are the nature of the problems and the fact that engineers often work in teams when designing and carrying out projects 29 16 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'domain', 'What', 'engineers'}, 'csubj': {'makes'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'ccomp': {'appealing'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'teams', 'researchers', 'problems'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'nature'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'carrying', 'fact'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'when'}, 'acl': {'work'}, 'advcl': {'designing'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'dobj': {'projects'}} Long High High
2563 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Engineering provides unique opportunities to study relational reasoning, because students and practicing professionals are required to consider the feasibility of designs based on established principles in mathematics and physics 29 10 {'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 3} [NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Engineering'}, 'ROOT': {'provides'}, 'amod': {'unique', 'established'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning', 'feasibility', 'professionals', 'opportunities'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'based', 'study'}, 'compound': {'relational'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'physics', 'practicing'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'required'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'designs', 'principles', 'mathematics'}} Long High Medium
2564 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Further, there are frameworks such as the Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ; Altshuller and Shapiro, 1956) that students and those practicing in the field can use to assess the creativity and viability of potential designs 36 18 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'frameworks'}, 'amod': {'potential', 'such'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'designs', 'Theory', 'field', 'Solving'}, 'compound': {'Problem', 'Inventive'}, 'appos': {'TRIZ', '1956'}, 'conj': {'viability', 'Shapiro', 'those', 'Altshuller'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'creativity'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'acl': {'practicing'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'use'}, 'xcomp': {'assess'}} Long High Medium
2565 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained (2016) found that after engaging in the TRIZ intervention, students were likely to produce fewer but more innovative design ideas 20 8 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', '2016'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'after', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'engaging'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'design', 'TRIZ'}, 'pobj': {'intervention'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'produce'}, 'amod': {'fewer'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'conj': {'innovative'}, 'dobj': {'ideas'}} Long High Medium
2566 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained As it pertains to the focus of this article, these researchers also determined that students who were the most creative both before and after the TRIZ intervention scored high on the TORR 32 20 {'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADP, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'mark': {'after', 'As', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'who', 'students', 'it', 'intervention', 'researchers'}, 'advcl': {'pertains'}, 'prep': {'on', 'before', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'TORR', 'article', 'focus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'high', 'also', 'most'}, 'ROOT': {'determined'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'creative'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'TRIZ'}, 'ccomp': {'scored'}} Long High High
2567 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Further, the students who were more receptive to the TRIZ intervention were those who were strong in antinomous reasoning 19 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'receptive', 'strong'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'compound': {'TRIZ'}, 'pobj': {'intervention', 'reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'those'}, 'amod': {'antinomous'}} Medium High Low
2568 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained It would seem that for engineers, there needs to be a determination as to whether or not a project design will function or not 24 18 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 3, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, SCONJ, CCONJ, PART, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PART] {'nsubj': {'design', 'It'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to', 'will'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'mark': {'that', 'whether'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'engineers'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'needs'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'determination'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'compound': {'project'}, 'pcomp': {'function'}} Long High High
2569 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained There is no room for error when calculating whether a bridge will stand or the foundation of a building will hold 21 13 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the'}, 'attr': {'room'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'error'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'calculating'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'foundation', 'bridge'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ccomp': {'stand'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'hold'}} Long High High
2570 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Antinomous reasoning, along with analogical, anomalous, and antithetical reasoning, appears to be essential tools that engineers must apply when working in their field 23 10 {'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ] {'amod': {'Antinomous', 'essential', 'analogical'}, 'nsubj': {'engineers', 'reasoning'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'with', 'along', 'in'}, 'conj': {'antithetical', 'anomalous'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'field'}, 'ROOT': {'appears'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'tools'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'apply'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'working'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2571 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Finally, engineering like medicine is often a collaborative process and, thus, the relational reasoning that occurs among group members can greatly affect both the problem-solving Frontiers in Education | www.frontiersin.org 6 May 2022 | Volume 7 | Article 883370 39 13 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 5} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, NUM, AUX, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'advmod': {'greatly', 'often', 'Finally', 'thus'}, 'punct': {',', 'www.frontiersin.org', '-', '6'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'engineering', 'that'}, 'prep': {'like', 'among', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Education', 'members', 'medicine'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'Volume'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'solving', 'collaborative'}, 'attr': {'process'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'group', '|', 'relational'}, 'relcl': {'occurs'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'conj': {'affect'}, 'predet': {'both'}, 'npadvmod': {'|', 'problem'}, 'dobj': {'Frontiers'}, 'nmod': {'May'}, 'nummod': {'883370', '2022', '7'}, 'appos': {'Article'}} Long High Low
2572 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Jablansky (2020) followed several teams of senior mechanical engineering university students tasked with designing a creative but highly functional product for an existing problem 24 7 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Jablansky'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2020'}, 'ROOT': {'followed'}, 'amod': {'creative', 'existing', 'senior', 'several', 'mechanical'}, 'dobj': {'teams', 'product'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'of'}, 'compound': {'university', 'engineering'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'problem'}, 'acl': {'tasked'}, 'pcomp': {'designing'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'advmod': {'highly'}, 'conj': {'functional'}} Long High Low
2573 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained She videotaped these students’ weekly meetings to document how members of the group contributed and when , including but not limited to how they applied relational reasoning to achieve their goals 31 15 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'She', 'members', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'videotaped'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'meetings', 'reasoning', 'goals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'weekly', 'relational'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'document'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'how'}, 'prep': {'including', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'group'}, 'ccomp': {'contributed'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'punct': {','}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'limited'}, 'pcomp': {'applied'}, 'advcl': {'achieve'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
2574 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Jablansky (2020) found evidence of relational reasoning patterns that differed not only by person but also by the task that they set out to complete each week 27 14 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2} [PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Jablansky', 'that', 'they'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2020'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'dobj': {'evidence', 'that'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of'}, 'amod': {'relational'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'patterns', 'person'}, 'relcl': {'differed', 'set'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'by'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'complete'}, 'npadvmod': {'week'}} Long High Low
2575 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained These reasoning patterns were mapped onto data representing the social and regulatory dynamics within teams that afforded a rich picture of the engineering design process 25 10 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'These'}, 'compound': {'design', 'reasoning', 'engineering'}, 'nsubjpass': {'patterns'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'mapped'}, 'prep': {'onto', 'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'process', 'teams', 'data'}, 'acl': {'representing'}, 'amod': {'social', 'rich'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regulatory'}, 'dobj': {'dynamics', 'picture'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'afforded'}} Long High Low
2576 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Studies of this nature within any collaborative undertaking among tertiary students in applied sciences can be invaluable to those overseeing course content or guiding the learning of these students 29 14 {'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Studies'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'in', 'among', 'of'}, 'det': {'this', 'those', 'any', 'these', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'students', 'sciences', 'nature', 'undertaking'}, 'amod': {'overseeing', 'tertiary', 'applied', 'collaborative'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'invaluable'}, 'compound': {'course'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'advcl': {'guiding'}, 'dobj': {'learning'}} Long High Low
2577 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Formal Sciences The formal sciences may be a less familiar grouping of domains than the natural, social, or applied sciences, but are a particularly fast-growing area, especially because of technological advancements in the ability to create complex models and systems (Treur, 2021) 42 18 {'PROPN': 3, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, DET, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Formal'}, 'ROOT': {'be', 'Sciences'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'complex', 'technological', 'growing', 'formal', 'natural', 'familiar'}, 'nsubj': {'sciences'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'fast', 'especially', 'less', 'particularly'}, 'attr': {'grouping', 'area'}, 'prep': {'in', 'than', 'of', 'because'}, 'pobj': {'domains', 'ability', 'advancements', 'sciences'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'social', 'are', 'applied', 'systems'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'acl': {'create'}, 'dobj': {'models'}, 'appos': {'Treur'}, 'npadvmod': {'2021'}} Long High Medium
2578 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Philosophy, logic, theoretical mathematics, systems theory, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, information theory or informatics, game theory, computational linguistics, and theoretical linguistics are among the academic domains that fit within the formal sciences 33 8 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'Philosophy'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'theory', 'science', 'intelligence', 'mathematics', 'informatics', 'linguistics', 'logic'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'artificial', 'formal', 'computational', 'academic'}, 'compound': {'systems', 'game', 'computer', 'information'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'prep': {'within', 'among'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'domains', 'sciences'}, 'relcl': {'fit'}} Long High Low
2579 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained What distinguishes the formal sciences from the prior domain groups we overviewed are their aims and methods 17 8 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'What', 'we'}, 'csubj': {'distinguishes'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'formal', 'prior'}, 'dobj': {'sciences'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'compound': {'domain'}, 'pobj': {'groups'}, 'relcl': {'overviewed'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'attr': {'aims'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'methods'}} Medium High Low
2580 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In effect, the non-formal sciences involve gathering evidence about nature or about people to better describe what is observed or documented 21 9 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'about', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'nature', 'people', 'effect'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'-', 'non', 'formal'}, 'nsubj': {'sciences'}, 'ROOT': {'involve'}, 'xcomp': {'gathering'}, 'dobj': {'evidence'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'documented', 'about'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advmod': {'better'}, 'advcl': {'describe'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'observed'}} Long High Low
2581 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Such evidence or data can then be subjected to analysis in order to support or reject researchers’ hypotheses 18 9 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'amod': {'Such'}, 'nsubjpass': {'evidence'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'data', 'reject'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'subjected'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'analysis'}, 'acl': {'support'}, 'dobj': {'researchers', 'hypotheses'}, 'case': {'’'}} Medium High Low
2582 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For the applied sciences, the knowledge gained from studies in the natural and social sciences is put to work on real-world problems 22 11 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'in', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'real', 'natural', 'applied'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'problems', 'sciences'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'acl': {'gained'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'social'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'put'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'work'}, 'compound': {'world'}} Long High Low
2583 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In contrast, the aim of the formal sciences is to generate abstract macro- models or theoretical systems meant to explain the phenomena investigated by natural and social scientists or the outcomes observed by applied scientists (Löwe, 2002) 37 14 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'scientists', 'contrast', 'sciences'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'aim'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'applied', 'formal', 'abstract', 'natural'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'explain', 'generate'}, 'compound': {'macro-'}, 'dobj': {'models', 'phenomena'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'systems', 'social', 'outcomes'}, 'advcl': {'meant'}, 'acl': {'observed', 'investigated'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'appos': {'Löwe'}, 'npadvmod': {'2002'}} Long High Low
2584 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Rather than the tools of empiricism or the scientific method, students and professionals in formal sciences employ logic, reasoning, and symbolic systems of mathematics and language to formulate and test explanatory models or systems 34 14 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 14, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'prep': {'than', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'empiricism', 'tools', 'mathematics', 'sciences'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'compound': {'scientific'}, 'conj': {'systems', 'language', 'method', 'professionals', 'reasoning', 'test'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'amod': {'explanatory', 'formal', 'symbolic'}, 'ROOT': {'employ'}, 'dobj': {'models', 'logic'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'formulate'}} Long High Low
2585 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained According to de Laplante (2006), the formal sciences aid the natural and social sciences by providing information about the structures used to describe the physical world, and about what inferences may be made about these structures 36 18 {'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2} [VERB, ADP, X, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'by', 'to', 'According', 'about'}, 'nmod': {'de'}, 'pobj': {'structures', 'Laplante'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2006'}, 'det': {'what', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'natural', 'formal', 'physical'}, 'nsubj': {'sciences'}, 'ROOT': {'aid'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'social', 'about'}, 'dobj': {'world', 'information', 'sciences'}, 'pcomp': {'made', 'providing'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'describe'}, 'nsubjpass': {'inferences'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Low
2586 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For that reason, there is a certain domain-generality to the formal sciences since the models and systems formulated in this arena often are applicable to natural, social, and applied sciences 30 16 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'since', 'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'arena', 'sciences', 'reason'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'natural', 'formal'}, 'compound': {'domain'}, 'attr': {'generality'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'systems', 'social', 'are', 'applied'}, 'acl': {'formulated'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'acomp': {'applicable'}} Long High Medium
2587 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Further, the methods through which the formal sciences support or disprove macro-models and can be quite varied and complex 19 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'advmod': {'quite', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'methods'}, 'prep': {'through'}, 'pobj': {'which'}, 'amod': {'formal'}, 'nsubj': {'sciences'}, 'relcl': {'support'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'disprove', 'be', 'complex'}, 'dobj': {'models', '-', 'macro'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'acomp': {'varied'}} Medium High Low
2588 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Those methods can take the form of formal mathematical proofs, critical analysis of any underlying principles or axioms, or the explanatory power of the proposed models or systems 28 13 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 3} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'Those', 'the', 'any'}, 'nsubj': {'methods'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'analysis', 'form'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'mathematical', 'underlying', 'explanatory', 'critical', 'proposed', 'formal'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'principles', 'proofs'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'systems', 'power', 'axioms'}} Long High Low
2589 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Cramer and Dauphin (2020) also suggested that structured argumentation, which is a mode of scientificargumentation, is an invaluable tool applied by those trying to evaluate the viability or credibility of proposed models and systems 34 16 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'which', 'argumentation', 'Cramer'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'credibility', 'Dauphin', 'systems'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2020'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'suggested'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'structured', 'invaluable', 'proposed'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'attr': {'tool', 'mode'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'scientificargumentation', 'models', 'those'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acl': {'applied', 'trying'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'evaluate'}, 'dobj': {'viability'}} Long High Medium
2590 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained These structured arguments are tantamount to high-level debates focused on premises, procedures, or principles represented in the proposed models or systems 21 8 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'amod': {'structured', 'high', 'proposed'}, 'nsubj': {'arguments'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'tantamount'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'level'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'premises', 'debates'}, 'acl': {'represented', 'focused'}, 'conj': {'systems', 'procedures', 'principles'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Low
2591 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained So, where do relational reasoning and its four manifestations fit within the formal sciences 14 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NUM, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'where', 'So'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'amod': {'formal', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'conj': {'manifestations'}, 'ROOT': {'fit'}, 'prep': {'within'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'sciences'}} Medium High Medium
2592 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Because of the weight placed on abstract and complex models or systems that are represented in mathematical or linguistic symbols, relational reasoning is critical 24 11 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'prep': {'Because', 'on', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'symbols', 'weight'}, 'acl': {'placed'}, 'amod': {'abstract', 'mathematical', 'relational'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'systems', 'linguistic', 'complex'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'represented'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'critical'}} Long High Medium
2593 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For instance, one crucial ability that requires analogical reasoning is envisioning how elements or components that may exist separately in nature or society display similarities that allow for their convergence into more macro-level theoretical models (Tsoukas, 1993) 37 15 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'into', 'for', 'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'nature', 'convergence', 'instance'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', '-', 'macro', 'crucial', 'analogical', 'level', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'ability', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'allow', 'requires', 'exist'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning', 'elements'}, 'aux': {'is', 'may'}, 'ROOT': {'envisioning'}, 'advmod': {'separately', 'how'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'similarities', 'components'}, 'compound': {'display', 'society'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'Tsoukas'}, 'npadvmod': {'1993'}} Long High Medium
2594 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Similarly, conceiving of a theoretical model or system likely requires individuals to recognize how patterns that repeat in nature (e.g., snowflakes or leaves) or in human systems (e.g., circulatory system or brain cortex) at one level of generality may iterate at a higher or lower level 46 18 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 14, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'Similarly', 'likely', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'conceiving', 'patterns', 'that'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'circulatory', 'theoretical', 'higher', 'human'}, 'pobj': {'systems', 'level', 'model', 'nature', 'generality'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'cortex', 'lower', 'system', 'in', 'leaves'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'dobj': {'individuals', 'snowflakes'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'recognize'}, 'relcl': {'repeat'}, 'compound': {'brain'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'ccomp': {'iterate'}} Long High Medium
2595 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Those who are familiar with Mandlebrot’s (1982) theory on fractal geometry in nature will understand the aforementioned reference to iterations 20 10 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Those', 'who', 'theory'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'familiar'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'geometry', 'nature', 'iterations', 'Mandlebrot'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'1982'}, 'amod': {'fractal', 'aforementioned'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'understand'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'reference'}} Long High Low
2596 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained An iteration is a recognizable version of a pattern without being exactly the same—not a perfect replication (Bringsjord et al., 2017) 21 11 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, AUX, ADV, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, PART, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'An', 'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'iteration'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'recognizable', 'perfect'}, 'attr': {'version', 'same'}, 'prep': {'without', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'pattern'}, 'pcomp': {'being'}, 'advmod': {'exactly'}, 'punct': {'(', ')', ',', '—'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'appos': {'Bringsjord', '2017', 'replication'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'conj': {'al', '.'}} Long High Low
2597 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For instance, we can recognize a snowflake by its features, while understanding that no two snowflakes are exactly the same 20 13 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, ADJ] {'prep': {'by', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'features'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'snowflakes'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'recognize'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'snowflake'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'mark': {'while', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'understanding'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'exactly'}, 'npadvmod': {'same'}} Long High High
2598 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained This reminds us that perceiving differences in the formal sciences remains as important as discerning similarities 16 7 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, PRON, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'differences', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'reminds'}, 'dobj': {'similarities', 'us'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'perceiving'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'formal'}, 'pobj': {'sciences'}, 'ccomp': {'remains'}, 'advmod': {'as'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'pcomp': {'discerning'}} Medium High Medium
2599 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Those working in the formal sciences must be able to capture the theorized or modeled patterns in natural or human systems linguistically, mathematically, or in computer codes 27 12 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Those'}, 'acl': {'working'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'natural', 'formal', 'theorized'}, 'pobj': {'systems', 'codes', 'sciences'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'capture'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'human', 'modeled'}, 'dobj': {'patterns'}, 'advmod': {'mathematically', 'linguistically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'computer'}} Long High Low
2600 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained This ability to capture phenomena symbolically again brings analogical reasoning into play since there is an essential association between the symbolic notions and the phenomena they are depicting (Hummel et al., 2014) 32 14 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'an', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'ability', 'they'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'acl': {'capture'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning', 'phenomena'}, 'advmod': {'symbolically', 'again'}, 'ROOT': {'brings'}, 'amod': {'symbolic', 'essential', 'analogical'}, 'prep': {'into', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'notions', 'play'}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'association'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'phenomena'}, 'relcl': {'depicting'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Hummel', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2014'}} Long High Medium
2601 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Of course, articulating a theoretical model or system is not the end point of the formal science 17 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of'}, 'punct': {','}, 'csubj': {'articulating'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'formal'}, 'dobj': {'model'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'system'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'compound': {'end'}, 'attr': {'point'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'science'}} Medium High Low
2602 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Once articulated, these hypothetical or abstracted models or systems must be tested, argued, or scrutinized 15 7 {'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'Once'}, 'advcl': {'articulated'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'these'}, 'amod': {'hypothetical'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'systems', 'scrutinized', 'argued', 'abstracted'}, 'nsubjpass': {'models'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'tested'}} Medium High Low
2603 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained This process of proving or disproving a resulting model or theory will call upon analogical, antinomous, antithetical, and antinomous reasoning 20 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 3} [DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'process'}, 'prep': {'upon', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'proving'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'antithetical', 'theory', 'antinomous', 'disproving', 'reasoning'}, 'amod': {'antinomous', 'resulting'}, 'dobj': {'model'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'call'}, 'oprd': {'analogical'}, 'punct': {','}} Long High Medium
2604 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Analogical reasoning is needed to map the underlying similarities of the individual model components, while anomalous reasoning is essential to demonstrate that some aberrant iteration still fits with the established system 31 13 {'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'amod': {'underlying', 'established', 'individual', 'aberrant', 'anomalous', 'Analogical'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reasoning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'demonstrate', 'map'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'dobj': {'similarities'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'compound': {'model'}, 'pobj': {'components', 'system'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'while', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'reasoning', 'iteration'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'essential'}, 'advmod': {'still'}, 'ccomp': {'fits'}} Long High High
2605 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Antithetical reasoning is used to mark the boundaries of the features that define the model or system, whereas antinomous reasoning is involved when some identified instance fails to fit within the parameters of a proposed system 36 18 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'amod': {'identified', 'Antithetical', 'antinomous', 'proposed'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reasoning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'mark', 'fit'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'some'}, 'dobj': {'boundaries', 'model'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'parameters', 'system', 'features'}, 'nsubj': {'instance', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'define'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'system'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'advcl': {'fails', 'involved'}, 'advmod': {'when'}} Long High High
2606 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained If such a fundamental failure is identified, some variation of the proposed system must be derived, or an alternative must be considered 22 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, DET, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'mark': {'If'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'some'}, 'amod': {'fundamental', 'proposed'}, 'nsubj': {'failure'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'identified'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'variation', 'alternative'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'system'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'derived'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'considered'}} Long High Medium
2607 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained To this point in the article, we have provided a general overview of relational reasoning and an explication of its specific forms 22 12 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'To', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'point', 'article', 'forms'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'provided'}, 'amod': {'relational', 'general'}, 'dobj': {'overview'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'explication'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'compound': {'specific'}} Long High Low
2608 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained We also described how relational reasoning and its particular manifestations—analogical, anomalous, antinomous, and antithetical—undergird learning and performance in a range of academic domains and professional practices 26 11 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'how'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'amod': {'undergird', 'professional', 'analogical', 'anomalous', 'particular', 'academic', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'conj': {'antithetical', 'practices', 'antinomous', 'manifestations', 'performance'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'appos': {'learning'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'range', 'domains'}} Long High Medium
2609 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained To support that argument, we first organized the discussion around four clusters of fields found within institutions of higher education: the natural Frontiers in Education | www.frontiersin.org 7 May 2022 | Volume 7 | Article 883370 36 12 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'X': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, X, NUM, AUX, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'support'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'argument', 'discussion'}, 'punct': {',', 'www.frontiersin.org', ':', '7'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'advmod': {'|', 'first'}, 'ROOT': {'organized', 'Volume'}, 'prep': {'around', 'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'four', '883370', '2022', '7'}, 'pobj': {'fields', 'education', 'institutions', 'clusters', 'Education'}, 'acl': {'found'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'natural'}, 'appos': {'Frontiers', 'Article'}, 'nmod': {'May'}, 'compound': {'|'}} Long High Low
2610 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education FIGURE 1 | Sample items from the analogy (A), anomaly (B), antithesis (C), and antinomy (D)scales of the test of relational reasoning 27 8 {'PROPN': 11, 'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Education', 'Relational', 'Sample', 'Tertiary'}, 'nmod': {'Reasoning'}, 'prep': {'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'FIGURE', 'analogy', 'reasoning', 'test'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'advmod': {'|'}, 'nsubj': {'items'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'B', 'D)scales', 'anomaly', 'A', 'C'}, 'ROOT': {'antithesis'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'antinomy'}, 'amod': {'relational'}} Long High Low
2611 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Then, we offered a brief explanation of what distinguishes each of these clusters and described the role that relational reasoning plays in each 23 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'advmod': {'Then'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'we', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'offered'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'brief', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'explanation', 'each'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'distinguishes'}, 'pobj': {'clusters', 'each'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'described'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'relcl': {'plays'}} Long High Low
2612 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In the remaining section, we want to move more abstracted discourse on relational reasoning into a real-world context—a university course in which relational reasoning it assessed and trained 28 14 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'into', 'In', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'real', 'remaining', 'relational', 'abstracted'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'section', 'reasoning', 'context'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'move'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'dobj': {'discourse'}, 'compound': {'world', 'university'}, 'npadvmod': {'course'}, 'relcl': {'assessed', 'reasoning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'trained'}} Long High Low
2613 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained EMBEDDING RELATIONAL REASONING IN HIGHER EDUCATION: AN ILLUSTRATIVE CASE Learning How to Learn (LHL) is a general education course designed and taught by the first author and where we have embedded relational reasoning 33 13 {'VERB': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'EMBEDDING', 'HIGHER', 'first', 'relational', 'general'}, 'compound': {'education', 'RELATIONAL', 'ILLUSTRATIVE'}, 'ROOT': {'REASONING', 'is'}, 'prep': {'IN'}, 'pobj': {'EDUCATION', 'author'}, 'punct': {'(', ':', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'AN'}, 'nsubj': {'CASE', 'we'}, 'csubj': {'Learning'}, 'advmod': {'How', 'where'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'Learn'}, 'dobj': {'LHL', 'reasoning'}, 'attr': {'course'}, 'acl': {'designed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'taught'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'relcl': {'embedded'}} Long High High
2614 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained This course was expressly developed to (a) improve tertiary students’ understanding of the complexity and processes of learning and (b) prepare them for the diverse professions they will enter upon graduation 31 15 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'X': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'course'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'expressly'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'prep': {'for', 'upon', 'to', 'of'}, 'punct': {'(', ')', '’'}, 'pobj': {'professions', 'complexity', 'graduation', 'learning', 'a'}, 'advcl': {'improve'}, 'amod': {'tertiary', 'diverse'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'dobj': {'them', 'understanding'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'prepare', 'processes', 'b'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'relcl': {'enter'}} Long High Medium
2615 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In Table 1 , we overview the three phases of our instructional procedure 13 6 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'procedure', 'Table'}, 'nummod': {'three', '1'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'overview'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'phases'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'instructional'}} Medium High Low
2616 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Specifically, we describe how students’ relational reasoning abilities are initially assessed (Phase 1); how they are then taughtabout relational reasoning and its underlying processes (Phase 2); and how this new conceptual and procedural understanding becomes an anchoring point for subsequent instruction in crucial learning topics such as transfer, critical reading, and quality discussion (Phase 3) 55 20 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 17, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'then', 'Specifically', 'initially', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'they', 'understanding'}, 'ROOT': {'describe'}, 'poss': {'students', 'its'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'underlying', 'anchoring', 'subsequent', 'critical', 'conceptual', 'new', 'learning', 'such', 'crucial', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'quality', 'reasoning', 'taughtabout'}, 'nsubjpass': {'abilities'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'assessed', 'are'}, 'npadvmod': {'Phase'}, 'nummod': {'1', '2', '3'}, 'attr': {'reasoning', 'point'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reading', 'processes', 'procedural', 'discussion', 'becomes'}, 'appos': {'Phase'}, 'det': {'an', 'this'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'topics', 'transfer', 'instruction'}} Long High High
2617 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Phase 1: Assessment The ability to forge meaningful relations within any information stream (i.e., relational reasoning) occurs in any medium in which information can be conveyed—words, pictures, sounds, figures, or numbers (Dumas et al., 2013) 35 11 {'NOUN': 14, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 12, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'Phase', 'occurs'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'punct': {':', ')', '—', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'2013', 'reasoning', 'Assessment'}, 'det': {'any', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'ability'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'acl': {'forge'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'relations'}, 'prep': {'within', 'in'}, 'compound': {'information'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'medium', 'stream'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'nsubjpass': {'information'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'conveyed'}, 'oprd': {'words'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'sounds', 'numbers', 'figures', 'pictures'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'npadvmod': {'Dumas', 'et'}} Long High Low
2618 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained When individuals notice that a musical sequence in a composition reappears in a different key or at a different tempo; when certain themes in a painting can be identified in an alternative art form; or when researchers recognize outliers in their dataset, relational reasoning is demonstrated (Hofstadter, 1979; Loughlin et al., 2015) 52 22 {'SCONJ': 4, 'NOUN': 15, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'When', 'when'}, 'nsubj': {'themes', 'individuals', 'researchers', 'sequence'}, 'advcl': {'be', 'notice'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'amod': {'musical', 'alternative', 'certain'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'painting', 'form', 'tempo', 'reasoning', 'composition', 'key'}, 'ccomp': {'reappears'}, 'compound': {'different', 'art', 'relational'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'at', 'al', 'recognize'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'acomp': {'identified'}, 'dobj': {'outliers'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nmod': {'dataset'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'Loughlin', 'demonstrated'}, 'npadvmod': {'Hofstadter', 'et'}, 'appos': {'1979', '2015', '.'}} Long High High
2619 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Over the past decade, Alexander and colleagues have created valid and reliable measures of relational reasoning that not only consist of figural representations but are also composed of sentences ( Verbal Test of Relational Reasoning or vTORR; Alexander et al., 2016c) and single words ( Relational Reasoning with Words or R2W2; Zhao and Alexander, 2022) 55 20 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 15, 'CCONJ': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'Over', 'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'past', 'valid', 'figural', 'single', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'Words', 'Reasoning', 'decade', 'sentences', 'reasoning', 'representations'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'conj': {'R2W2', 'composed', 'Zhao', 'reliable', 'colleagues', 'Alexander', 'words', 'vTORR'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'created'}, 'dobj': {'measures', '.'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'relcl': {'consist'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'et', 'Alexander', 'Verbal'}, 'appos': {'Test', '2016c', '2022', 'Reasoning'}, 'npadvmod': {'al'}} Long High Medium
2620 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Frontiers in Education | www.frontiersin.org 8 May 2022 | Volume 7 | Article 883370 14 2 {'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 4, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, X, NUM, AUX, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Volume', 'Frontiers'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'Education'}, 'npadvmod': {'|'}, 'punct': {'8', 'www.frontiersin.org'}, 'nmod': {'May'}, 'nummod': {'883370', '2022', '7'}, 'compound': {'|'}, 'appos': {'Article'}} Medium Low Low
2621 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education TABLE 1 | Embedding relational reasoning within a higher-education course 15 3 {'PROPN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'Education', 'Relational', 'education', 'Tertiary'}, 'nsubj': {'Reasoning'}, 'prep': {'within', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'TABLE'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'punct': {'-', '|'}, 'amod': {'Embedding', 'higher', 'relational'}, 'ROOT': {'reasoning'}, 'det': {'a'}} Medium High Low
2622 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Cattell (1940, 1963) is credited with drawing the distinction between fluid and crystallized mental assessments (Carpenter et al., 1990; Schipolowski et al., 2014) 23 5 {'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 8} [NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Cattell'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Carpenter', '1990', '2014', '.', '1963', '1940', 'et'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'Schipolowski', 'credited'}, 'prep': {'with', 'between'}, 'pcomp': {'drawing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'distinction'}, 'amod': {'fluid', 'mental'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'crystallized', 'al', '.'}, 'pobj': {'assessments'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}} Long High Low
2623 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained What characterizes a fluid ability measure like the TORR or the Raven’s (1941) is the presumption that respondents have access to all that is needed to complete the problem or task within the problem itself 35 20 {'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON] {'nsubj': {'What', 'respondents'}, 'csubj': {'characterizes'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'fluid'}, 'compound': {'ability'}, 'dobj': {'measure', 'access', 'problem'}, 'prep': {'like', 'within', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'all', 'problem', 'TORR'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'task', 'Raven'}, 'punct': {'(', 'itself', '’s', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'1941'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'presumption'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'have', 'needed'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'complete'}} Long High Low
2624 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In effect, there is no specific body of conceptual knowledge or procedural skills that the students in LHL would need to have acquired in order to perform well on the TORR over and above their ability to reason relationally 39 22 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 3, 'ADV': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV] {'prep': {'on', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'TORR', 'LHL', 'ability', 'knowledge', 'effect'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'compound': {'specific'}, 'attr': {'body'}, 'amod': {'procedural', 'conceptual'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'skills', 'above'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'would', 'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'need'}, 'xcomp': {'acquired'}, 'acl': {'perform', 'reason'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'relationally', 'over'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
2625 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained On more crystallized measures, like vTORR and R2W2, students would have to be familiar with words and their subtle meanings to demonstrate their reasoning abilities 25 12 {'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 2} [ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'like', 'with', 'On'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'amod': {'crystallized', 'subtle'}, 'pobj': {'words', 'measures', 'vTORR'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'R2W2', 'meanings'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'familiar'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'demonstrate'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'dobj': {'abilities'}} Long High Low
2626 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Those differences between fluid and crystallized measures can be seen by comparing the sample TORR items in Figure 1 to sample items from the vTORR and R2W2displayed in Figure 2 31 13 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NUM] {'det': {'Those', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'differences'}, 'prep': {'by', 'from', 'in', 'between'}, 'amod': {'fluid'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'crystallized', 'R2W2displayed'}, 'pobj': {'Figure', 'measures', 'vTORR'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'seen'}, 'pcomp': {'comparing'}, 'compound': {'sample', 'TORR'}, 'dobj': {'items'}, 'nummod': {'1', '2'}, 'advcl': {'sample'}} Long High Low
2627 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Another reason to assess relational reasoning with a generic measure like the TORR is because students enrolled in LHL are pursuing majors in the natural, social, applied, and formal sciences (Alexander, 2019) 32 12 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'Another', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'reason'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'assess'}, 'amod': {'generic', 'natural', 'formal', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning', 'majors'}, 'prep': {'like', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'measure', 'LHL', 'sciences', 'TORR'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'enrolled'}, 'ccomp': {'pursuing'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'social', 'applied'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}} Long High Medium
2628 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Such domain diversity means that these students’ knowledge and skills are expected to vary 14 6 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB] {'amod': {'Such'}, 'compound': {'domain'}, 'nsubj': {'diversity'}, 'ROOT': {'means'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skills'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'expected'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'vary'}} Medium High Medium
2629 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The use of a generic measure, therefore, creates a more level playing field when making judgments about these students’ relational reasoning capabilities 22 9 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'use'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'amod': {'generic', 'level', 'more'}, 'pobj': {'capabilities', 'measure'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'therefore', 'when'}, 'ROOT': {'creates'}, 'compound': {'playing', 'reasoning', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'field', 'judgments'}, 'advcl': {'making'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Medium
2630 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Further, the TORR remains a strong predictor of achievement in varied academic fields and professional practices (Dumas and Schmidt, 2015; Dumas et al., 2016; Fountain, 2016; Baggetta, 2019) 28 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 9, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'TORR'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'professional', 'varied', 'strong'}, 'attr': {'predictor'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'achievement', 'fields'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Baggetta', 'al', 'practices', 'Dumas', 'Schmidt'}, 'appos': {'2019', '.', '2015', 'et', 'Fountain', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'Dumas'}} Long High Low
2631 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained After completing the 32 items on the TORR, the students enrolled in LHL receive their results reported as a standardizedrelational reasoning quotient (RRQ) with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 (Dumas and Alexander, 2016) 38 16 {'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 6, 'NUM': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, VERB, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'with', 'After', 'of', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'completing'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nummod': {'32'}, 'dobj': {'items', 'results'}, 'pobj': {'deviation', 'TORR', 'LHL', 'mean', '100', '15', 'quotient'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'enrolled'}, 'dep': {'receive'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'acl': {'reported'}, 'amod': {'standard', 'standardizedrelational'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'appos': {'RRQ'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'Dumas'}, 'npadvmod': {'2016'}} Long High Low
2632 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The students also receive performance data for each of the four 8-item scales that represent the four reasoning forms 19 10 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'NUM': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'receive'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'reasoning', 'item'}, 'dobj': {'forms', 'data'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'scales', 'each'}, 'nummod': {'8', 'four'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'relcl': {'represent'}} Medium High Low
2633 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Students receive no additional feedback on the specific items nor are they given any explanation of how items in the scales should have been analyzed 25 14 {'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'ROOT': {'receive'}, 'det': {'any', 'no', 'the'}, 'amod': {'additional'}, 'dobj': {'explanation', 'feedback'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'specific'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'scales'}, 'cc': {'nor'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'been'}, 'nsubjpass': {'items', 'they'}, 'conj': {'given'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'aux': {'should', 'have'}, 'pcomp': {'analyzed'}} Long High Medium
2634 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Phase 2: Explicit Instruction in Relational Reasoning Once students have taken the TORR and have their profile recorded, we share with them a definition of relational reasoning and explain briefly what each form captures in terms of its underlying pattern: analogy (similarity), anomaly (aberrance), antinomy (exclusivity/binary), and antinomy (opposition/continuous) 49 19 {'NOUN': 15, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 14, 'PROPN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'INTJ': 1, 'SYM': 2} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, INTJ, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SYM, ADJ, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'Phase', 'share'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'punct': {':', ')', '(', ',', '/'}, 'compound': {'Explicit', 'Relational'}, 'appos': {'binary', 'aberrance', 'Instruction', 'analogy', 'similarity'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Reasoning', 'them', 'terms', 'reasoning', 'pattern'}, 'mark': {'Once'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'form', 'profile', 'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advcl': {'taken'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'dobj': {'briefly', 'definition', 'what', 'TORR'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'antinomy', 'have', 'anomaly', 'explain'}, 'poss': {'its', 'their'}, 'ccomp': {'recorded', 'captures'}, 'amod': {'underlying', 'relational'}, 'nmod': {'opposition', 'exclusivity'}, 'parataxis': {'continuous'}} Long High Medium
2635 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The gist of this relational reasoning overview was presented in the first section of this article 16 8 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'gist'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'first', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'pobj': {'article', 'section', 'overview'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'presented'}} Medium High Low
2636 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In sharing this general information about relational reasoning with the students, we never refer to any of the problems on the TORR or deal with figural problems similar to those items 31 17 {'ADP': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'about', 'In'}, 'pcomp': {'sharing'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'figural', 'similar', 'relational', 'general'}, 'dobj': {'information'}, 'pobj': {'TORR', 'students', 'items', 'any', 'reasoning', 'problems'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'neg': {'never'}, 'ROOT': {'refer'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'deal'}} Long High Low
2637 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Not only would that be unacceptable, since the TORR items except for the sample problems, are proprietary information, but also because we want students to see how relational reasoning permeates all academic domains 33 19 {'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3} [PART, ADV, AUX, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, NOUN, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'preconj': {'Not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'how'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'reasoning', 'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'unacceptable'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'since', 'because'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'compound': {'sample', 'TORR'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'problems'}, 'prep': {'for', 'except'}, 'advcl': {'are', 'want'}, 'amod': {'proprietary', 'academic', 'relational'}, 'attr': {'information'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'ccomp': {'see', 'permeates'}, 'dobj': {'domains'}} Long High High
2638 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained One or two examples of each form are provided representing different domains 12 6 {'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2} [NUM, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'two'}, 'nsubjpass': {'examples'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'each'}, 'pobj': {'form'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'provided'}, 'amod': {'representing'}, 'compound': {'different'}, 'dobj': {'domains'}} Medium High Low
2639 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For instance, to exemplify analogies we might display a ratio problem such as “3:9 is equivalent to 4:?” or a classic verbal comparison like “ocean: bay: continent: _ X_.” In this initial phase of instruction, we also establish the predictive power of relational reasoning as demonstrated in the research and describe the role that this higher-order cognitive ability plays in the students’ academic domains 64 27 {'ADP': 9, 'NOUN': 18, 'PUNCT': 15, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 8, 'ADJ': 10, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, NUM, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'X', 'like', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'For', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'phase', 'students', '4', 'reasoning', 'ocean', 'continent', 'research', 'instruction'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ':', '.', '”', ',', '?', '“'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'exemplify', 'demonstrated'}, 'dobj': {'problem', 'role', 'domains', 'power', 'analogies', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'ability', '3:9', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'establish', 'display'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'ratio'}, 'amod': {'initial', 'classic', 'such', 'relational', 'higher', 'cognitive', 'academic', 'predictive', 'verbal'}, 'pcomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'equivalent'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'comparison', 'describe'}, 'appos': {'bay', '_'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nmod': {'order'}, 'relcl': {'plays'}} Long High Medium
2640 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Frontiers in Education | www.frontiersin.org 9 May 2022 | Volume 7 | Article 883370 14 2 {'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 4, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, X, NUM, AUX, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Volume', 'Frontiers'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'Education'}, 'npadvmod': {'|'}, 'punct': {'9', 'www.frontiersin.org'}, 'nmod': {'May'}, 'nummod': {'883370', '2022', '7'}, 'compound': {'|'}, 'appos': {'Article'}} Medium Low Low
2641 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education The second phase of explicit instruction involves introducing and then practicing the four essential componential processes critical to any form of relational reasoning (Sternberg, 1977): encoding, inferring, mapping, and applying 35 11 {'PROPN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 6} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, NUM, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'compound': {'Relational', 'Tertiary'}, 'ROOT': {'Reasoning', 'involves'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Education', 'reasoning', 'form', 'instruction'}, 'det': {'any', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'essential', 'critical', 'second', 'componential', 'relational', 'explicit'}, 'nsubj': {'phase'}, 'xcomp': {'introducing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'conj': {'mapping', 'inferring', 'applying', 'practicing'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'dobj': {'processes'}, 'punct': {'(', '):', ','}, 'appos': {'1977', 'Sternberg'}, 'acl': {'encoding'}} Long High Low
2642 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Alexander and colleagues have conducted explicit training in analogical reasoning with very young children through young adults using the componential processes as the framework (White and Alexander, 1986; Alexander et al., 1987a,b; Pate et al., 1989) 36 11 {'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 10, 'NUM': 3, 'X': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'al', 'Alexander', 'colleagues'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'al', 'conducted'}, 'amod': {'componential', 'explicit', 'young', 'analogical'}, 'dobj': {'training', 'processes'}, 'prep': {'through', 'with', 'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'framework', 'reasoning', 'adults', 'children'}, 'advmod': {'very'}, 'acl': {'using'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {'.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'.', 'White', '1989', '1987a', 'b'}, 'npadvmod': {'1986'}, 'compound': {'Pate', 'Alexander', 'et'}} Long High Low
2643 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Simply defined, encoding entails examining elements of a problem or problem space to ensure understanding of any givens, whereas inferring requires finding connections between individual elements based on whatever meaning was derived from encoding 34 12 {'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'Simply'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'ensure', 'requires', 'encoding'}, 'dobj': {'entails', 'connections', 'elements', 'understanding'}, 'acl': {'examining', 'based'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'of', 'between'}, 'det': {'a', 'whatever', 'any'}, 'pobj': {'elements', 'problem', 'givens'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'finding', 'problem'}, 'conj': {'space'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'nsubj': {'inferring'}, 'amod': {'individual'}, 'nsubjpass': {'meaning'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'pcomp': {'derived', 'encoding'}} Long High Medium
2644 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained These two processes thus result in a meaningful association essential for any pattern, even a simple linear sequence 18 9 {'DET': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NUM, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'These', 'any'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubj': {'processes'}, 'advmod': {'thus', 'even'}, 'ROOT': {'result'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'simple', 'linear'}, 'compound': {'association'}, 'pobj': {'essential', 'pattern'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'sequence'}} Medium High Low
2645 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained However, unlike simple linear patterns, relational reasoning forms involve “relations among relations.” Mapping is the componential process that is required to link the initial pattern just inferred to another set of associated elements that represent a related pattern 38 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'just', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', '.', '”', '“'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'unlike', 'among'}, 'amod': {'simple', 'associated', 'related', 'linear', 'initial', 'componential', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'set', 'relations', 'patterns', 'elements'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'nsubj': {'forms', 'that', 'Mapping'}, 'ROOT': {'involve', 'is'}, 'dobj': {'relations', 'pattern'}, 'det': {'another', 'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'process'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'required', 'represent'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'link'}, 'acl': {'inferred'}} Long High Low
2646 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The final componential process, applying , involves completing the problem and recognizing the underlying structure, which could then be iterated 20 8 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'underlying', 'final', 'componential'}, 'nsubj': {'process'}, 'punct': {','}, 'acl': {'applying'}, 'ROOT': {'involves'}, 'xcomp': {'completing'}, 'dobj': {'structure', 'problem'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'recognizing'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'iterated'}} Long High Low
2647 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained To illustrate these componential processes, we let students see how they function in a simple analogy problem like “ocean: bay: continent: _ X_.” Students begin by encoding the term ocean and identifying its salient attributes (largest body of water) and then encoding the term bay (inlet of water connected to a larger body of water like an ocean and surrounded by land on three sides) 65 25 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 10, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 23, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PRON': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 10, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'illustrate'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'simple', 'larger', 'largest', 'componential'}, 'dobj': {'ocean', 'processes', 'bay', 'attributes'}, 'punct': {'.', ':', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'Students', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'begin', 'let'}, 'ccomp': {'see', 'function'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'how'}, 'prep': {'on', 'X', 'like', 'to', 'in', 'by', 'of'}, 'compound': {'analogy', 'salient', 'term'}, 'pobj': {'problem', 'body', 'sides', 'water', 'land', 'ocean'}, 'appos': {'inlet', 'bay', 'body', '_', 'continent'}, 'pcomp': {'encoding'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'identifying', 'surrounded', 'encoding'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'acl': {'connected'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'three'}} Long High Medium
2648 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Next students must infer a relation between ocean and bay (both are bodies of water, but bays are smaller and open to oceans on one side and surrounded by land on the remaining sides), To complete the mapping, students must form a meaningful association between ocean and continent (both are the largest geographical bodies of water and land, respectively) 59 30 {'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 18, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'ADP': 8, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT] {'amod': {'meaningful', 'remaining', 'geographical', 'Next', 'largest'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'both', 'bays'}, 'aux': {'To', 'must'}, 'ccomp': {'infer'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'mapping', 'association', 'relation'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'by', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'side', 'oceans', 'sides', 'water', 'land', 'ocean'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'bay', 'form', 'are', 'surrounded', 'land', 'open', 'continent'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'parataxis': {'are'}, 'attr': {'bodies'}, 'acomp': {'smaller'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'advcl': {'complete'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'respectively'}} Long High Low
2649 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Finally, applying means that students must identify the critical attributes of the missing element that would parallel the relation of ocean to bay 23 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'applying'}, 'dobj': {'means', 'attributes', 'relation'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'must'}, 'ccomp': {'identify'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'missing', 'critical'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'ocean', 'bay', 'element'}, 'relcl': {'parallel'}} Long High Medium
2650 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Specifically, they need to recognize that they are looking for a small body of land, connected to a continent on one side and water on the remaining three sides (answer: peninsula) 31 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'need'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'recognize'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'looking'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'remaining', 'small'}, 'pobj': {'side', 'body', 'sides', 'land', 'continent'}, 'advcl': {'connected'}, 'nummod': {'one', 'three'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'water'}, 'appos': {'peninsula', 'answer'}} Long High Medium
2651 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained While the componential processes of encoding, inferring, mapping, and applying were conceptualized with only analogical reasoning in mind (Sternberg, 1977), Grossnickle et al 23 8 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'analogical', 'componential'}, 'nsubjpass': {'processes'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'reasoning', 'encoding'}, 'punct': {',', '(', 'al', ')'}, 'conj': {'mapping', 'applying', 'inferring'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'conceptualized'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'appos': {'Sternberg'}, 'npadvmod': {'1977', 'et'}, 'compound': {'Grossnickle'}} Long High Medium
2652 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained (2016) found that those same processes were core to anomalous, antinomous, and antithetical reasoning, as well 16 8 {'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'processes', '2016'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'amod': {'same', 'anomalous'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'core'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'conj': {'antithetical', 'antinomous'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}} Medium High Medium
2653 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Moreover, these researchers found that lower performing students exhibited difficulties inferring and mapping on problems representing all relational reasoning forms 20 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'all', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'researchers', 'difficulties'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'performing', 'lower', 'relational'}, 'ccomp': {'exhibited', 'inferring'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'mapping'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'problems'}, 'acl': {'representing'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'dobj': {'forms'}} Long High Medium
2654 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Thus, once students had practiced using the componential processes on verbal analogy problems, they were introduced to verbal problems tapping anomalous, antinomous, and antithetical reasoning 25 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'once'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'advcl': {'practiced'}, 'xcomp': {'using'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'anomalous', 'verbal', 'componential'}, 'dobj': {'reasoning', 'processes'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to'}, 'compound': {'analogy'}, 'pobj': {'problems'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'introduced'}, 'acl': {'tapping'}, 'conj': {'antithetical', 'antinomous'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Medium
2655 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained As with the analogy problems, they were directed to encode, infer, map, and apply while solving these problems and received feedback on their performance 24 12 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'with', 'As', 'to'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'compound': {'analogy'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'problems', 'map'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'directed'}, 'amod': {'encode'}, 'nmod': {'infer'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'received', 'apply'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'solving'}, 'dobj': {'problems', 'feedback'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2656 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained When this training and practice phase concluded, our goal was to demonstrate the importance of relational reasoning to other key facets of academic learning and performance beginning with transfer 29 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nmod': {'training'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'practice'}, 'nsubj': {'goal', 'phase'}, 'advcl': {'concluded'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'demonstrate'}, 'dobj': {'importance'}, 'prep': {'with', 'beginning', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'other', 'academic', 'key', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'facets', 'reasoning', 'learning', 'transfer'}} Long High Medium
2657 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained FIGURE 2 | Sample items from the verbal test of relational reasoning analogy scale (A)and the relational reasoning with words antinomy scale (B) 23 5 {'NOUN': 12, 'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3} [NOUN, NUM, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'FIGURE'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'compound': {'antinomy', 'reasoning', '|', 'words', 'relational', 'Sample', 'analogy'}, 'appos': {'items', 'reasoning', 'B'}, 'prep': {'with', 'A)and', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'relational', 'verbal'}, 'pobj': {'scale', 'test'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}} Long High Low
2658 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Phase 3: Expansion and Transfer Transfer , “the process of using knowledge or skills acquired in one context in a new or varied context” (Alexander and Murphy, 1999,p 28 11 {'NOUN': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Phase'}, 'nummod': {'one', '3'}, 'punct': {':', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'process', 'Alexander', 'Expansion'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'Transfer'}, 'conj': {'Transfer', 'skills', 'Murphy', 'varied'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'using'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'acl': {'acquired'}, 'pobj': {'context'}, 'amod': {'new'}, 'npadvmod': {'1999,p'}} Long High Low
2659 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained 561), has the well-earned reputation of being one of the most challenging cognitive abilities for students to master (Gick and Holyoak, 1980; Detterman and Sternberg, 1993) 26 13 {'NUM': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, AUX, NUM, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'meta': {'561'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'ROOT': {'has'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'most'}, 'amod': {'earned', 'challenging', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'reputation'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pcomp': {'being'}, 'attr': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'abilities'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'master'}, 'appos': {'1993', 'Detterman', 'Gick'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Holyoak', 'Sternberg'}, 'npadvmod': {'1980'}} Long High Medium
2660 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Indeed, the literature is replete with evidence that students are typically poor at transferring knowledge and skills from one formal learning environment to another or to situations in the world outside the classroom (Perkins and Salomon, 2012) 37 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'typically'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'literature'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'poor', 'replete'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'at', 'outside'}, 'pobj': {'another', 'situations', 'classroom', 'world', 'evidence', 'environment'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'pcomp': {'transferring'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'skills', 'Salomon', 'to'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'amod': {'formal'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'appos': {'2012', 'Perkins'}} Long High Medium
2661 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained This indictment notwithstanding, transfer remains a foundational ability for all students, especially tertiary students, to develop and hone if they are to be successful both in their university studies and their chosen professions 33 16 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, ADJ, PRON, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'all', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'indictment', 'they', 'transfer'}, 'advmod': {'especially', 'notwithstanding'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'amod': {'chosen', 'foundational', 'tertiary'}, 'attr': {'ability'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'studies'}, 'appos': {'students'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'develop', 'are'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'hone', 'professions'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'successful'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'university'}} Long High Medium
2662 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Many factors or conditions have been proposed as barriers of transfer such as the contention that the initial learning was not substantive enough to foster transfer (Dinsmore et al., 2013) 30 15 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, ADV, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'initial', 'such', 'Many'}, 'nsubjpass': {'factors'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'conditions', 'al', '.'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'proposed'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'contention', 'transfer', 'barriers'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'learning'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'substantive'}, 'advmod': {'enough'}, 'xcomp': {'foster'}, 'dobj': {'transfer'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2013', 'Dinsmore'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Medium
2663 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained It could also be that the new context appears quite dissimilar to the context in which the knowledge and skills were acquired 22 14 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'It', 'context'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'new'}, 'ccomp': {'appears'}, 'oprd': {'dissimilar'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'context'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skills'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'acquired'}} Long High Medium
2664 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Learners’ individual characteristics can also foster or frustrate transfer including their perceptiveness, motivations, or metacognitive and strategic abilities (Corkill and Fager, 1995; Billing, 2007; Dinsmore et al., 2013) 28 7 {'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 3} [NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'poss': {'Learners', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'frustrate', 'metacognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'characteristics'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'foster'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'al', 'Fager', '.', 'transfer', 'abilities', 'motivations', 'strategic', 'Billing'}, 'prep': {'including'}, 'pobj': {'perceptiveness'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'Corkill', '2013', '2007', 'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'Dinsmore', '1995'}} Long High Low
2665 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Because of the importance of transfer for learning in higher education and for future career success, this area is stressed in Frontiers in Education | www.frontiersin.org 10 May 2022 | Volume 7 | Article 883370 35 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 4} [SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, X, NUM, AUX, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'prep': {'Because', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'transfer', 'education', 'Education', 'importance', 'Frontiers', 'success'}, 'amod': {'future', 'higher'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'career', '|'}, 'punct': {',', 'www.frontiersin.org'}, 'nsubjpass': {'area'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'stressed', 'Volume'}, 'npadvmod': {'|'}, 'nummod': {'7', '883370', '2022', '10'}, 'nmod': {'May'}, 'appos': {'Article'}} Long High Medium
2666 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained We concur with Billing (2007) that transfer is more likely to occur when principles of reasoning are taught in conjunction with academic content 23 11 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We', 'transfer'}, 'ROOT': {'concur'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'reasoning', 'Billing', 'conjunction'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2007'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'occur'}, 'nsubjpass': {'principles'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'taught'}, 'amod': {'academic'}} Long High Medium
2667 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Thus, when we introduce this topic to students, we stress that learning to transfer will “bootstrap” the knowledge and skills they are working hard to acquire 26 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, AUX, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, PART, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'when', 'hard'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'introduce', 'acquire'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'topic'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'stress'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'learning'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to', 'will'}, 'xcomp': {'transfer'}, 'ccomp': {'bootstrap'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skills'}, 'relcl': {'working'}} Long High High
2668 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained A first step in forming this habit of mind is for them to become perceptive and alert to transfer opportunities—a process that can be aided by their use of relational reasoning 31 18 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'a', 'this'}, 'amod': {'first', 'relational'}, 'nsubj': {'them', 'step'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'forming'}, 'dobj': {'opportunities', 'habit'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'use', 'reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'transfer', 'become'}, 'acomp': {'perceptive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'alert'}, 'punct': {'—'}, 'appos': {'process'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'aided'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2669 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained We share evidence with them that shows that analogical reasoning ability can be a key to transfer (Reeves and Weisberg, 1994; Richland and McDonough, 2010) 25 11 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'ability', 'that', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'share'}, 'dobj': {'Reeves', 'evidence'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'them'}, 'relcl': {'shows', 'transfer'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'analogical'}, 'compound': {'reasoning'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'key'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'McDonough', 'Weisberg'}, 'npadvmod': {'1994'}, 'appos': {'Richland', '2010'}} Long High Medium
2670 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained As Alexander and Murphy (1999) argued, transfer and analogical reasoning are related processes 13 4 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reasoning', 'Murphy'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1999'}, 'advcl': {'argued'}, 'dep': {'transfer'}, 'amod': {'related', 'analogical'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'processes'}} Medium High Medium
2671 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Unless students can perceive similarities between a specific task they learned with another task encountered in a different context, they will not be primed to engage in transfer 28 15 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'Unless'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to', 'will'}, 'advcl': {'perceive'}, 'dobj': {'similarities'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in', 'between'}, 'det': {'a', 'another'}, 'compound': {'specific', 'different'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'context', 'transfer'}, 'relcl': {'learned'}, 'acl': {'encountered'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'primed'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}} Long High Medium
2672 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Further, the more these students can look beyond the surface features of those tasks and contexts and find underlying similarities, the better they can make use of what they already know and can do, which is where their relational reasoning, and especially analogical reasoning can be most helpful (Richland and McDonough, 2010) 52 31 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 7, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Further', 'where', 'especially', 'better', 'most', 'already', 'the', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'which', 'reasoning', 'they'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'advcl': {'look'}, 'prep': {'of', 'beyond'}, 'compound': {'surface', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'tasks', 'features'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'similarities', 'reasoning', 'McDonough', 'do', 'contexts'}, 'amod': {'underlying', 'helpful', 'find', 'analogical'}, 'ROOT': {'make'}, 'dobj': {'use', 'what'}, 'pcomp': {'know'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'Richland'}, 'npadvmod': {'2010'}} Long High Medium
2673 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained We also alert students to be aware of the dissimilarities between the initial tasks and contexts and these transfer opportunities, so they can iterate or modify their problem-solving processes appropriately 30 16 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADV] {'nsubj': {'We', 'they'}, 'advmod': {'appropriately', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'alert'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'processes'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'dissimilarities', 'tasks'}, 'amod': {'solving', 'initial'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'modify', 'opportunities', 'iterate', 'contexts'}, 'compound': {'transfer'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'so'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'npadvmod': {'problem'}} Long High Medium
2674 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained When this instruction on transfer coupled with relational reasoning has been completed, students in LHL are given the task of documenting as many instances of transfer as they can within a 24-h period 33 18 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students', 'instruction'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'transfer', 'LHL', 'documenting', 'instances', 'period', 'reasoning'}, 'acl': {'coupled'}, 'amod': {'many', 'relational'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'been'}, 'advcl': {'can', 'completed'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'given'}, 'dobj': {'task'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'nummod': {'24'}, 'compound': {'h'}} Long High High
2675 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The cases of transfer the students record are then discussed in class for added reinforcement 15 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'cases'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reinforcement', 'class', 'record', 'transfer'}, 'compound': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'ROOT': {'discussed'}, 'amod': {'added'}} Medium High Low
2676 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Critical Reading is another basic skill for students in tertiary education, as they are required to read about what they are studying 22 12 {'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, PROPN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'amod': {'Critical', 'tertiary', 'basic'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'Reading'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'another'}, 'attr': {'skill'}, 'prep': {'about', 'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'education'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'required'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'studying'}} Long High Medium
2677 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For students majoring in certain fields, such as history, philosophy, psychology, and sociology, the reading required can be quite extensive 20 9 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'prep': {'as', 'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'history', 'fields'}, 'acl': {'required', 'majoring'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'such'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'psychology', 'sociology', 'philosophy'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'reading'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'quite'}, 'acomp': {'extensive'}} Long High Low
2678 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In LHL, for instance, students are reading, summarizing, and comparing articles and chapters routinely 14 5 {'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV] {'prep': {'for', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'LHL', 'instance'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'reading'}, 'conj': {'summarizing', 'chapters', 'comparing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dobj': {'articles'}, 'advmod': {'routinely'}} Medium High Low
2679 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained They also are required to carry out a multiple-source use (MSU) project for which they conduct an online search on a controversial topic (e.g., The effects of overuse of social media on students’ academic, social, physical, and emotional well-being) 39 19 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 8, 'PUNCT': 11, 'NOUN': 10, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, ADV, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'They'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'e.g.', 'also'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'carry'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'The'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'social', 'controversial', 'online', 'academic'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'nmod': {'use', 'MSU'}, 'dobj': {'search', 'project'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'students', 'media', 'topic', 'overuse'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'conduct'}, 'appos': {'effects', 'being'}, 'conj': {'social', 'emotional', 'physical'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
2680 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The students then select and summarize appropriate sources to use as the basis for an argumentative essay 17 8 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'ROOT': {'select'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'summarize'}, 'amod': {'appropriate', 'argumentative'}, 'dobj': {'sources'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'use'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'essay', 'basis'}} Medium High Low
2681 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The students’ prior training in relational reasoning becomes relevant to these tasks in several ways 15 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'amod': {'several', 'prior', 'relational'}, 'appos': {'training'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'reasoning', 'tasks'}, 'ROOT': {'becomes'}, 'acomp': {'relevant'}} Medium High Low
2682 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained For one, we recognized early in the rollout of this course that many of these tertiary students did not have effective strategies for dealing with course readings in an integrative manner 31 18 {'ADP': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'rollout', 'students', 'course', 'manner', 'readings', 'one'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'many', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'recognized'}, 'advmod': {'early'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'integrative', 'tertiary', 'effective'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'strategies'}, 'pcomp': {'dealing'}, 'compound': {'course'}} Long High Medium
2683 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Thus, when they were tasked with writing a comparison of two readings that offered different perspectives on an issue (e.g., expertise), many had no clue how to begin 28 16 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PART, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'when', 'e.g.', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advcl': {'tasked'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'writing'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'an'}, 'dobj': {'perspectives', 'comparison', 'clue'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'issue'}, 'nsubj': {'many', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'offered'}, 'compound': {'different'}, 'appos': {'expertise'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'begin'}} Long High High
2684 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Drawing on their relational reasoning training, we suggested that they could chart key similarities and dissimilarities between the readings and then use that relational analysis to organize their written comparisons 30 14 {'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Drawing'}, 'prep': {'on', 'between'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'written', 'key', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'reasoning', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'training'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'suggested'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'chart'}, 'dobj': {'similarities', 'analysis', 'comparisons'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'dissimilarities', 'use'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'xcomp': {'organize'}} Long High Medium
2685 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained This deep analysis technique was also advantageous when the students had to integrate information across multiple documents 17 8 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'multiple'}, 'compound': {'analysis'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'technique'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'also'}, 'acomp': {'advantageous'}, 'advcl': {'had'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'integrate'}, 'dobj': {'information'}, 'prep': {'across'}, 'pobj': {'documents'}} Medium High Medium
2686 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Again, by thinking relationally about the documents in terms of core similarities and dissimilarities, the students were betterprepared to integrate the positions, arguments, and evidence presented in their selected sources 30 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Again', 'relationally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'by', 'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'thinking'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'similarities', 'sources', 'terms', 'documents'}, 'compound': {'core'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'dissimilarities', 'evidence', 'arguments'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'betterprepared'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'integrate'}, 'dobj': {'positions'}, 'acl': {'presented'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'selected'}} Long High Low
2687 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained The resulting analysis could help them formulate their own position on the controversial issue and provide them with evidence to support their position when composing their argumentative essay 28 14 {'DET': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'controversial', 'own', 'resulting', 'argumentative'}, 'nsubj': {'analysis', 'them'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'help'}, 'ccomp': {'formulate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'essay', 'position', 'them'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'evidence', 'issue'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'provide'}, 'acl': {'support'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'composing'}} Long High Medium
2688 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained As with their writing, we were somewhat surprised to find that a good number of the tertiary students enrolled in LHL were stymied in their ability to carry out quality discussion 32 16 {'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'As', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'LHL', 'writing', 'ability'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'number', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'somewhat'}, 'acomp': {'surprised'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'find'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'good', 'tertiary'}, 'ccomp': {'enrolled'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'conj': {'stymied'}, 'acl': {'carry'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'compound': {'quality'}, 'dobj': {'discussion'}} Long High Medium
2689 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Frequently what we witnessed were students voicing points that were unconnected to what others had already been said or they did not make it clear whether their statement was meant to support or counter what others had previously expressed 39 25 {'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 8, 'VERB': 8, 'AUX': 7, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'already', 'Frequently', 'previously'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'others', 'it', 'that', 'we'}, 'csubj': {'witnessed'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'compound': {'students', 'voicing'}, 'attr': {'points'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'unconnected'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'nsubjpass': {'statement', 'others'}, 'aux': {'did', 'had', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'been'}, 'pcomp': {'said'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'make', 'counter'}, 'ccomp': {'clear', 'expressed'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'meant'}, 'xcomp': {'support'}} Long High Medium
2690 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In effect, what should have been a discussion became a string of separate statements 14 9 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'statements', 'effect'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'what'}, 'aux': {'should', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'string', 'discussion'}, 'dep': {'became'}, 'amod': {'separate'}} Medium High Low
2691 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Thus, what we did to improve the quality of class discussions was to share the research illustrating how professionals like medical doctors diagnosing their patients or engineering students working collaboratively on a project design would use relational reasoning in their discourse to work toward a shared outcome 47 21 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'collaboratively', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dobj': {'what', 'patients', 'quality', 'reasoning', 'research'}, 'nsubj': {'professionals', 'we'}, 'csubj': {'did'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'illustrating', 'improve'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'prep': {'on', 'like', 'in', 'of', 'toward'}, 'compound': {'engineering', 'class', 'project'}, 'pobj': {'discourse', 'doctors', 'discussions', 'design', 'outcome'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'xcomp': {'work', 'share'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'medical', 'relational'}, 'acl': {'diagnosing'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'students', 'use'}, 'ccomp': {'working'}} Long High Medium
2692 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained We also had students read an excellent piece by Murphy et al 12 5 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'students', 'We'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'ccomp': {'read'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'excellent'}, 'dobj': {'piece'}, 'prep': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'Murphy'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'punct': {'al'}} Medium High Low
2693 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained (2017) that describes how instances of relational reasoning in students’ discourse served to reinforce, conditionalize, or counter others’ comments 19 7 {'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'2017', 'that', 'instances'}, 'relcl': {'describes'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'relational'}, 'pobj': {'discourse', 'reasoning'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'ccomp': {'served'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'reinforce'}, 'conj': {'conditionalize', 'others'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'counter'}, 'ROOT': {'comments'}} Medium High Medium
2694 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Tertiary students in LHL then tried their hands at carrying on a discussion based on their MSU research, and the ideas expressed in their argumentative essays 26 12 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'Tertiary', 'argumentative'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'ideas'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'discussion', 'LHL', 'research', 'essays'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'ROOT': {'tried'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'hands'}, 'pcomp': {'carrying'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'compound': {'MSU'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'expressed'}} Long High Low
2695 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained We saw a marked improvement in discussion quality following this brief intervention with many more uptakes 16 7 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'saw'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'amod': {'brief', 'marked', 'many', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'intervention', 'improvement'}, 'prep': {'with', 'following', 'in'}, 'compound': {'discussion'}, 'pobj': {'quality', 'uptakes'}} Medium High Low
2696 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained define uptakes as direct acknowledgments of what others have contributed and an explicit indication of how one’s response is related 20 12 {'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1} [VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NUM, PART, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'ROOT': {'define'}, 'dobj': {'uptakes', 'what'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'explicit', 'direct'}, 'pobj': {'acknowledgments'}, 'nsubj': {'response', 'others'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'pcomp': {'related', 'contributed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'conj': {'indication'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}} Long High Medium
2697 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained In this final section of the article, we have attempted to show how theory and research in relational reasoning can easily and effectively be embedded in instruction within a university classroom 31 17 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'final', 'relational'}, 'pobj': {'section', 'classroom', 'reasoning', 'article', 'instruction'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'attempted'}, 'xcomp': {'show'}, 'advmod': {'easily', 'how'}, 'nsubjpass': {'theory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'effectively', 'research'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'embedded'}, 'compound': {'university'}} Long High Medium
2698 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Of course, we do not know if those students who were part of LHL carried the lessons from this unique course into the rest of their tertiary education or into their continued professional development 34 20 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we', 'who'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'know'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'det': {'this', 'the', 'those'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'attr': {'part'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'rest', 'course', 'LHL', 'education', 'development'}, 'ccomp': {'carried'}, 'dobj': {'lessons'}, 'amod': {'continued', 'unique', 'tertiary', 'professional'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'into'}} Long High Medium
2699 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained FINAL THOUGHTS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS An overarching goal we set for this treatise on relational reasoning was to establish its value as a higher-order cognitive ability for tertiary students’ current learning and performance as well as their future success in their chosen professions 43 19 {'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 2} [VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'FINAL', 'was'}, 'dobj': {'value', 'THOUGHTS'}, 'cc': {'and', 'AND', 'as'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'FUTURE', 'success'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', 'DIRECTIONS'}, 'det': {'An', 'a', 'this'}, 'compound': {'overarching'}, 'nsubj': {'goal', 'we'}, 'relcl': {'set'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'treatise', 'professions', 'students', 'ability', 'reasoning'}, 'amod': {'tertiary', 'chosen', 'future', 'current', 'higher', 'relational', 'cognitive'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'establish'}, 'poss': {'its', 'their'}, 'nmod': {'order'}, 'appos': {'learning'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}} Long High Low
2700 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained To support that claim, we not only shared what is known about the nature, forms, and development of relational reasoning, but also its contributions to a range of human activities and academic domains 33 18 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 3} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PART, ADV, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'support'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'claim'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'shared'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'known'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'range', 'nature', 'reasoning', 'activities'}, 'conj': {'forms', 'domains', 'contributions', 'development'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'compound': {'relational'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'human'}} Long High Low
2701 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained Finally, we looked at how relational reasoning was woven through the content of one university course—from its assessment and training to its expansion into other topics of importance such as transfer, critical reading, and writing abilities 36 19 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Finally', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'looked'}, 'prep': {'through', 'from', 'to', 'into', 'of', 'at', 'as'}, 'amod': {'other', 'such', 'critical', 'relational'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reasoning'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'pcomp': {'woven'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'expansion', 'transfer', 'course', 'assessment', 'importance', 'topics'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'compound': {'university'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'reading', 'training', 'writing'}, 'dobj': {'abilities'}} Long High Medium
2702 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained There is no question that higher education has a mission of equipping students with the knowledge and skills they will need to function in their lives, including in their chosen professions 31 17 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the'}, 'attr': {'question'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'chosen'}, 'nsubj': {'education', 'they'}, 'acl': {'has'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'mission'}, 'prep': {'with', 'including', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'equipping'}, 'pobj': {'professions', 'knowledge', 'lives'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skills'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'relcl': {'need'}, 'xcomp': {'function'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {','}} Long High Medium
2703 Relational Reasoning in Tertiary Education- What Is Its Value and How Can It Be Assessed and Trained It is also presumed that tertiary education will contribute to Frontiers in Education | www.frontiersin.org 11 May 2022 | Volume 7 | Article 883370 24 8 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 5} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, NUM, AUX, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM] {'nsubjpass': {'It'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'presumed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'tertiary'}, 'nsubj': {'education'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ccomp': {'contribute'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Education', 'Frontiers'}, 'npadvmod': {'11', '|', 'Volume'}, 'punct': {'www.frontiersin.org'}, 'nmod': {'May'}, 'nummod': {'883370', '2022', '7'}, 'compound': {'|'}, 'appos': {'Article'}} Long High Medium
2704 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL TRAINING RELATIONAL REASONING 2 INTRODUCTION TO THIS TRAINING MANUAL What follows is a manual for instructing secondary or college students in four forms of relational reasoning (RR): analogical, anomalous, antinomous, and antithetical reasoning 33 11 {'NOUN': 11, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5} [NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'TRAINING'}, 'nsubj': {'What', 'RELATIONAL'}, 'csubj': {'REASONING', 'follows'}, 'nummod': {'four', '2'}, 'npadvmod': {'INTRODUCTION'}, 'prep': {'for', 'TO', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'THIS'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'MANUAL', 'reasoning'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'manual'}, 'pcomp': {'instructing'}, 'amod': {'secondary', 'analogical', 'relational'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'antinomous', 'anomalous', 'antithetical', 'college'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'punct': {'(', '):', ','}, 'nmod': {'RR'}, 'appos': {'reasoning'}} Long High Low
2705 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL The training is presented in 6 sessions that includes a pre-assessment (Session I), followed by an overview of RR (Session II), and then multiple sessions devoted to each of the four RR forms (Sessions III–V), ending with a post-assessment of individuals’ RR abilities (Session VI) 45 19 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 16, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 7, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'training'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'presented'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'6', 'four'}, 'pobj': {'forms', '-', 'post', 'abilities', 'assessment', 'each', 'overview', 'sessions', 'RR'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'includes'}, 'dobj': {'assessment', 'pre', '-'}, 'punct': {'(', '–', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'Sessions', 'Session', 'RR'}, 'appos': {'II', 'V', 'I', 'VI', 'III'}, 'advcl': {'followed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'conj': {'sessions'}, 'acl': {'devoted', 'ending'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
2706 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL The manual also contains sample slides that overview the content for each session and specific activities meant to reinforce individuals’ understanding of RR and its specific forms, and to apply that understanding in various ways 35 16 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'that', 'The', 'the', 'each'}, 'nsubj': {'manual', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'contains'}, 'compound': {'sample'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'slides', 'understanding'}, 'relcl': {'overview'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'session', 'ways', 'RR'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'various', 'specific'}, 'conj': {'forms', 'apply', 'activities'}, 'acl': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'reinforce'}, 'poss': {'its', 'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'punct': {','}} Long High Low
2707 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL SESSION I: PRE-ASSESSMENT OF RELATIONAL REASONING Students will be given 50 minutes to complete the Test of Relational Reasoning (TORR) online via Qualtrics© 23 8 {'INTJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 9, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1} [INTJ, PRON, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, AUX, AUX, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, PROPN, PROPN] {'ROOT': {'SESSION'}, 'dobj': {'I', 'minutes', 'Test'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ':', ')'}, 'compound': {'REASONING', 'PRE', 'Relational', 'Qualtrics'}, 'appos': {'ASSESSMENT', 'TORR'}, 'prep': {'via', 'OF', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'©', 'Reasoning', 'RELATIONAL'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Students'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'given'}, 'nummod': {'50'}, 'advcl': {'complete'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'online'}} Long High Low
2708 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Once they submit their responses, they will automatically receive their total score and the corresponding Relational Reasoning Quotient (RRQ; see Appendix A), which converts raw scores into standard scores with a mean of 100 and a standard de viation of 15 41 18 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'X': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, X, NOUN, ADP, NUM] {'mark': {'Once'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'submit'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'A', 'scores', 'responses', 'score'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'advmod': {'automatically'}, 'ROOT': {'receive'}, 'amod': {'standard', 'raw', 'corresponding', 'total'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'Appendix', 'de', 'Reasoning'}, 'conj': {'Quotient', 'see'}, 'appos': {'RRQ'}, 'relcl': {'converts'}, 'prep': {'into', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'scores', 'mean', '100', '15', 'viation'}} Long High Medium
2709 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL They will also receive their scores for each scale of the TORR that corresponds to one of the four forms 20 14 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They', 'that'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'receive'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'scores'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'one', 'scale', 'TORR'}, 'relcl': {'corresponds'}, 'nummod': {'four'}} Long High Low
2710 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL This pre-assessment can either be completed in person or online such that the learner can progress at their own pace 20 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'assessment', 'pre', '-'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'completed'}, 'prep': {'at', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'pace', 'person'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'online'}, 'amod': {'such', 'own'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'learner'}, 'advcl': {'progress'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2711 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL For this training, the TORR will be completed outside of class so that there are no time constraints 18 11 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'outside', 'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'training', 'class'}, 'punct': {',', 'constraints'}, 'nsubjpass': {'TORR'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'completed'}, 'mark': {'that', 'so'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'attr': {'time'}} Medium High High
2712 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Students will be informed that the test needs to be completed in one sitting; there is no stopping and restarting of the test once it is begun. 27 17 {'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Students', 'it'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'ccomp': {'needs', 'informed'}, 'mark': {'that', 'once'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'test'}, 'xcomp': {'completed'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'sitting', 'test'}, 'punct': {';', '.'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'stopping'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'restarting'}, 'advcl': {'begun'}} Long High High
2713 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL TRAINING RELATIONAL REASONING 3 SESSION II: TORR DEBRIEFING AND OVERVIEW OF RELATIONAL REASONING This session begins with an introduction to relational reasoning as a complex cognitive ability that is essential for learning and performance; core to general and domain -specific problem solving; and a key to knowledge transfer (see Session II slides) 52 18 {'NOUN': 18, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'X': 1} [NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, X, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'compound': {'II', 'problem', 'Session', 'TORR', 'SESSION', '3', 'knowledge', 'TRAINING'}, 'nsubj': {'REASONING', 'session', 'that', 'RELATIONAL'}, 'nummod': {'II'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ':', ')'}, 'appos': {'REASONING', 'DEBRIEFING'}, 'cc': {'and', 'AND'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'performance', 'OVERVIEW', 'key'}, 'prep': {'to', 'with', 'for', 'OF', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'solving', 'transfer', 'ability', 'learning', 'reasoning', 'introduction', 'RELATIONAL'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'begins'}, 'amod': {'cognitive', 'general', 'complex', 'relational'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'essential'}, 'dep': {'-specific', 'core'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'slides'}} Long High Low
2714 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Following this brief explanation of RR, the TORR is overviewed, starting with the rationale for its creation 18 8 {'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'with', 'Following', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'brief'}, 'pobj': {'creation', 'rationale', 'explanation', 'RR'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'TORR'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'overviewed'}, 'advcl': {'starting'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Medium High Low
2715 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL The TORR is contrast to more traditional measures of cognitive ability (intelligence tests) along a number of dimensions, especially noting that the TORR is a fluid versus crystallized measure and the forms are malleable and trainable 36 16 {'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, PROPN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'forms', 'TORR'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'contrast', 'fluid'}, 'prep': {'along', 'to', 'of', 'versus'}, 'advmod': {'especially', 'more'}, 'amod': {'crystallized', 'traditional', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'dimensions', 'measures', 'ability', 'number', 'measure'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'intelligence'}, 'appos': {'tests'}, 'advcl': {'noting'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'are', 'trainable'}, 'acomp': {'malleable'}} Long High Medium
2716 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Then, the descriptive data from the class and discuss what those data indicate about the group’s RR abilities is presented, with emphasis on the importance of the RRQ, which allows for a normative comparison 34 19 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Then'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'descriptive', 'normative'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'data'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'for', 'with', 'of', 'about'}, 'pobj': {'class', 'emphasis', 'comparison', 'RRQ', 'importance'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'discuss'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'ccomp': {'presented', 'indicate'}, 'poss': {'group'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'RR'}, 'nsubjpass': {'abilities'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'allows'}} Long High Low
2717 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Students also reflect on their individual performance relative to the class scores and the normative data 16 7 {'NOUN': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'reflect'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'normative', 'relative'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'scores'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'class'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'data'}} Medium High Low
2718 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL To overview the TORR, each of the four forms will be briefly introduced: analogy, anomaly, antinomy, and antithesis (see the relevant slides for each) 24 13 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT] {'aux': {'To', 'will'}, 'advcl': {'overview'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'slides', 'TORR'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'each'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'each'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'briefly'}, 'ROOT': {'introduced'}, 'appos': {'analogy'}, 'conj': {'antinomy', 'anomaly', 'antithesis'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'amod': {'relevant'}} Long High Low
2719 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Each form is defined and illustrated with a sample item from the TORR, a sample item from the Verbal Test of Relational Reasoning (vTORR), a pictorial or graphic example 29 13 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'Each', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'form'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'illustrated', 'graphic'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'from'}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'sample', 'Verbal'}, 'pobj': {'TORR', 'Reasoning', 'Test', 'item'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'vTORR', 'item'}, 'amod': {'pictorial'}, 'npadvmod': {'example'}} Long High Low
2720 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL At the session's end, the class will be informed that they will be receiving explicit training in each of the four forms over the next class sessions to promote their RR abilities. 32 20 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'At', 'over', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'session', 'their'}, 'case': {''s'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'each', 'sessions', 'end'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'nsubjpass': {'class'}, 'aux': {'be', 'to', 'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'informed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ccomp': {'receiving'}, 'amod': {'explicit', 'next'}, 'dobj': {'training', 'abilities'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'compound': {'class', 'RR'}, 'advcl': {'promote'}} Long High Medium
2721 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL TRAINING RELATIONAL REASONING 4 SESSION III: TRAINING IN ANALOGICAL AND ANOMALOUS REASONING Analogies Ask students to recall the definition of analogy from Session II 24 6 {'NOUN': 9, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN] {'compound': {'Session', 'SESSION', '4', 'REASONING', 'TRAINING'}, 'nsubj': {'Analogies', 'RELATIONAL'}, 'ROOT': {'REASONING'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'definition', 'III'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'appos': {'TRAINING'}, 'prep': {'IN', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'II', 'ANALOGICAL', 'analogy'}, 'cc': {'AND'}, 'conj': {'ANOMALOUS', 'Ask'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'recall'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Low
2722 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Then begin Session III by having students complete the Analogy Anchor Activity with the initial problem, HERD : COW:: FLOCK : ________ (Activity 1) 24 5 {'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 15, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Then'}, 'ROOT': {'Activity', 'begin'}, 'compound': {'Analogy', 'Anchor', 'Session'}, 'dobj': {'Activity', 'III'}, 'prep': {'by', 'with'}, 'pcomp': {'having'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ccomp': {'complete'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'initial'}, 'pobj': {'problem'}, 'punct': {':', ')', '(', ',', '_'}, 'npadvmod': {'HERD'}, 'appos': {'_', 'FLOCK', 'COW'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Long High Low
2723 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Use those responses to introduce the four key processes to solving analogies and all other forms: encode, infer, map, and apply 21 9 {'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4} [VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'ROOT': {'Use'}, 'det': {'all', 'the', 'those'}, 'dobj': {'responses', 'processes', 'analogies'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'introduce'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'amod': {'other', 'encode', 'key'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pcomp': {'solving'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'forms', 'apply'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'nmod': {'infer'}, 'appos': {'map'}} Long High Low
2724 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Encode: Is the process whereby each component of a problem is richly characterized 13 7 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'nsubj': {'Encode'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'ROOT': {'Is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'attr': {'process'}, 'advmod': {'whereby', 'richly'}, 'nsubjpass': {'component'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'problem'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'characterized'}} Medium High Medium
2725 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL For example, “herd” is a specific name for a group of animals such as sheep, cows, or goats, and “cow” is a single, female, domesticated, four -legged, milk-producing bovine that provides us with meat, cheese, milk, and hides 38 18 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 16, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'with', 'of', 'for', 'For', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'group', 'sheep', 'example', 'meat', 'animals'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'cow', 'herd', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'producing', 'such', 'specific', 'single'}, 'attr': {'female', 'name'}, 'conj': {'milk', 'hides', 'goats', 'cows', 'is', 'cheese'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'acl': {'domesticated'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'appos': {'bovine', '-legged'}, 'npadvmod': {'milk'}, 'relcl': {'provides'}, 'dobj': {'us'}} Long High Low
2726 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Infer: Is the process of generating a relation between the first two terms, herd and cow 16 9 {'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Infer'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'ROOT': {'Is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'process'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'pcomp': {'generating'}, 'dobj': {'relation'}, 'amod': {'first'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pobj': {'terms'}, 'appos': {'herd'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'cow'}} Medium High Low
2727 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Map: The mapping process requires forming a connection between the two parts of the analogy 15 7 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Map'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'mapping'}, 'nsubj': {'process'}, 'acl': {'requires'}, 'xcomp': {'forming'}, 'dobj': {'connection'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pobj': {'analogy', 'parts'}} Medium High Low
2728 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Apply: For the final step, the analogy is completed by finding a term that has the same association with flock that cow has to herd AND importantly that is as attributional ly similar to cow as possible 37 20 {'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, PRON, AUX, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ] {'ROOT': {'Apply'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'prep': {'to', 'by', 'with', 'as', 'For'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'similar', 'possible', 'same', 'final', 'attributional'}, 'pobj': {'cow', 'flock', 'ly', 'step'}, 'nsubjpass': {'analogy'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'completed'}, 'pcomp': {'finding'}, 'dobj': {'association', 'term'}, 'nsubj': {'cow', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'has'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'herd'}, 'cc': {'AND'}, 'advmod': {'importantly'}, 'conj': {'is'}} Long High Medium
2729 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL So, to complete the analogy, the response must be a member of a flock that is a single, female, domesticated, four -legged, milk-producing animal that provides us with meat, cheese, milk, and hides 33 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'So'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'advcl': {'complete'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'analogy', 'us'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'response'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'member', 'animal'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'meat', 'flock'}, 'relcl': {'is', 'provides'}, 'amod': {'female', 'producing', 'single'}, 'conj': {'milk', 'hides', 'cheese', 'domesticated'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'appos': {'-legged'}, 'npadvmod': {'milk'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
2730 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL To reinforce this understanding, students should correct several of their answers on the Analogy Anchor Activity and explain their reasons for the corrections. 23 12 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'aux': {'should', 'To'}, 'advcl': {'reinforce'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'reasons', 'several', 'understanding'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'correct'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'answers', 'Activity', 'corrections'}, 'compound': {'Analogy', 'Anchor'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'explain'}} Long High Low
2731 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL TRAINING RELATIONAL REASONING 5 Anomaly As with analogy, ask students to recall the meaning of an anomaly 17 6 {'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2} [NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, PROPN, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'compound': {'TRAINING'}, 'nsubj': {'RELATIONAL'}, 'ROOT': {'REASONING', 'Anomaly', 'ask'}, 'punct': {'5', ','}, 'prep': {'with', 'As', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'analogy', 'anomaly'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'meaning'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'recall'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}} Medium High Low
2732 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Proceed by overviewing how the processes of encoding, inferring, mapping, and applying pertain to anomalies 15 6 {'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Proceed'}, 'prep': {'by', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'overviewing', 'encoding'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'processes', 'pertain'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'mapping', 'applying', 'inferring'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pobj': {'anomalies'}} Medium High Medium
2733 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Encoding involves richly describing the set of objects that are included in a given set and inferring means determining how each element in the set corresponds to other elements in the set 32 15 {'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [NOUN, VERB, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Encoding'}, 'ROOT': {'involves'}, 'advmod': {'how', 'richly'}, 'xcomp': {'describing'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'dobj': {'set'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'means', 'set', 'elements', 'objects', 'corresponds'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'included'}, 'amod': {'other', 'given', 'set'}, 'nmod': {'set'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'inferring'}, 'acl': {'determining'}, 'ccomp': {'element'}} Long High Medium
2734 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Mapping requires the individual to identify specific attributes that differentiate elements in the set (e.g., size, color, category) 18 5 {'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Mapping'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'individual', 'attributes'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'amod': {'differentiate', 'specific'}, 'relcl': {'elements'}, 'prep': {'e.g.', 'in'}, 'nmod': {'set', 'size'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'conj': {'color'}, 'pobj': {'category'}} Medium High Low
2735 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Finally, wh en applying, the respondent needs to select the object within the set that is aberrant on the most attributes 21 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'X': 1, 'INTJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, X, INTJ, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADV, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'wh'}, 'det': {'en', 'the'}, 'advcl': {'applying'}, 'nsubj': {'respondent', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'needs'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'select'}, 'dobj': {'object'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within'}, 'pobj': {'set', 'attributes'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'aberrant'}, 'amod': {'most'}} Long High Low
2736 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL For the fish slide from Session 2, only one large fish was red and swimming in the other direction 19 10 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'in', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'fish'}, 'pobj': {'slide', 'direction', 'Session'}, 'nummod': {'one', '2'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'amod': {'other', 'large'}, 'nsubj': {'fish'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'red'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'swimming'}} Medium High Low
2737 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL To reinforce the learning, have students complete the short anomaly activity (see Activity 2). 14 5 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'reinforce'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'Activity', 'activity'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '.', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ccomp': {'complete'}, 'amod': {'short'}, 'compound': {'anomaly'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'nummod': {'2'}} Medium High Low
2738 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL TRAINING RELATIONAL REASONING 6 SESSION IV: TRAINING IN ANTITHETICAL AND ANTINOMOUS REASONING As an anchor activity for Session IV, have students complete the Anchor Activity, What Comes to Mind 29 9 {'NOUN': 9, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'Session', 'Anchor', 'SESSION', 'TRAINING', 'anchor'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'What', 'RELATIONAL', 'TRAINING'}, 'advcl': {'REASONING'}, 'nummod': {'6'}, 'dobj': {'Activity', 'IV'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'prep': {'for', 'As', 'IN', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'IV', 'Mind', 'ANTITHETICAL', 'activity'}, 'cc': {'AND'}, 'amod': {'ANTINOMOUS'}, 'conj': {'REASONING'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'ccomp': {'complete'}, 'relcl': {'Comes'}} Long High Low
2739 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Once students have completed the activity, explain that such an exercise demonstrates that humans often think in terms of two conflicting or contrasting ideas 24 12 {'SCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'mark': {'Once', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'humans', 'exercise'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advcl': {'completed'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'activity'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'explain'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'ccomp': {'think', 'demonstrates'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'ideas', 'terms'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'amod': {'conflicting'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'contrasting'}} Long High High
2740 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL The two forms of relational reasoning that the studentsw ill learn about in this session represent such conflicting or contrasting ideas, objects, or events; that is, antithetical reasoning and antinomous reasoning 31 14 {'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubj': {'ill', 'forms'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'antithetical', 'antinomous', 'such', 'relational', 'conflicting'}, 'pobj': {'session', 'reasoning', 'that'}, 'compound': {'studentsw'}, 'relcl': {'learn'}, 'ccomp': {'represent'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'reasoning', 'contrasting', 'events', 'objects'}, 'dobj': {'ideas'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}, 'advmod': {'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'npadvmod': {'reasoning'}} Long High Medium
2741 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL However, these two forms of RR differ from one another in a VERY critical way that often gets ove rlooked 20 12 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, DET, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'often', 'However', 'VERY'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'another', 'a', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubj': {'forms', 'that'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'way', 'RR'}, 'ROOT': {'differ'}, 'amod': {'critical'}, 'relcl': {'gets'}, 'dobj': {'ove'}, 'ccomp': {'rlooked'}} Long High Low
2742 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL As graphically shown in Figure 1, an antinomy represents a binary relation, where the ideas, objects, or events can only belong to one category or the other—with nothing between them 30 18 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2} [SCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADP, PRON] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'graphically', 'where'}, 'advcl': {'shown'}, 'prep': {'between', 'with', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Figure', 'nothing', 'category', 'them'}, 'nummod': {'one', '1'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'antinomy', 'ideas'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'amod': {'binary'}, 'dobj': {'relation'}, 'conj': {'other', 'events', 'objects'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'belong'}} Long High High
2743 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL For example, in medicine, doctors can certify that someone is alive or dead 13 7 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'prep': {'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'medicine', 'example'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'someone', 'doctors'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'certify'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'alive'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'dead'}} Medium High Medium
2744 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Figure 1 A Graphic Representation of Antinomy and Antithesis In contrast, an antithesis represents a continuum marked by two polarities or opposites 22 9 {'NOUN': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 2} [NOUN, NUM, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'dep': {'Figure'}, 'punct': {',', '1'}, 'det': {'A', 'a', 'an'}, 'compound': {'Graphic'}, 'dobj': {'Representation', 'continuum'}, 'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'polarities', 'contrast', 'Antinomy'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'opposites', 'Antithesis'}, 'nsubj': {'antithesis'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'acl': {'marked'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'two'}} Long High Low
2745 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Unlike antinomies, we can identify many other ideas, objects, or events that fall between two endpoints 16 8 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN] {'prep': {'between', 'Unlike'}, 'pobj': {'antinomies', 'endpoints'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'identify'}, 'amod': {'many', 'other'}, 'dobj': {'ideas'}, 'conj': {'events', 'objects'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'relcl': {'fall'}, 'nummod': {'two'}} Medium High Low
2746 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL TRAINING RELATIONAL REASONING 7 Enormous Microscopic Now, see how many words you can position between those two extremes in size 20 10 {'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'Enormous', 'TRAINING'}, 'nsubj': {'RELATIONAL', 'you'}, 'advcl': {'REASONING'}, 'nummod': {'two', '7'}, 'dobj': {'words', 'Microscopic'}, 'advmod': {'Now', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'amod': {'many'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'position'}, 'prep': {'in', 'between'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'pobj': {'extremes', 'size'}} Long High Medium
2747 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL In order to test students’ grasp of the difference between antinomy and antithesis, have them go back to Activity 3, What Comes to Mind? 24 13 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'Mind', 'antinomy', 'difference', 'Activity'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'test'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '?', ','}, 'dobj': {'grasp'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'antithesis'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'nsubj': {'What', 'them'}, 'ccomp': {'go', 'Comes'}, 'advmod': {'back'}, 'nummod': {'3'}} Long High Low
2748 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Then, allow them time to work in groups to decide whether the answers they produced were examples of antinomous or antithetical reasoning 22 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Then'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'allow'}, 'dative': {'them'}, 'dobj': {'time'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'produced', 'work', 'decide'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'groups'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'answers', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'attr': {'examples'}, 'amod': {'antinomous'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'antithetical'}} Long High Medium
2749 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Students should provide justification for their determinations of antimony or antithesis using the process of encode, infer, map, and apply 20 9 {'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'provide'}, 'dobj': {'process', 'justification'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'antimony', 'determinations', 'map'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'apply', 'antithesis', 'infer'}, 'advcl': {'using'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'encode'}, 'punct': {','}} Long High Low
2750 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL SESSION V: CULMINATING ACTIVITIES Constructing Novel Relational Items For the last training session in relational reasoning, the student will be given the opportunity to create their own items that represent relational reasoning 32 12 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'last', 'own', 'SESSION', 'relational'}, 'nsubjpass': {'V', 'student'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'acl': {'Constructing', 'create', 'CULMINATING'}, 'dobj': {'Items', 'opportunity', 'items', 'reasoning', 'ACTIVITIES'}, 'compound': {'Relational', 'training', 'Novel'}, 'prep': {'For', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'session', 'reasoning'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'given'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'represent'}} Long High Low
2751 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL This can provide you with another form of assessment along with the TORR where the students assess their understanding of each of the relational forms 25 16 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, PROPN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'students', 'This'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'provide'}, 'dobj': {'understanding', 'you'}, 'prep': {'with', 'along', 'of'}, 'det': {'another', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'TORR', 'form', 'assessment', 'each', 'relational'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'relcl': {'assess'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2752 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Explain to the students that they should create their own item that they believe assesses for each analogy, anomaly, antinomy, and antithesis 22 12 {'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Explain'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'analogy'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'they'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ccomp': {'assesses', 'create'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'own'}, 'dobj': {'item'}, 'relcl': {'believe'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'antinomy', 'anomaly', 'antithesis'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
2753 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Let the students know that the examples they create can be spatial with shapes or diagrams, like the ones they we re exposed to in the TORR; pictorial using pictures or much more detailed photos, like the ones they were exposed to during the anomaly and analogy training session; or they can be verbal items, where the learner may write out sentence or mix words together in a list, like the examples they were exposed to during the antinomy and antithesis training. 82 45 {'VERB': 10, 'DET': 10, 'NOUN': 20, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 6, 'AUX': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 12, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADV': 3} [VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'ccomp': {'Let', 'be', 'know'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'students', 'examples', 'learner', 'we'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'write', 'exposed', 'create', 're'}, 'aux': {'can', 'may'}, 'acomp': {'spatial'}, 'prep': {'like', 'during', 'to', 'in', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'ones', 'TORR', 'session', 'shapes', 'list', 'training', 'examples'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'mix', 'be', 'photos', 'diagrams', 'antithesis', 'analogy'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '.'}, 'ROOT': {'pictorial'}, 'acl': {'using'}, 'dobj': {'words', 'pictures', 'sentence'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'much', 'more', 'together'}, 'amod': {'detailed', 'verbal'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'nmod': {'antinomy', 'anomaly'}, 'compound': {'training'}, 'attr': {'items'}, 'prt': {'out'}} Long High High
2754 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL TRAINING RELATIONAL REASONING 8 After the students have been given time to create their own example items for each relational form individually, tell them they will now pair up with a peer to share their items 36 18 {'NOUN': 9, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'compound': {'relational', 'example', 'TRAINING'}, 'nsubj': {'RELATIONAL', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'REASONING', 'tell'}, 'punct': {',', '8'}, 'mark': {'After'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to', 'will'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advcl': {'given', 'share'}, 'dobj': {'items', 'time', 'them'}, 'relcl': {'create'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'own'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'form', 'peer'}, 'advmod': {'now', 'individually'}, 'ccomp': {'pair'}, 'prt': {'up'}} Long High Medium
2755 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Demonstrate for the students how they are to explain the item they created,w hat form of relational reasoning they are attempting to assess for, and the instructions for how their peer should choose what they believe is the right answer to the item question 44 25 {'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 6, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Demonstrate'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'reasoning', 'question'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubj': {'peer', 'what', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'are', 'believe'}, 'aux': {'should', 'are', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'assess', 'explain'}, 'dobj': {'item'}, 'relcl': {'attempting', 'created'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'item', 'w', 'hat'}, 'appos': {'form'}, 'amod': {'right', 'relational'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'instructions'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'choose'}, 'attr': {'answer'}} Long High High
2756 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Then, provide the students time to share their items with their peers and work through each novel example 18 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Then'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'provide'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'time', 'items'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'share'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'prep': {'through', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'peers', 'example'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'work'}, 'amod': {'novel'}} Medium High Low
2757 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Bring the students back together for a large group discussion and have them share what their experience was like creating a novel relational reasoning item and attempting to explain it to their peers 33 17 {'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, VERB, PRON, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Bring'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'it', 'item'}, 'advmod': {'together', 'back'}, 'prep': {'like', 'for', 'to'}, 'amod': {'novel', 'large', 'relational'}, 'compound': {'group', 'reasoning'}, 'pobj': {'discussion', 'peers'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'attempting', 'have'}, 'nsubj': {'experience', 'them'}, 'ccomp': {'share', 'was'}, 'attr': {'what'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'creating'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'explain'}} Long High Low
2758 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Make sure that as students share their experiences, you continue to refer students back to salient points from prior training sessions 21 9 {'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2} [VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Make'}, 'acomp': {'sure'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'you'}, 'advcl': {'share'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'experiences'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ccomp': {'continue'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'refer'}, 'advmod': {'back'}, 'prep': {'to', 'from'}, 'compound': {'salient', 'training'}, 'pobj': {'points', 'sessions'}, 'amod': {'prior'}} Long High High
2759 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL In doing so, students will be continuously coached while they are considering specific challenges related to the relational reasoning forms SESSION VI: POST-ASSESSMENT OF RELATIONAL REASONING Students will complete a post-assessment of relational reasoning 34 14 {'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 5} [ADP, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'OF', 'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'doing'}, 'advmod': {'continuously', 'so'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ':'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'aux': {'are', 'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'coached'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'nsubj': {'Students', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'considering'}, 'amod': {'specific', 'relational'}, 'dobj': {'-', 'post', 'challenges', 'assessment', 'ASSESSMENT'}, 'acl': {'related'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'REASONING', 'reasoning', 'SESSION'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'reasoning', 'RELATIONAL'}, 'appos': {'VI', 'POST'}, 'ccomp': {'complete'}} Long High Medium
2760 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL The post-assessment is the same version of the TORR that the students took in the pre-assessment during Session I 19 12 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PRON] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'assessment', '-', 'post'}, 'ROOT': {'I', 'is'}, 'amod': {'same'}, 'attr': {'version'}, 'prep': {'during', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Session', 'TORR'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'took'}, 'prt': {'in'}, 'dobj': {'assessment', 'pre', '-'}} Medium High Medium
2761 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL They will be given 50 minutes to complete the TORR online via Qualtrics©.O nce they submit their responses, they will automatically receive their total score and the corresponding RRQ (see Appendix A), as well as their score for each scale of the TORR that corresponds to one of the four forms 51 29 {'PRON': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'NUM': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 7, 'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, PROPN, ADV, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'They'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'given'}, 'nummod': {'four', '50'}, 'dobj': {'TORR', 'score', 'minutes', 'A', 'responses'}, 'advcl': {'complete'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'as', 'online', 'automatically'}, 'prep': {'via', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'.O', 'Appendix', 'Qualtrics'}, 'pobj': {'forms', '©', 'TORR', 'one', 'scale'}, 'appos': {'nce'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'submit', 'corresponds'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'receive'}, 'amod': {'corresponding', 'total'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'RRQ', 'score'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}} Long High Low
2762 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL Students are to record those scores in their journals for their comparison to the pre-assessment 15 9 {'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2} [NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'record'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'dobj': {'scores'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'pre', '-', 'journals', 'assessment', 'comparison'}} Medium High Low
2763 RR INSTRUCTION MANUAL This post-assessment can either be completed in person or online such that the learner can progress at their own pace. 20 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'assessment', '-', 'post'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'completed'}, 'prep': {'at', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'pace', 'person'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'online'}, 'amod': {'such', 'own'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'learner'}, 'advcl': {'progress'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {'.'}} Long High Medium
2764 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Consilience Within Curiosity and Interest Theory and Research Before I map out what I regard as curiosity and interest ’s common ground, there are several caveats to forward 28 15 {'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV] {'nsubj': {'I', 'Consilience'}, 'prep': {'as', 'Within'}, 'nmod': {'Curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'Research', 'Interest'}, 'pobj': {'Theory', 'curiosity'}, 'mark': {'Before'}, 'advcl': {'map', '’s'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'dobj': {'ground', 'what'}, 'ccomp': {'regard'}, 'amod': {'several', 'common'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'caveats'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advmod': {'forward'}} Long High Medium
2765 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest First, I am under no illusion that all who identify as curiosity or interest theorists or researchers will find the ensuing points of consilience to their liking 27 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'First'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'all', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'am'}, 'prep': {'under', 'of', 'to', 'as'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'theorists', 'liking', 'consilience', 'illusion'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'identify'}, 'nmod': {'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'researchers'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'acl': {'find'}, 'amod': {'ensuing'}, 'dobj': {'points'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2766 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Second, it is reasonable to assume that these contributing authors ascribe differential importance to the individual claims I have staked out in this commentary 24 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Second'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'authors', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'reasonable'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'assume'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'contributing', 'differential'}, 'ccomp': {'ascribe'}, 'dobj': {'importance'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'claims', 'commentary'}, 'relcl': {'staked'}, 'prt': {'out'}} Long High Medium
2767 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest My intention was to merely mark these shared conceptions, components, procedures, antecedents, and consequences and not to chart the relative space they occupy within their respective domains 27 12 {'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'My', 'their'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'intention'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advmod': {'merely'}, 'xcomp': {'mark'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'respective', 'relative'}, 'dobj': {'space', 'conceptions'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'components', 'antecedents', 'consequences', 'procedures', 'chart'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'occupy'}, 'prep': {'within'}, 'pobj': {'domains'}} Long High Low
2768 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Finally, I am uncertain if or how this mapping of the common ground shared by curiosity and interest theory and research will ultimately prove useful to future forays into these realms 31 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'ultimately', 'Finally', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'mapping'}, 'ROOT': {'am'}, 'acomp': {'uncertain'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'prep': {'into', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'future', 'common'}, 'pobj': {'forays', 'ground', 'realms', 'theory'}, 'acl': {'shared'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nmod': {'curiosity'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'research'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'advcl': {'prove'}, 'oprd': {'useful'}} Long High High
2769 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest With those caveats in mind, I regard the following as the “unity of knowledge ”unearthed within this special issue 19 10 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'With'}, 'det': {'this', 'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'issue', 'caveats', 'knowledge', 'unity'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'regard'}, 'dobj': {'following'}, 'acl': {'unearthed'}, 'amod': {'special'}} Medium High Low
2770 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest The Terms Curiosity and Interest Are Often Ill-Defined and Poorly Demarcated, Especially Within Common Vernacular A point of unity for all contributors to this special issue is that the terms curiosity andinterest are often poorly defined within the professional literature and certainly in everyday discourse 45 21 {'DET': 6, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, AUX, ADV, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'this', 'A', 'all', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Vernacular', 'terms', 'Terms', 'curiosity', 'Common'}, 'nsubj': {'Curiosity', 'Are'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Demarcated', 'Interest'}, 'advmod': {'Especially', 'poorly', 'certainly', 'often', 'Poorly', 'Often'}, 'npadvmod': {'Ill'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'acomp': {'Defined'}, 'prep': {'within', 'Within', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'contributors', 'literature', 'point', 'unity', 'discourse'}, 'amod': {'everyday', 'professional', 'special'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'andinterest'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'defined'}} Long High Medium
2771 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Sometimes these terms are used interchangeably, while at other times they are cast as overlapping or entirely distinct notions 19 11 {'ADV': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'entirely', 'Sometimes', 'interchangeably'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they', 'terms'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'prep': {'at', 'as'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'pobj': {'times'}, 'advcl': {'cast'}, 'pcomp': {'overlapping'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'distinct'}, 'dobj': {'notions'}} Medium High Medium
2772 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest For instance, there are researchers like Silvia ( 2017 ) who use the terms curiosity and interest interchangeably, because they contend that the psychobiological data do not support any clear distinction 31 13 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'like', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'Silvia'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'researchers'}, 'appos': {'2017'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'data', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'use'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'distinction', 'curiosity', 'terms'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'advmod': {'interchangeably'}, 'mark': {'that', 'because'}, 'advcl': {'contend'}, 'amod': {'psychobiological', 'clear'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'support'}} Long High High
2773 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest (this issue ) regard curiosity and interest as naïve or “folk”conceptions that lack scientific specificity 15 5 {'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')', '“'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'nmod': {'issue'}, 'compound': {'regard'}, 'ROOT': {'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'folk”conceptions'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'pobj': {'naïve'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'lack'}, 'amod': {'scientific'}, 'dobj': {'specificity'}} Medium High Low
2774 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Thus, they see efforts to establish more defined boundaries for curiosity and interest as unnecessary and futile 17 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'boundaries', 'efforts'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'establish'}, 'amod': {'defined', 'unnecessary'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'futile'}} Medium High Low
2775 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest In contrast, Hidi and Renninger ( this issue ) maintain that curiosity and interest have different affective markers, operate on distinct time scales, and have varied “triggers 27 9 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'scales', 'contrast'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ',', 'triggers', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'Hidi', 'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'operate', 'interest', 'Renninger'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'maintain'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'amod': {'different', 'distinct', 'varied'}, 'compound': {'time', 'affective'}, 'dobj': {'markers'}, 'aux': {'have'}} Long High Medium
2776 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest ”For these reasons, they and others (e.g., Ainley this issue ; Peterson and Cohen this issue) proclaim the need for definitions of curiosity and interest that reflect their key concep- tual and procedural distinctions 34 15 {'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', ';'}, 'prep': {'for', 'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'reasons', 'definitions', 'curiosity'}, 'nsubj': {'Peterson', 'that', 'they'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'procedural', 'interest', 'Cohen', 'others'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'nmod': {'Ainley'}, 'dep': {'issue'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'proclaim'}, 'dobj': {'distinctions', 'need'}, 'relcl': {'reflect'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'concep-', 'key'}, 'preconj': {'tual'}} Long High Low
2777 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Curiosity and Interest Are Both Complex and Multifaceted Constructs Although some of the terrain comprising the common ground for curiosity and interest theory and research remains somewhat unsettled, one area is firmly set 33 14 {'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, AUX, CCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'nsubj': {'Curiosity', 'some'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'research', 'Multifaceted', 'Interest'}, 'nmod': {'curiosity', 'Are'}, 'dep': {'Both'}, 'amod': {'Complex', 'common'}, 'ROOT': {'Constructs', 'set'}, 'mark': {'Although'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'terrain', 'theory'}, 'acl': {'comprising'}, 'dobj': {'ground'}, 'advcl': {'remains'}, 'advmod': {'firmly', 'somewhat'}, 'acomp': {'unsettled'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'nsubjpass': {'area'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}} Long High Medium
2778 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Specifically, whether the authors in this special issue, and the broader literature, regard curiosity and interest as similar, overlapping, or distinct, they almost invariably portray these constructs as complex, intricate, and multifaceted 32 14 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'almost', 'Specifically', 'invariably'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'they'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'amod': {'broader', 'similar', 'complex', 'special'}, 'pobj': {'issue'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'multifaceted', 'interest', 'intricate', 'literature', 'distinct', 'overlapping'}, 'advcl': {'regard'}, 'dobj': {'curiosity', 'constructs'}, 'ROOT': {'portray'}} Long High Medium
2779 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest It is quite likely that these attributes add to the conceptual ambiguity surrounding curiosity and interest 16 8 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It', 'attributes'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'quite'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'ccomp': {'add'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'amod': {'conceptual'}, 'pobj': {'ambiguity'}, 'acl': {'surrounding'}, 'dobj': {'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest'}} Medium High Medium
2780 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest This portrayal of complexity for curiosity and interest is not limited to their definitions, but is spoken about in relation to the experiencing of curiosity and interest (Shin and Kim this issue ), their “triggers ”or catalysts (Hidi and Renninger this issue), and the profiles of those who manifest either (Ainley this issue ) 54 29 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 8, 'CCONJ': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PROPN': 5, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'this', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'portrayal'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'about'}, 'pobj': {'definitions', 'complexity', 'curiosity', 'relation', 'those', 'experiencing'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Renninger', 'profiles', 'Kim', 'interest', 'spoken', 'catalysts'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'limited'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'Shin', 'triggers', 'Hidi', 'issue'}, 'npadvmod': {'issue'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'manifest'}, 'advmod': {'either'}, 'parataxis': {'Ainley'}} Long High Low
2781 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest The dimensions of human psychology and neurophysiology implicated in displays of curiosity and interest are cognitive, social, affective, and physiological (Peterson and Cohen this issue ), cultural, behavioral, and emotional (Shin and Kim this issue ), as well as sensory, perceptual, and epistemic (Ainley this issue ) 47 18 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 10, 'CCONJ': 7, 'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 15, 'PROPN': 5, 'ADV': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'dimensions'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'cognitive', 'cultural', 'human'}, 'pobj': {'psychology', 'curiosity', 'displays'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'perceptual', 'issue', 'affective', 'epistemic', 'emotional', 'interest', 'physiological', 'Kim', 'social', 'behavioral', 'Shin', 'sensory', 'Cohen', 'neurophysiology'}, 'acl': {'implicated'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nmod': {'Peterson', 'Ainley'}, 'attr': {'issue'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'appos': {'issue'}} Long High Low
2782 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Just contemplating the potential interactions among this myriad of dimensions is strong evidence that curiosity and interest are, indeed, highly complex notions.Educational Psychology Review (2019) 31:897 –904 898 28 10 {'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 4} [ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM] {'advmod': {'highly', 'Just', 'indeed'}, 'csubj': {'contemplating'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'potential', 'complex', 'strong'}, 'dobj': {'interactions'}, 'prep': {'of', 'among'}, 'pobj': {'dimensions', 'myriad'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'Review'}, 'attr': {'evidence', 'notions'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'punct': {'–', '.', ')', '(', '898', ','}, 'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational'}, 'appos': {'2019', '904', '31:897'}} Long High Medium
2783 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Further, the multidimensional nature of these constructs is quite apparent in the many iterations populating this special issue, especially pertaining to curiosity 22 11 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'quite', 'especially', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'amod': {'many', 'multidimensional', 'special'}, 'nsubj': {'nature'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity', 'iterations', 'constructs'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'apparent'}, 'acl': {'populating'}, 'dobj': {'issue'}, 'advcl': {'pertaining'}} Long High Low
2784 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest For example, there is mention of intellectual curiosity or what Dewey characterizes as children ’s natural desire to make sense of the world they inhabit (Ainley this issue ) 29 14 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, PROPN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'as', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'world', 'curiosity', 'desire', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'mention'}, 'amod': {'natural', 'intellectual'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'sense'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'Dewey'}, 'conj': {'characterizes'}, 'poss': {'children'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'make'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'relcl': {'inhabit'}, 'npadvmod': {'Ainley'}, 'appos': {'issue'}} Long High Low
2785 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Contributing authors (Peterson and Cohen this issue ; Shin and Kim this issue ) also reference Litman ’s(2005 )not i on sof I-type and D-type curiosity, where the “I”or interest form is aligned with positive emotions (e.g., joy, excitement, or pleasure), whereas the “D”or deprivation form connotes more negative feelings (e.g., tension, anxiety, or frustration) 55 19 {'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 19, 'PUNCT': 22, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PART, PRON, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'compound': {'interest', 'I”or', 'deprivation', 'Contributing', 'D”or'}, 'nsubj': {'Shin', 'authors', 'i', 'form'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';', '“'}, 'appos': {'Peterson', 'issue'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'excitement', 'pleasure', 'type', 'Kim', 'frustration', 'joy', 'tension', 'Cohen', 'anxiety'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'ccomp': {'issue'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'also', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'reference'}, 'dobj': {'feelings', 's(2005', 'Litman'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with'}, 'nmod': {'I', 'sof', 'type'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'D', 'negative'}, 'pobj': {'emotions', 'curiosity'}, 'nsubjpass': {'form'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'aligned'}, 'intj': {'e.g.'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'advcl': {'connotes'}} Long High High
2786 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Additionally, Hidi and Renninger ( this issue ) differen- tiate between perceptual curiosity and epistemic curiosity 16 4 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Additionally'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Hidi'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'curiosity', 'Renninger'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'parataxis': {'issue'}, 'appos': {'differen-'}, 'ROOT': {'tiate'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'amod': {'epistemic', 'perceptual'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity'}} Medium High Low
2787 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest With perceptual curiosity , the pursuit is for sensory information —how something feels, smells, or tastes 16 7 {'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'for', 'With'}, 'amod': {'perceptual', 'sensory'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity', 'information'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'something', 'pursuit'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'relcl': {'feels'}, 'conj': {'tastes', 'smells'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Medium High Medium
2788 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Epistemic curiosity , on the other hand, represents the search for relevant information to address a lack of knowledge or understanding 21 9 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB] {'amod': {'other', 'Epistemic', 'relevant'}, 'nsubj': {'curiosity'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'hand', 'knowledge', 'information'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'dobj': {'search', 'lack'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'address'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'understanding'}} Long High Low
2789 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest There Are More Transient and More Stable Forms of Curiosity and Interest Presumed To Contribute Differentially to Academic Achievement and Human Development There are forms of curiosity and interest that operate on distinctly different time scales 36 16 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, PROPN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'Are'}, 'amod': {'different', 'More', 'Stable'}, 'attr': {'forms', 'Transient'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'distinctly', 'More', 'Differentially'}, 'conj': {'Forms', 'Interest', 'interest', 'are', 'Development'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Curiosity', 'scales', 'curiosity', 'Achievement'}, 'acl': {'Presumed'}, 'aux': {'To'}, 'xcomp': {'Contribute'}, 'compound': {'time', 'Academic', 'Human'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'operate'}} Long High Low
2790 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest For instance, both state curiosity andsituational interest are distinguished by their typically short- lived, fleeting response to real or perceived conditions within the immediate context, what Ainley ( this issue ) called in-the-moment experiences 34 13 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'response', 'context', 'conditions', 'moment'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'both', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'state'}, 'nmod': {'curiosity'}, 'amod': {'fleeting', 'immediate', 'real', 'andsituational', 'lived'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interest'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'distinguished'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'typically', 'short-'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'perceived'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nsubj': {'Ainley'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'acl': {'called'}, 'oprd': {'experiences'}} Long High Low
2791 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest On the other hand, individual interest is marked by a more enduring interplay between learner characteristics and external conditions that engender more intentional processing and more selective attention 28 13 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'On', 'between'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'enduring', 'external', 'intentional', 'other', 'individual', 'learner', 'selective'}, 'pobj': {'hand', 'interplay', 'characteristics'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'interest'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'marked'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'conditions'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'engender'}, 'dobj': {'processing'}, 'appos': {'attention'}} Long High Low
2792 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest ’s(this issue ) argument that theory and research in curiosity and interest operate without a priori conceptions, I witnessed a remarkable level of consistency in contributing authors ’characterizations of transient or fleeting displays of curiosity and interest 37 14 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 15, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'’', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'s(this'}, 'nmod': {'issue'}, 'dep': {'argument'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'theory'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'fleeting', 'research'}, 'prep': {'without', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'displays', 'curiosity', 'consistency', 'conceptions'}, 'acl': {'operate'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'priori', 'transient', 'remarkable'}, 'ROOT': {'witnessed'}, 'dobj': {'authors', 'level', 'characterizations'}, 'pcomp': {'contributing'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Medium
2793 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest For instance, there was the shared perception that the “triggers ”or“attractors ”for these more state-like manifestations arise from the immediate external context (Shin and Kim this issue ) 28 13 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'For', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'context'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'immediate', 'external', 'like', 'more'}, 'attr': {'perception'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'triggers'}, 'acl': {'or“attractors'}, 'npadvmod': {'state'}, 'nsubj': {'manifestations'}, 'relcl': {'arise'}, 'appos': {'Shin', 'issue'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Kim'}} Long High Medium
2794 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest It is with regard to the nature of those triggers or attractors and their emotional valences where divergences between curiosity and interest are largely presumed to occur (Hidi and Renninger this issue ) 33 17 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'nature', 'curiosity', 'triggers', 'regard'}, 'det': {'this', 'the', 'those'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'issue', 'Renninger', 'interest', 'attractors', 'valences'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'emotional'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'largely'}, 'nsubjpass': {'divergences'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'presumed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'occur'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'dobj': {'Hidi'}} Long High Medium
2795 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest There was similar consistency in the conception of the more enduring, deep-seated form of interest, individual interest , which is grounded in the writings of Dewey ( 1913 ) and reiterated by contemporary interest researchers (Renninger and Hidi 2011; Schiefele 1991 ;W ade 2001 ) 45 16 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'amod': {'similar', 'enduring', 'seated', 'deep', 'individual', 'contemporary'}, 'attr': {'consistency'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'researchers', 'interest', 'form', 'writings', 'conception', 'Dewey'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'Hidi', 'reiterated'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'grounded'}, 'appos': {'Schiefele', '1913', 'Renninger'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'interest'}, 'nummod': {'1991', '2001', '2011'}, 'nsubj': {'W'}, 'ROOT': {'ade'}} Long High Low
2796 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest In contrast to the more short-lived displays, individual interest is internally powered and, thus, more cross-contextual and cross-situ ational, by nature 21 10 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'by', 'to', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'nature', 'contrast', 'displays'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'internally', 'short', 'thus', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'-', 'contextual', 'cross', 'individual', 'situ', 'lived'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interest'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'powered'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'cross'}, 'npadvmod': {'ational'}} Long High Low
2797 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Varied perspectives were noted in contributing authors ’characterizations of the more stable form of curiosity 15 6 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'amod': {'Varied', 'stable'}, 'nsubjpass': {'perspectives'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'noted'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'contributing'}, 'dobj': {'authors', 'characterizations'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity', 'form'}} Medium High Low
2798 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest For some of these authors, the predictable display of curiosity (i.e., trait curiosity ) is attribut- able to individuals ’inquisitive or probing nature (Hidi and Renninger this issue ) 29 11 {'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'authors', 'curiosity', 'individuals', 'some'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'amod': {'inquisitive', 'predictable'}, 'nsubj': {'display'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'compound': {'trait'}, 'appos': {'Hidi', 'curiosity', 'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'able', 'attribut-'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'probing', 'Renninger'}, 'dobj': {'nature'}} Long High Low
2799 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest The target or context for those occurrences is treated as non-specified or generic 13 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 4} [DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'det': {'The', 'those'}, 'nsubjpass': {'target'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'generic', 'context'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'occurrences'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'treated'}, 'amod': {'-', 'non', 'specified'}} Medium High Low
2800 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Alternatively, Peterson and Cohen ( this issue ) proffer a domain-specific view of curiosity 14 4 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Alternatively'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Peterson'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Cohen'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'proffer'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'amod': {'specific'}, 'dobj': {'view'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity'}} Medium High Low
2801 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest This more predictable and reoccurring form of curiosity is predicated on learners ’knowledge and involvement in a particular domain or associated topics, which can drive the formulation of thought-provoking or “curiosity questions ”(i.e., Renninger 2010 ) 36 15 {'DET': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'This'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'more'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'associated', 'provoking', 'predictable'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'involvement', 'reoccurring', 'topics'}, 'nsubjpass': {'form'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'knowledge', 'curiosity', 'questions'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'predicated'}, 'poss': {'learners'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'drive'}, 'dobj': {'formulation'}, 'npadvmod': {'thought'}, 'compound': {'curiosity'}, 'appos': {'Renninger'}, 'nummod': {'2010'}} Long High Low
2802 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest These curiosity questions can serve as the basis for an active and pleasurable pursuit of information (Alexander and Grossnickle 2016 ) 21 9 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'an', 'the', 'These'}, 'compound': {'curiosity'}, 'nsubj': {'questions'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'serve'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'basis', 'pursuit', 'information'}, 'amod': {'active'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Grossnickle', 'pleasurable'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'nummod': {'2016'}} Long High Low
2803 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Thus, this form of domain-specific curiosity , as with trait curiosity, is sourced within the individual, but it is attached to learners ’academic competences and identity and not to a general personality trait.Educational Psychology Review (2019) 31:897 –904 899 39 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {'’', '–', '-', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'form', 'it'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'amod': {'specific', 'academic', 'general'}, 'pobj': {'individual', 'learners', 'trait', 'curiosity'}, 'compound': {'trait', 'Psychology', 'personality', 'Educational'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'sourced'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'attached', 'to', 'identity'}, 'appos': {'2019', '904', '31:897', 'competences', '899'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Low
2804 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Curiosity and Interest Share Certain Underlying Components and Processes Even while acknowledging construct distinc tions, the contributing authors to this special issue were in agreement that particular components and processes are common to curiosity and interest 36 14 {'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PROPN': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Curiosity', 'components'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'Underlying', 'distinc', 'Certain', 'Interest'}, 'conj': {'processes', 'Processes', 'Share', 'interest', 'Components'}, 'advmod': {'Even'}, 'mark': {'while', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'acknowledging'}, 'amod': {'contributing', 'construct', 'special', 'particular'}, 'dobj': {'tions'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'appos': {'authors'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'agreement', 'curiosity', 'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'common'}} Long High High
2805 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Among tho se shared components are learners ’knowledge base, their goals, beliefs about self and about knowledge and knowing, and their cognitive and regulatory strategies (Ainley this issue ) 29 11 {'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'X': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, PRON, X, VERB, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'Among', 'about'}, 'pobj': {'self', 'components', 'tho', 'knowledge'}, 'advmod': {'se'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'cognitive'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'nmod': {'learners'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'nsubj': {'base'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'goals', 'Ainley', 'issue'}, 'conj': {'knowing', 'regulatory', 'about', 'beliefs', 'strategies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'this'}} Long High Low
2806 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest ( this issue ), who questioned the need for any differentiation between curiosity and interest, incorporated common components in their re ward-learning framework 23 10 {'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'X': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, X, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'any', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'questioned'}, 'dobj': {'components', 'need'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'framework', 'curiosity', 'differentiation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'ROOT': {'incorporated'}, 'amod': {'learning', 'common'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nmod': {'re'}, 'npadvmod': {'ward'}} Long High Low
2807 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Further, both Hidi and Renninger ’s(this issue ) four-phase model of interest development and Peter- son and Cohen ’s(this issue ) depiction of domain-specific curiosity identify learners ’ knowledge as key to experiences of curios ity or interest 38 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'NOUN': 18, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')', '’'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'nmod': {'Renninger', 'curiosity', 'learners', 'Hidi', 'son', 'identify'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'s(this', 'phase', 'interest', 'Peter-', 'curios'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'Cohen', 'issue'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'ROOT': {'model'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'development', 'knowledge', 'experiences', 'key', 'ity'}, 'appos': {'depiction', 'issue'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'amod': {'specific'}} Long High Low
2808 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Epistemic competence, cognition, and beliefs are also portrayed as components of both curiosity and interest that entail the identification of relevant and valid information (Hidi and Renninger this issue ; Peterson and Cohen this issue ) 36 15 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Epistemic', 'relevant'}, 'nsubjpass': {'competence'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Renninger', 'valid', 'interest', 'cognition', 'Cohen', 'beliefs'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ccomp': {'portrayed'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'components', 'curiosity', 'information'}, 'det': {'both', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'Peterson', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'entail'}, 'dobj': {'issue', 'identification'}, 'appos': {'Hidi'}, 'ROOT': {'issue'}} Long High Low
2809 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Moreover, learners who have a richer strategic repertoire can employ efficient and effective procedures to seek relevant information when their curiosity is aroused or their inte rest piqued 28 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'when'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'learners', 'rest', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'relevant', 'richer', 'efficient'}, 'dobj': {'information', 'procedures', 'repertoire'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'employ'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'effective', 'piqued'}, 'advcl': {'aroused', 'seek'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubjpass': {'curiosity'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'compound': {'inte'}} Long High Medium
2810 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest In addition, emotions appear in contributors ’examinations of curiosity and interest (Ainley this issue ;Sh i nan dK im this issue ), although the valence of those emotions (i.e., positive or negative) remains less settled 35 14 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 4, 'INTJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, INTJ, PRON, INTJ, INTJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, VERB] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'emotions', 'curiosity', 'addition', 'examinations'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'emotions', 'valence', 'i'}, 'ROOT': {'m', 'appear'}, 'poss': {'contributors'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'negative'}, 'appos': {'Ainley', 'issue'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'intj': {'dK', 'nan', 'Sh'}, 'attr': {'issue'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'less'}, 'amod': {'positive'}, 'advcl': {'remains'}, 'acomp': {'settled'}} Long High Medium
2811 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest As to the processes common to the exhibition ofc uriosity and interest, the contributing authors discuss goal-directed and self-regulat ory behaviors that drive a search for infor- mation and the oversight of that process (Shin and Kim this issue ) 40 17 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'As', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'mation', 'processes', 'process', 'uriosity'}, 'amod': {'directed', 'regulat', 'infor-', 'contributing', 'common'}, 'compound': {'ory', 'ofc', 'exhibition'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Kim', 'interest', 'oversight'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'discuss'}, 'npadvmod': {'goal', 'self'}, 'dobj': {'behaviors', 'search'}, 'relcl': {'drive'}, 'appos': {'Shin', 'issue'}} Long High Low
2812 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Further, there is mention made of attention and perception as lea rners connect with the immediate context and recognize certain gaps in their understanding or point of intrigue (Ainley this issue ) 32 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'mention'}, 'acl': {'made'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'intrigue', 'attention', 'context', 'understanding'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'point', 'recognize', 'perception'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'compound': {'lea'}, 'nsubj': {'rners'}, 'advcl': {'connect'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'immediate'}, 'dobj': {'gaps'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'Ainley', 'issue'}} Long High Medium
2813 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Curiosity and Interest Can Manifest Instinctually or Intentionally and Can Be Internally or Externally Instigated In her attempt to capture the areas of conve rgence and divergence for curiosity and interest, Ainley ( this issue ) describes young children ’s natural curiosity about their sur- roundings exhibited as exploratory behavior (Alexander et al 53 20 {'NOUN': 14, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PROPN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 3} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, AUX, PROPN, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, CCONJ, AUX, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'Curiosity', 'Ainley'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Externally', 'interest', 'divergence', 'Intentionally', 'Interest'}, 'compound': {'Can', 'sur-', 'conve'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Manifest'}, 'advmod': {'Instinctually', 'Internally'}, 'aux': {'Can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'Be'}, 'advcl': {'Instigated'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'about', 'In', 'as'}, 'poss': {'children', 'their', 'her'}, 'pobj': {'attempt', 'behavior', 'curiosity', 'rgence', 'roundings'}, 'acl': {'capture', 'exhibited'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'areas', 'curiosity'}, 'punct': {',', '(', 'al', ')'}, 'appos': {'issue', 'Alexander'}, 'ROOT': {'describes'}, 'amod': {'exploratory', 'natural', 'young'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
2814 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest While acknowledg- ing this more organic side of curiosity, Peterson and Cohen ’s(this issue ) attention to domain-specific curiosity captures a more ac tive and intentional experience 27 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'dep': {'acknowledg-'}, 'advcl': {'ing'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'amod': {'more', 'specific', 'organic', 'intentional'}, 'dobj': {'side', 'tive'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')', '’'}, 'nmod': {'Peterson', 'issue'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Cohen', 'experience'}, 'compound': {'s(this', 'ac'}, 'nsubj': {'attention'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'ROOT': {'captures'}} Long High Medium
2815 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest ( this issue ) contrast more unspecified exploration of the environment to a more dedicated and conscious investigation of a question or topic 23 11 {'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nmod': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'contrast'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'amod': {'dedicated', 'unspecified'}, 'dobj': {'exploration'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'investigation', 'environment', 'question'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'topic', 'conscious'}} Long High Low
2816 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Hidi and Renninger (this issue ) offer an alternative perspective on intentionality 12 4 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Hidi'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Renninger'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'det': {'an', 'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'amod': {'alternative'}, 'dobj': {'perspective'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'intentionality'}} Medium High Low
2817 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Specifically, they lay out the evidence to show that while both curiosity and interest can happen organically or be pursued intentionally, it is their foci that set them apart 29 17 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PRON, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADV] {'advmod': {'Specifically', 'organically', 'apart', 'intentionally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'curiosity', 'that', 'they', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'lay'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'evidence', 'them'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'show', 'happen'}, 'mark': {'that', 'while'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'pursued'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'set'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'attr': {'foci'}} Long High High
2818 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest There are also references made to the more instinctual and more intentional mani- festations of interest within this issue 19 12 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'more'}, 'attr': {'references'}, 'acl': {'made'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'instinctual'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'intentional'}, 'compound': {'mani-'}, 'pobj': {'interest', 'festations', 'issue'}} Medium High Low
2819 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest For example, situational interest is characterized as externally triggered, implying a more spo ntaneous rather than intentional nature (Schiefele 1991 ) 21 7 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADV, NOUN, ADJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For'}, 'pobj': {'example'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'ntaneous', 'situational', 'more', 'intentional'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interest'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'characterized'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advmod': {'rather', 'externally'}, 'advcl': {'implying', 'triggered'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'spo'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'appos': {'nature'}, 'npadvmod': {'Schiefele'}, 'nummod': {'1991'}} Long High Medium
2820 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Dewey ( 1913 ) wrote disdainfully about individuals ’attempts to dress up content as a way to enhance its appeal 20 7 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Dewey'}, 'punct': {'(', ')', '’'}, 'appos': {'1913'}, 'ccomp': {'wrote'}, 'advmod': {'disdainfully'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'way'}, 'ROOT': {'attempts'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'dress'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'appeal'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'relcl': {'enhance'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High Low
2821 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Regrettably, there are ample cases of writers or speakers using salacious but unimportant information to pique readers ’or listeners ’ interest; what Garner et al 25 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Regrettably'}, 'punct': {',', ';', 'al', '’'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'salacious', 'ample'}, 'attr': {'cases'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'interest', 'writers'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'unimportant', 'speakers', 'listeners'}, 'acl': {'using'}, 'dobj': {'Garner', 'information'}, 'compound': {'pique'}, 'nmod': {'readers'}, 'dep': {'what'}, 'appos': {'et'}} Long High Low
2822 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Rather than sustain or hold the readers ’or listeners ’interest, such seductions can lead them cognitively astray.Educational Psychology Review (2019) 31:897 –904 900 23 8 {'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 4} [ADV, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM] {'advmod': {'astray', 'cognitively', 'Rather'}, 'prep': {'than'}, 'pcomp': {'sustain'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'hold'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'readers', 'them'}, 'punct': {'’', '–', '.', ')', '(', '900', ','}, 'nmod': {'listeners'}, 'pobj': {'interest'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'nsubj': {'seductions'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'lead', 'Review'}, 'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational'}, 'appos': {'2019', '904', '31:897'}} Long High Low
2823 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Both Curiosity and Interest Develop Over Time as a Consequence of Maturation and Experiences Whether only implied or explicitly stated, the contributing authors to this special issue acknowledge that curiosity and interest undergo change over the lifespan 37 17 {'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'Both', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'Curiosity', 'authors', 'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'undergo', 'Interest'}, 'conj': {'Experiences', 'interest', 'stated', 'Develop'}, 'prep': {'Over', 'to', 'of', 'as', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'Consequence', 'issue', 'Maturation', 'Time', 'lifespan'}, 'mark': {'Whether', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'explicitly'}, 'advcl': {'implied'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'contributing', 'special'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledge'}, 'dobj': {'change'}} Long High High
2824 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Inevitably, an expression of curiosity or interest represents individuals ’responses or reactions to certain conditions within given contexts 18 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, VERB] {'advmod': {'Inevitably'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'an'}, 'nsubj': {'expression'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'conditions', 'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'reactions'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'responses', 'contexts'}, 'amod': {'certain'}, 'pcomp': {'given'}} Medium High Low
2825 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Thus, as individuals mature neurologically, biologically, culturally, socially, emotionally, and affectively, and as they experience increasingly more varied and complex situations during their lifetime, their demonstrations of curiosity and interest should correspondingly change 33 14 {'ADV': 10, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'neurologically', 'increasingly', 'correspondingly', 'socially', 'culturally', 'emotionally', 'more', 'biologically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'they', 'demonstrations'}, 'advcl': {'experience', 'mature'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'affectively', 'interest', 'complex'}, 'amod': {'varied'}, 'dobj': {'situations'}, 'prep': {'during', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity', 'lifetime'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'change'}} Long High High
2826 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Contributing authors to this special issue explore the development of curiosity and interest in diverse ways 16 6 {'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'csubj': {'Contributing'}, 'dobj': {'authors', 'development'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'diverse', 'special'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'curiosity', 'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'explore'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest'}} Medium High Low
2827 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest For example, Ainley ( this issue ) casts change in terms of increased diversification in the expressions of curiosity and interest over time, which appear inextricably intertwined within the responses and reactions of young children 35 14 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'in', 'of', 'For', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'children', 'terms', 'curiosity', 'example', 'time', 'responses', 'diversification', 'expressions'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'Ainley'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'casts'}, 'dobj': {'change'}, 'amod': {'increased', 'young'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'reactions'}, 'auxpass': {'appear'}, 'advmod': {'inextricably'}, 'relcl': {'intertwined'}} Long High Low
2828 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest For their part, Shin and Kim ( this issue ) address the developmental interplay between curiosity and interest 18 8 {'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'between'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity', 'part'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Shin'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'Kim'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'address'}, 'amod': {'developmental'}, 'dobj': {'interplay'}} Medium High Low
2829 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest As they contend, “iterative cycles of curiosity resolution can lead to the development of individual interest ”(p 17 7 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'cycles', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'contend'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '”', '“'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'iterative'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'curiosity'}, 'pobj': {'resolution', 'interest', 'development'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'lead'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Medium High Medium
2830 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest This observation seems in harmony with Hidi and Renninger ’s model ( 2016 ), and the perceived role that curiosity is thought to play in that developmental trajectory 28 13 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'that', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'observation'}, 'ROOT': {'seems'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Hidi', 'harmony', 'trajectory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'role', 'model', 'Renninger'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2016'}, 'amod': {'perceived', 'developmental'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'curiosity'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'thought'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'play'}} Long High Low
2831 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Further, while the development of interest has dominated the literature, with curiosity assuming a supporting role, Peterson and Cohen ( this issue ) position curiosity development front and center 29 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'curiosity', 'development'}, 'prep': {'with', 'dominated', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'interest'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'literature'}, 'pcomp': {'assuming'}, 'amod': {'supporting'}, 'conj': {'Peterson', 'Cohen', 'center'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dep': {'issue'}, 'compound': {'position', 'curiosity', 'development'}, 'appos': {'front'}} Long High Medium
2832 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest These authors sidestep the generic conceptualization of curiosity that prevails in this issue and the literature in favor of a domain-specific orientation 22 11 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'this', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'sidestep'}, 'amod': {'generic', 'specific'}, 'dobj': {'conceptualization'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'favor', 'orientation', 'curiosity', 'issue'}, 'relcl': {'prevails'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'literature'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Long High Low
2833 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest The Measurement of Curiosity and Interest in a Direct and Psychometrically Sound Manner Remains Elusive Sadly, as is true for many constructs of importance within educational psychology, the challenges of measuring curiosity and interest and their antecedents and consequences are formidable 41 19 {'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 1} [DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, ADV, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'challenges', 'Measurement'}, 'prep': {'for', 'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Manner', 'Curiosity', 'psychology', 'importance', 'constructs'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Psychometrically', 'interest', 'consequences', 'antecedents', 'Interest', 'Sound'}, 'amod': {'many', 'Direct', 'educational'}, 'ccomp': {'Remains'}, 'acomp': {'formidable', 'true', 'Elusive'}, 'advmod': {'Sadly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'measuring'}, 'dobj': {'curiosity'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}} Long High Medium
2834 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Various creative techniques to unearthing curiosity and interest are described in this special issue, such as trivia questions, parent questionnaires, creative activity boxes, and reports of feelings while reading and writing 31 12 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'amod': {'Various', 'such', 'creative', 'special'}, 'nsubjpass': {'techniques'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'unearthing'}, 'dobj': {'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'writing', 'interest', 'reports', 'questionnaires', 'boxes'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'feelings', 'issue', 'questions'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'trivia', 'activity', 'parent'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
2835 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Further data sources authors identified as relevant to the study of curiosity and interest included self-reports, personality measures, eye-tracking, transdermal optical imaging, and event or behavioral sampling procedures 28 8 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 16, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'Further', 'optical', 'behavioral', 'relevant', 'transdermal'}, 'compound': {'sources', 'personality', 'data', 'sampling', 'self'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'identified'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity', 'study'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'measures', 'event', 'interest', 'imaging', 'included', 'procedures'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'dobj': {'reports'}, 'npadvmod': {'eye'}, 'dep': {'tracking'}} Long High Low
2836 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Also, as with several contributors to this special issue (Hidi and Renninger this issue ;M ur ay am a et al 21 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'INTJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, X, INTJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Also'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', 'al'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'with'}, 'amod': {'several', 'special'}, 'pobj': {'contributors', 'issue'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'appos': {'Hidi'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Renninger'}, 'compound': {'ur', 'M'}, 'nsubj': {'ay'}, 'ROOT': {'am'}, 'attr': {'et'}} Long High Low
2837 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest this issue ; Shin and Kim this issue ), I find that the neuroscientific techniques such as functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), electroencephalograms (EEG), and fMRI bring a new and promising dimension to the measurement of curiosity and interest 38 15 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'dep': {'issue'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'prep': {'Shin', 'of', 'to', 'as'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'Kim', 'promising', 'fMRI'}, 'appos': {'fNIRS', 'issue', 'EEG'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'techniques', 'electroencephalograms'}, 'ROOT': {'find'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'infrared', 'new', 'such', 'functional', 'neuroscientific'}, 'advmod': {'near'}, 'pobj': {'spectroscopy', 'curiosity', 'measurement'}, 'ccomp': {'bring'}, 'dobj': {'dimension'}} Long High Medium
2838 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest There are other approaches to the measurement of curiosity and interest not expressly discussed in this special issue 18 10 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'other', 'special'}, 'attr': {'approaches'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity', 'issue', 'measurement'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'expressly'}, 'acl': {'discussed'}} Medium High Low
2839 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest For example, Renninger and Hidi ( 2016 ) have described four behavioral markers that can be used in the measurement of interest: frequency of engagement, depth of engagement, voluntary re-engagement, and the capacity for independent re-engage- ment 37 18 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'ment', 'interest', 'example', 'engagement', 'measurement'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Renninger'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'capacity', 'Hidi', 'depth'}, 'appos': {'frequency', '2016'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'amod': {'independent', '-', 'voluntary', 're', 'behavioral'}, 'dobj': {'markers', '-', 're', 'engagement'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'used'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dep': {'engage-'}} Long High Low
2840 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Correspondingly, my colleagues and I have used domain-specific measures of demon- strated versus self-reported interest to capture the frequency of individuals ’voluntary engagement in relevant domain activities (Alexander et al 30 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Correspondingly'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', 'al', '(', ','}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'nsubj': {'colleagues'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain', 'self', 'et'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'specific', 'voluntary', 'reported'}, 'dobj': {'frequency', 'measures'}, 'prep': {'versus', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'interest', 'demon-', 'individuals', 'activities'}, 'acl': {'strated'}, 'xcomp': {'capture'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'engagement'}, 'compound': {'domain', 'Alexander'}} Long High Low
2841 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Despite this diversity of sources and techniques, none directly measures curiosity or interest in that they either rely on the subjective judgments of respondents (e.g., self-report measures) or the interpretations and inferences of researchers (e.g., fMRI scans) 37 16 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'of', 'Despite', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'judgments', 'diversity', 'researchers', 'respondents'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'techniques', 'interest', 'inferences', 'interpretations'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'none', 'they'}, 'advmod': {'directly', 'e.g.'}, 'ROOT': {'measures'}, 'dobj': {'curiosity'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'pcomp': {'rely'}, 'amod': {'subjective'}, 'compound': {'self', 'report', 'fMRI'}, 'appos': {'scans', 'measures'}} Long High High
2842 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest array of measurement techniques, most researchers investigating curiosity and interest contin- ue to rely exclusively on self-report data 18 5 {'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'INTJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, INTJ, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'array'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'compound': {'self', 'report', 'measurement'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'data'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'most'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'acl': {'investigating'}, 'dobj': {'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'appos': {'contin-', 'ue'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'rely'}, 'advmod': {'exclusively'}} Medium High Low
2843 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Moreover, it is important to remember that the novel tasks or instruments that researchers have developed to examine curiosity and interest have been shaped by their conceptualizations of these constructs, thus impacting what can ultimate- ly be concluded from them 40 23 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'remember', 'examine'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'novel', 'ultimate-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'tasks', 'what', 'ly'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'instruments'}, 'dobj': {'curiosity', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'developed'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'been'}, 'ccomp': {'shaped', 'concluded'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'constructs', 'them', 'conceptualizations'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'advcl': {'impacting'}} Long High Medium
2844 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest In light of such concerns, it would seem prudent for researchers examining individuals ’curiosity and interest to seek corroborating evidence across several modes of measurement (e.g., self-report questionnaire and fNIRS scan) 31 13 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'across', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'modes', 'measurement', 'concerns', 'light'}, 'amod': {'several', 'such', 'fNIRS'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'it'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'oprd': {'prudent'}, 'pcomp': {'examining'}, 'dobj': {'evidence', 'individuals', 'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'scan', 'interest'}, 'advcl': {'seek'}, 'xcomp': {'corroborating'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'compound': {'self', 'report'}, 'npadvmod': {'questionnaire'}} Long High Low
2845 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Drilling Down into the Common Ground As the prior discussion established, there is a “unity of knowledge ”among curiosity and interest theorists and researchers that forms their common ground (Wilson 1998 ) 32 14 {'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Drilling'}, 'prt': {'Down'}, 'prep': {'into', 'As', 'among', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Common'}, 'pobj': {'theorists', 'discussion', 'knowledge', 'Ground'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'common'}, 'acl': {'established'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'unity'}, 'nmod': {'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'researchers'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'forms'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'ground'}, 'appos': {'Wilson'}, 'nummod': {'1998'}} Long High Low
2846 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Yet, there is still more to be learned about the terrain shared by curiosity and interest researchers, if one is willing to probe beneath the surface 26 16 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NUM, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Yet', 'more', 'still'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'learned', 'willing'}, 'prep': {'beneath', 'about'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'surface', 'researchers', 'terrain'}, 'acl': {'shared'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nmod': {'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubj': {'one'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'xcomp': {'probe'}} Long High Medium
2847 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest This is precisely my aim in bringing this commentary to a close 12 7 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'This'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'precisely'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'attr': {'aim'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'bringing'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'commentary'}, 'pobj': {'close'}} Medium High Low
2848 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest To accomplish this end, I have put forth several provocations in the form of lingering questions 16 9 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'aux': {'To', 'have'}, 'advcl': {'accomplish'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'provocations', 'end'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'put'}, 'prt': {'forth'}, 'amod': {'lingering', 'several'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'form', 'questions'}} Medium High Low
2849 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest My hope is that these questions will engender readers ’curiosity or fuel their interest in subsequent explorations 17 8 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'My', 'their'}, 'nsubj': {'hope', 'questions'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ccomp': {'engender'}, 'dobj': {'readers', 'interest', 'curiosity'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'fuel'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'amod': {'subsequent'}, 'pobj': {'explorations'}} Medium High Medium
2850 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest One of the uncertainties to emerge from my reading of the articles comprising this special issue was whether these researchers regard curiosity or interest as “ends”that should be fostered in their own right 33 19 {'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'researchers', 'One'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'uncertainties', 'right', 'reading'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'acl': {'comprising', 'emerge'}, 'poss': {'my', 'their'}, 'amod': {'own', 'special'}, 'dobj': {'curiosity', 'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'as', 'whether'}, 'ccomp': {'regard'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'punct': {'“'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ends”that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'fostered'}} Long High High
2851 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Or is the nurturance of curiosity and interest important because they lead to outcomes of academic or psychological significance 19 10 {'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [CCONJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'and', 'Or', 'or'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'nurturance', 'they'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity', 'outcomes', 'significance'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'psychological'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'lead'}, 'amod': {'academic'}} Medium High Medium
2852 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest In my research (Alexander and Grossnickle 2016 ), and in the work by Hidi and Renninger ( this issue ), Ainley ( this issue ), and others, it is apparent that individual interest is a valued outcome as well as a means to desired ends, such as expertise or academic development 51 25 {'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'by', 'as', 'In'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'pobj': {'ends', 'expertise', 'Hidi', 'work', 'Alexander', 'research'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as', 'or'}, 'conj': {'means', 'Grossnickle', 'Renninger', 'others', 'development'}, 'nummod': {'2016'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'dep': {'Ainley', 'issue'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'nsubj': {'interest', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'apparent'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'valued', 'individual', 'desired', 'such', 'academic'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'outcome'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}} Long High Medium
2853 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Peterson and Cohen ( this issue ) bring that same perspective to the more enduring form of curiosity 18 8 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Peterson'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Cohen'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'bring'}, 'amod': {'enduring', 'same'}, 'dobj': {'perspective'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity', 'form'}} Medium High Low
2854 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Based on the contents of this special issue, the resolution is uncertain 12 6 {'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'prep': {'on', 'Based', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'contents', 'issue'}, 'amod': {'special'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'resolution'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'uncertain'}} Medium High Low
2855 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest What they argue is that the unnamed processes of curiosity and interest promote the acquisition of knowledge 17 9 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'dobj': {'acquisition', 'What'}, 'nsubj': {'processes', 'they'}, 'csubj': {'argue'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'unnamed'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'ccomp': {'promote'}} Medium High Medium
2856 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest In contrast, Shin and Kim ( this issue ) contend that the actual outcomes of curiosity have yet to be determined 21 10 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADV, PART, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity', 'contrast'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Shin', 'outcomes'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Kim'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'contend'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'actual'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'yet'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'determined'}} Long High Medium
2857 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest As they stated, “future work can examine the effects of curiosity on problem-solving, creativity, and well-being, and how the iterative resolution of curiosity for one specific topic can lead to individual interest ”(p 33 17 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'resolution', 'work', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'stated'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'amod': {'future', 'specific', 'individual', 'iterative'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'examine'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'effects'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'solving', 'topic', 'curiosity', 'interest'}, 'npadvmod': {'problem'}, 'conj': {'lead', 'being', 'creativity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'how'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long High High
2858 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest xx) Is Ascribing Negative Emotions to Curiosity Necessary or Justified, or Is That Characterization Merely a Way To Disentangle It from Interest 22 10 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, AUX, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, DET, PROPN, ADV, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Is', 'xx'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'compound': {'Curiosity', 'Negative', 'Ascribing'}, 'nsubj': {'Characterization', 'Emotions'}, 'prep': {'to', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'Interest', 'Necessary'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'Is', 'Justified'}, 'det': {'That', 'a'}, 'advmod': {'Merely'}, 'attr': {'Way'}, 'aux': {'To'}, 'relcl': {'Disentangle'}, 'dobj': {'It'}} Long High Low
2859 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest I found myself troubled by the negative emotional valences that were repeatedly attached to curiosity, in contrast to the positive reactions tied to interest 24 11 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'myself'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'ccomp': {'troubled'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'emotional', 'positive', 'negative'}, 'pobj': {'interest', 'curiosity', 'contrast', 'valences', 'reactions'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'repeatedly'}, 'relcl': {'attached'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'punct': {','}, 'acl': {'tied'}} Long High Low
2860 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest I appreciated the presence of neurophysiological evidence offered in support of this claim by several contributors (Hidi & Renninger this issue ; Shin and Kim this issue ) 28 11 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'I', 'Shin'}, 'ROOT': {'appreciated'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'presence'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'several', 'neurophysiological'}, 'pobj': {'claim', 'contributors', 'evidence', 'support'}, 'acl': {'offered'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ')'}, 'appos': {'Hidi'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Kim', 'Renninger'}, 'npadvmod': {'issue'}, 'dep': {'issue'}} Long High Low
2861 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest It is also noteworthy that neuroscientists like Jepma, Verdonschot, van Steenbergen, Rombouts, and Nieuwenhuis ( 2012 ) have reported that the initial aversive state can rather quickly give way to more positive emotions once closure isEducational Psychology Review (2019) 31:897 –904 902 42 14 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 8, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM] {'nsubj': {'neuroscientists', 'It', 'state'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'once', 'rather', 'quickly', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'noteworthy'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'like'}, 'pobj': {'emotions', 'Jepma'}, 'punct': {',', '–', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Verdonschot', 'Steenbergen', 'Nieuwenhuis', 'Rombouts'}, 'compound': {'Psychology', 'van'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'2012', '2019', '904', '31:897'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have'}, 'ccomp': {'give', 'reported'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'initial', 'aversive', 'positive', 'isEducational'}, 'dobj': {'Review', 'way'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'closure'}, 'npadvmod': {'902'}} Long High High
2862 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Nonetheless, I would argue that there are factors that complicate the conclusions reached regarding the emotions ascribed to state curiosity 20 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'argue'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'factors'}, 'relcl': {'complicate'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'conclusions'}, 'acl': {'ascribed', 'reached'}, 'prep': {'regarding', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'emotions', 'curiosity'}, 'compound': {'state'}} Long High Medium
2863 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest For one, the tasks or activities developed to assess the neurochemical reactions of state curiosity were at times conceived to engender frustration or to be resolved through the identification of rather discrete information 33 17 {'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'through', 'at', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity', 'information', 'times', 'identification', 'one'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'tasks'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'resolved', 'conceived', 'activities'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'assess'}, 'amod': {'discrete', 'neurochemical'}, 'dobj': {'frustration', 'reactions'}, 'compound': {'state'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'were'}, 'advcl': {'engender'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}} Long High Low
2864 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest For another, I could not help but wonder why trait curiosity would be viewed as a positive personality characteristic if its manifestations translate into repeated frustrations or feelings of deprivation even initially 32 17 {'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADV] {'prep': {'into', 'as', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'frustrations', 'another', 'personality', 'deprivation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'manifestations'}, 'aux': {'would', 'could'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'help'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'wonder', 'feelings'}, 'advmod': {'initially', 'even', 'why'}, 'compound': {'trait'}, 'nsubjpass': {'curiosity'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'viewed'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'repeated', 'characteristic'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'advcl': {'translate'}} Long High High
2865 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Moreover, the information searches that the contributors to this special issue describe were not uniform and that variability would seem potentially influential to whatever initial or culminating emotional valence manifested 30 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'potentially', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'whatever'}, 'nsubj': {'valence', 'contributors', 'variability', 'information'}, 'ROOT': {'searches'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'amod': {'emotional', 'initial', 'special'}, 'compound': {'issue'}, 'pobj': {'describe'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'uniform'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'conj': {'seem', 'culminating'}, 'oprd': {'influential'}, 'pcomp': {'manifested'}} Long High Medium
2866 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest There are undoubted ly times when individuals undertake information searches to resolve a very specific gap in their understanding that is not tied to any domain or topic of personal relevance 31 15 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'X': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, X, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'undoubted', 'specific'}, 'compound': {'ly', 'information'}, 'attr': {'times'}, 'advmod': {'very', 'when'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals'}, 'relcl': {'undertake', 'tied'}, 'dobj': {'searches', 'gap'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'resolve'}, 'det': {'a', 'any'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'relevance', 'understanding'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'topic'}} Long High Medium
2867 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest In such instances, it is reasona ble that there are feelings of deprivation that accompany the search process 18 10 {'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'pobj': {'deprivation', 'instances'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'compound': {'search', 'reasona'}, 'acomp': {'ble'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'feelings'}, 'relcl': {'accompany'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'process'}} Medium High Medium
2868 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Yet, quite different reasons for embarking on an information search can also be envisioned with more positive emotional outcomes 19 10 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'quite', 'also', 'Yet', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'different', 'emotional', 'positive'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reasons'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'with'}, 'pcomp': {'embarking'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'compound': {'information'}, 'pobj': {'outcomes', 'search'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'envisioned'}} Medium High Low
2869 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest For example, in their more domain- specific view of curiosity, Peterson and Cohen ( this issue ) argued that state curiosity can be associated with increased attention and with the activation of the brain ’s reward circuitry during the search for information and not only after the search is resolved 50 26 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'during', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'brain', 'view', 'curiosity', 'search', 'example', 'information', 'activation', 'attention'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'domain-', 'more'}, 'amod': {'increased', 'specific'}, 'conj': {'Peterson', 'with', 'Cohen', 'not'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'mark': {'after', 'that'}, 'compound': {'state'}, 'nsubjpass': {'curiosity', 'search'}, 'aux': {'can', '’s'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'ccomp': {'associated', 'reward'}, 'dobj': {'circuitry'}, 'advcl': {'resolved'}} Long High High
2870 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest I also concur with Renninger and Hidi ( 2011) that posing curiosity questions is likely a link to individual interest 20 8 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'concur'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'interest', 'Renninger'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Hidi'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2011'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'posing'}, 'compound': {'curiosity'}, 'dobj': {'questions'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'link'}, 'amod': {'individual'}} Long High Medium
2871 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Also, the attention to gaps in understanding or an information shortfall even among more acclimating or early competence learners could stand as a positive sign that they were metacognitively engaged 30 16 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'metacognitively', 'more', 'Also', 'even'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'attention', 'they'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'among', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'sign', 'gaps', 'understanding'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'competence', 'information'}, 'conj': {'shortfall', 'early'}, 'amod': {'acclimating', 'positive'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ROOT': {'stand'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advcl': {'engaged'}} Long High Medium
2872 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Similarly, learners ’willingness to pursue information that can address those gaps or shortfalls should be encouraged from a regulatory standpoint 20 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Similarly'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nmod': {'learners'}, 'nsubjpass': {'willingness'}, 'aux': {'can', 'should', 'to'}, 'acl': {'pursue'}, 'dobj': {'gaps', 'information'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'address'}, 'det': {'a', 'those'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'shortfalls'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'encouraged'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'amod': {'regulatory'}, 'pobj': {'standpoint'}} Long High Low
2873 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Achieving some level of closure, therefore, should engender positive reactions, especially when those efforts are self-induced 16 7 {'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB] {'advcl': {'Achieving', 'induced'}, 'det': {'those', 'some'}, 'dobj': {'level', 'reactions'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'closure'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'therefore', 'when', 'especially'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'engender'}, 'amod': {'positive'}, 'nsubjpass': {'efforts'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}} Medium High Medium
2874 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Thus, I think it is worth reconsidering the negative orientation routinely ascribed on curiosity 14 6 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'routinely'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'think'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'worth'}, 'xcomp': {'reconsidering'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'negative'}, 'dobj': {'orientation'}, 'acl': {'ascribed'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity'}} Medium High Low
2875 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Is Theory and Research into Curiosity Mature Enough To Forward Implications for Instructional Practice 14 6 {'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3} [AUX, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN] {'ROOT': {'Is'}, 'nsubj': {'Theory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Research'}, 'prep': {'into', 'for', 'To'}, 'compound': {'Forward', 'Curiosity', 'Instructional'}, 'pobj': {'Practice', 'Implications', 'Mature'}, 'advmod': {'Enough'}} Medium High Low
2876 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest I am always a bit leery about what are legitimate and us eful implications for instructional practice based on existing theory and research 23 12 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'what'}, 'ROOT': {'am'}, 'advmod': {'always'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'npadvmod': {'bit'}, 'acomp': {'leery', 'legitimate'}, 'prep': {'based', 'for', 'about', 'on'}, 'pcomp': {'are'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'us'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'eful', 'existing'}, 'pobj': {'practice', 'implications', 'theory'}, 'conj': {'research'}} Long High Low
2877 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest From myv antage point as a former school teacher, there needs to be a sufficient number of studies conducted with real learners in real learning environments engaged in real academic tasks before presenting guidelines to practitioners 36 14 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 13, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'before', 'From', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'antage', 'myv', 'school'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'practitioners', 'teacher', 'learners', 'point', 'tasks', 'environments'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'sufficient', 'academic', 'real', 'former'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'needs'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'number'}, 'acl': {'engaged', 'conducted'}, 'pcomp': {'presenting'}, 'dobj': {'guidelines'}} Long High Low
2878 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest While decades of research into interest have seemingly met thoser equirements, I do not find that the literature on curiosity yet reaches that threshold 24 12 {'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'that', 'While'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'literature', 'decades'}, 'prep': {'into', 'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'interest', 'curiosity', 'research'}, 'aux': {'have', 'do'}, 'advmod': {'yet', 'seemingly'}, 'advcl': {'met'}, 'compound': {'thoser'}, 'dobj': {'threshold', 'equirements'}, 'punct': {','}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'find'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'ccomp': {'reaches'}} Long High High
2879 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Perhapst hat is why contributors to this special issue —its title notwithstanding —have focused much on theoretical and emp irical insights and implications than on what all this means for educational practice 32 16 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PRON, DET, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Perhapst'}, 'nsubj': {'contributors', 'this', 'hat'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'much', 'notwithstanding', 'why'}, 'prep': {'on', 'than', 'to', 'for'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'amod': {'irical', 'theoretical', 'educational', 'special'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'practice', 'insights'}, 'punct': {'—'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'appos': {'title'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ccomp': {'focused'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'emp', 'implications'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'pcomp': {'means'}} Long High Medium
2880 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Th is observation points to the next generation of curiosity and interest studies that seem essential to move this growing body of work forward 24 12 {'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PROPN, AUX, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV] {'nsubj': {'that', 'Th'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'compound': {'observation'}, 'attr': {'points'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'growing', 'next'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'generation', 'work'}, 'nmod': {'curiosity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest'}, 'relcl': {'seem'}, 'oprd': {'essential'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'move'}, 'dobj': {'body'}, 'advmod': {'forward'}} Long High Low
2881 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest In essence, there is a pressing need for quasi-expe rimental and experimental studies conducted in ecologically valid ways that put the oretical assumptions and empirical conclusions about curiosity and interest to the test within the dynamic and uncertain context of the classroom 42 20 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 9, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'for', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'curiosity', 'essence', 'context', 'classroom', 'rimental', 'test'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'-', 'experimental', 'pressing', 'dynamic', 'valid', 'expe', 'oretical', 'empirical', 'quasi'}, 'attr': {'need'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'studies', 'interest', 'conclusions', 'uncertain'}, 'acl': {'conducted'}, 'advmod': {'ecologically'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'put'}, 'dobj': {'assumptions'}} Long High Low
2882 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest Coda It has been my honor to read and respond to the well-crafted and informative articles that comprise this important and timely special issue 24 13 {'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 4} [PROPN, PRON, AUX, AUX, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'Coda'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'It'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'attr': {'honor'}, 'acl': {'read'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'respond', 'special', 'informative', 'timely'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'important', 'crafted'}, 'pobj': {'articles'}, 'relcl': {'comprise'}, 'dobj': {'issue'}} Long High Low
2883 Seeking Common Ground- Surveying the Theoretical and Empirical Landscapes for Curiosity and Interest There is no question that the contributingEducational Psychology Review (2019) 31:897 –904 903 13 5 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 4} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'attr': {'question'}, 'nmod': {'that'}, 'compound': {'Psychology', 'contributingEducational', '904'}, 'nsubj': {'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', '–', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}, 'appos': {'903', '31:897'}} Medium High Medium
2884 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 1 Shared Discursive History: Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Abstract In the UK, government and educational stakeholders perceive the problem with boys’ disaffection and underachievement in school as due to a lack of role models 35 13 {'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [NUM, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'1'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'Shared'}, 'compound': {'role', 'Role', 'Discursive'}, 'ROOT': {'perceive', 'History'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'acl': {'Rethinking'}, 'dobj': {'Teachers', 'problem'}, 'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'In', 'due'}, 'pobj': {'lack', 'disaffection', 'school', 'models', 'Models', 'UK'}, 'appos': {'Abstract'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'conj': {'government', 'stakeholders', 'underachievement'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'boys'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'advmod': {'as'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}} Long High Low
2885 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In political role model discourses Black or Ethnic Minority (B.E.M.) teachers are recruited tom odify the behaviour ofB.E.M 18 4 {'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'In'}, 'amod': {'Black', 'political'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'nsubj': {'model'}, 'ROOT': {'discourses'}, 'cc': {'or', 'tom'}, 'conj': {'Ethnic'}, 'nmod': {'Minority'}, 'punct': {'(', 'ofB.E.M', ')'}, 'appos': {'B.E.M.'}, 'nsubjpass': {'teachers'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'recruited'}, 'dep': {'odify'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'behaviour'}} Medium High Low
2886 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models boys, without attaching any blame to the systemic racism they experience in schooling and wider society 16 7 {'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'boys'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'without', 'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'attaching'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'blame'}, 'amod': {'wider', 'systemic'}, 'pobj': {'schooling', 'racism'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'experience'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'society'}} Medium High Low
2887 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The empirical dat a for this article is drawn from a research project examining the lives ofB.E.M teachers 18 8 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'empirical'}, 'nsubjpass': {'a', 'dat'}, 'prep': {'for', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'article', 'project'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'drawn'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'acl': {'examining'}, 'dobj': {'lives'}, 'cc': {'ofB.E.M'}, 'appos': {'teachers'}} Medium High Low
2888 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models teachers are scrutinised for insights to how they perceive and self -define their discursive work 15 7 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'teachers'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'scrutinised'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'insights'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'pcomp': {'perceive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'conj': {'-define'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'discursive'}, 'appos': {'work'}} Medium High Medium
2889 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The author proposes a conceptual frame referred to as ‘shared discursive his - tory’ to contextualise the wayB.E.M 18 7 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'author'}, 'ROOT': {'proposes'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'conceptual'}, 'dobj': {'tory', 'wayB.E.M', 'frame'}, 'acl': {'referred'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to'}, 'punct': {'‘', '-', '’'}, 'pobj': {'discursive'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'contextualise'}} Medium High Low
2890 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models teachers modelling a critical stance to, and assumptions about, representations of ‘other’. 12 6 {'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'teachers'}, 'acl': {'modelling'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'critical'}, 'dobj': {'stance'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'punct': {',', '.', '‘', '’'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'assumptions', 'representations'}, 'pobj': {'other'}} Medium High Low
2891 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 2 Shared Discursive History: Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Introduction This article discusses an empirical study undertaken in inner London (UK) into how Black or Ethnic Minority (B.E.M.) teachers position themselves as role models forB.E.M 35 9 {'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 12, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'2'}, 'amod': {'empirical', 'Black', 'inner', 'Shared'}, 'compound': {'role', 'Models', 'Role', 'Discursive'}, 'ROOT': {'discusses', 'History'}, 'punct': {'(', ':', ')', 'forB.E.M'}, 'acl': {'undertaken', 'Rethinking'}, 'dobj': {'study', 'themselves', 'Teachers'}, 'prep': {'into', 'as', 'in'}, 'appos': {'UK', 'Introduction', 'B.E.M.'}, 'det': {'an', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers', 'article'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'London'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'position', 'Ethnic', 'Minority'}} Long High Medium
2892 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models It applies ideas about identity drawn from cultural studies and feminist post -structural theories about discourse to problematise the ‘teacher role model’ concept 23 7 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 2} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'applies'}, 'dobj': {'concept', 'ideas'}, 'prep': {'about', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'discourse', 'identity'}, 'acl': {'drawn'}, 'amod': {'-structural', 'feminist', 'cultural'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'model', 'post'}, 'conj': {'theories'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'problematise'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’'}, 'compound': {'role', 'teacher'}} Long High Low
2893 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models A commonly held view is that role models are individuals whom others aspire to copy, mimic, emulate or identify with (Gauntlett 2002) 22 9 {'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'A'}, 'advmod': {'commonly'}, 'amod': {'held'}, 'nsubj': {'models', 'view', 'others'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'individuals'}, 'dobj': {'whom'}, 'relcl': {'aspire'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'copy'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'mimic', 'emulate', 'identify'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'Gauntlett'}, 'nummod': {'2002'}} Long High Medium
2894 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Role model relations are usually associated with mimicry because role models are characterised as leaders who inspire others (or followers) to imitate them 23 10 {'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, PRON] {'compound': {'role', 'model', 'Role'}, 'nsubjpass': {'models', 'relations'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'usually'}, 'ROOT': {'associated'}, 'prep': {'with', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'mimicry', 'leaders'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'imitate', 'characterised'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'inspire'}, 'dobj': {'them', 'others'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'followers'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Medium
2895 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Mimicry becomes relevant in role model discourses because, as Carrington and Skelton explain (2003: 254), role models have come to ‘signify an ethical template for the exercise of adult responsibility’, which implies that pupils will be expected to imitate their teachers’ behaviour 42 17 {'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'SYM': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 2} [PROPN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, PUNCT, NUM, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'models', 'Carrington', 'Mimicry', 'which'}, 'ROOT': {'becomes'}, 'acomp': {'relevant'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'role', 'model', 'adult'}, 'pobj': {'responsibility', 'exercise', 'discourses'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that', 'because'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ':', ')', '(', ','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Skelton', 'come'}, 'advcl': {'signify', 'explain'}, 'npadvmod': {'2003', '254'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to', 'will'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'ethical'}, 'dobj': {'template', 'behaviour'}, 'relcl': {'implies'}, 'nsubjpass': {'pupils'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'expected'}, 'xcomp': {'imitate'}, 'poss': {'teachers', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High High
2896 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models This article aims to contribute to under - standings about what this ethical norm may signify or how it is enacted byB.E.M 22 12 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'this', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'article', 'norm'}, 'ROOT': {'aims'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'contribute'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to'}, 'nmod': {'under'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'standings'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'amod': {'ethical'}, 'pcomp': {'signify'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'conj': {'enacted'}, 'npadvmod': {'byB.E.M'}} Long High Medium
2897 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models I shall first rehearse the arguments about the nature oft he problem to which the employment of role model teachers is perceived as the solution 25 13 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, PRON, NOUN, PART, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'he'}, 'aux': {'shall'}, 'advmod': {'first', 'oft'}, 'ROOT': {'rehearse'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'arguments'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'nature', 'teachers', 'solution'}, 'conj': {'problem'}, 'nsubjpass': {'employment'}, 'compound': {'role', 'model'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'perceived'}} Long High Low
2898 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In the UK (as in many Western countries), discussion of teachers as role models centres on the impact of the teachers’ gender identity on boy’s underachievement in sch ool (Francis 2000) 31 14 {'ADP': 9, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'ool', 'teachers', 'identity', 'underachievement', 'countries', 'UK', 'impact'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'amod': {'many', 'Western'}, 'nsubj': {'models', 'discussion'}, 'compound': {'role', 'sch', 'gender'}, 'ROOT': {'centres'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’', '’s'}, 'nmod': {'boy'}, 'appos': {'Francis'}, 'nummod': {'2000'}} Long High Low
2899 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models One issue that has had a long history in the media is boy’s attainment compared to girls 17 10 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1} [NUM, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PART, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'issue', 'that'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'relcl': {'had'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'long'}, 'dobj': {'history'}, 'prep': {'to', 'compared', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'media', 'girls'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'nmod': {'boy'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'attr': {'attainment'}} Medium High Low
2900 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models a “sex war” mentality in which our ever -increasing preoccupation with who isd oing better than whom leads, each year to a media panic.’ In addition, educational researchers have long argued that schools reinforce normative conceptions of masculinity through their structure, pedagogy and curriculum (Connell 1995; Mac an Ghaill 1994) 51 20 {'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NOUN': 17, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [DET, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'an', 'each'}, 'punct': {'’', '.', ')', '(', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'nmod': {'sex', 'war'}, 'ROOT': {'mentality', 'argued'}, 'prep': {'through', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'structure', 'panic', 'addition', 'masculinity'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'advmod': {'long', 'better', 'ever'}, 'amod': {'-increasing', 'normative', 'educational'}, 'relcl': {'preoccupation'}, 'nsubj': {'whom', 'schools', 'researchers', 'who'}, 'aux': {'isd', 'have'}, 'pcomp': {'oing'}, 'mark': {'than', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'leads'}, 'npadvmod': {'year', 'Mac'}, 'compound': {'media'}, 'ccomp': {'reinforce'}, 'dobj': {'conceptions'}, 'conj': {'curriculum', 'pedagogy'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'Connell', 'Ghaill'}, 'nummod': {'1994', '1995'}} Long High High
2901 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The recruitment drives undertaken in media campaigns (DfEE 2000; BBC 2010a, 2010b, 2009, 2008, 2007) reinforce these dominant societal constructs of masculinity (Carrington and McPhee 2008; Dermott 2011; Francis 2006) 30 5 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 9, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'these'}, 'compound': {'recruitment', 'media'}, 'nsubj': {'drives', 'BBC'}, 'acl': {'undertaken'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'masculinity', 'campaigns'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'DfEE', '2010b', 'Carrington', 'Dermott', '2008'}, 'nummod': {'2009', '2006', '2010a', '2000', '2007', '2008', '2011'}, 'ROOT': {'reinforce'}, 'amod': {'dominant', 'societal'}, 'dobj': {'constructs'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'McPhee'}, 'npadvmod': {'Francis'}} Long High Low
2902 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models A case in point are neo -liberalist proposals in the UK government’s 2010 White Paper on education – The Importance of Teaching (DfE 2010) – and the Troops to Teachers programme written by the Centre for Policy Studies (CPS) 39 15 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 10, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PART, NUM, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'det': {'A', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'case'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'Paper', 'Studies', 'education', 'point', 'Centre', 'Teaching', 'programme'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'neo'}, 'amod': {'-liberalist'}, 'dobj': {'proposals'}, 'compound': {'Policy', 'UK', 'White', 'Teachers'}, 'poss': {'government'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nummod': {'2010'}, 'punct': {'(', '–', ')'}, 'appos': {'CPS', 'Importance', 'DfE'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Troops'}, 'acl': {'written'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
2903 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The general purpose for introducing troops into the teaching profe ssion is to ‘provide youths with role models 18 7 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, PART, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'teaching', 'general'}, 'nsubj': {'purpose'}, 'prep': {'into', 'for', 'with'}, 'pcomp': {'introducing'}, 'dobj': {'troops', 'youths'}, 'compound': {'profe', 'role'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'ssion'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'punct': {'‘'}, 'xcomp': {'provide'}} Medium High Low
2904 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 3 who understand discipline and self -restraint at a time when they need it most’ (Burkard 2008, i) 18 9 {'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1} [NUM, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADV, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'meta': {'3'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'understand', 'need'}, 'dobj': {'discipline', 'it'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'conj': {'-restraint'}, 'prep': {'at'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'time'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'most'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'Burkard'}, 'npadvmod': {'i', '2008'}} Medium High Medium
2905 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models On this specific point, Dermott (2011, 9) points out that whilst maintaining discipline in the classroom ‘is a pr ecursor to successful learning it is not in itself teaching’ 29 14 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, X, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADP, PRON, VERB, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'whilst', 'On', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'successful', 'specific'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'point', 'classroom', 'itself'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'Dermott'}, 'appos': {'9', '2011'}, 'ROOT': {'points'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'pcomp': {'maintaining'}, 'dobj': {'discipline'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'compound': {'pr'}, 'attr': {'ecursor'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acl': {'teaching'}} Long High High
2906 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Other critics of these policies have argued that they are an ill -conceived response to the problem of boys’ disaffection in school (Skelton 2012; Carrington and Skelton 2003; Francis et al 31 13 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'amod': {'Other', '-conceived'}, 'nsubj': {'critics', 'they'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'these', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'school', 'problem', 'policies', 'disaffection'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'ill'}, 'attr': {'response'}, 'poss': {'boys'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', 'al'}, 'appos': {'Carrington', 'et', 'Skelton', 'Francis'}, 'nummod': {'2012', '2003'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Skelton'}} Long High Medium
2907 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models First, they take issue with the assumptions that male teachers always affect boys in desirable ways and continually improve their academic achievements (Carrington and McPhee 2008; Francis 2000; Foster andN ewman 2005; Martino and Berrill 2003; Mills, Martino, and Lingard 2004) 41 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PROPN': 10, 'NUM': 5} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'continually', 'always', 'First'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'boys', 'achievements', 'issue'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'assumptions'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'male', 'academic', 'desirable'}, 'relcl': {'affect'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Martino', 'McPhee', 'Mills', 'Berrill', 'Lingard', 'improve'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'Carrington', 'ewman', 'Francis'}, 'nummod': {'2004', '2000', '2008', '2003', '2005'}, 'compound': {'andN', 'Foster'}} Long High Low
2908 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Second, critics argue that the assumption that male role model teachers will alleviate the problem of boys’ relationship to education serves to mask a misogynist culture of blame (Mil ls, Martino, and Lingard 2004), namely that boys’ underachievement is due to the ‘excessive’ influence of female teachers (Driessen 2007; Easton 2007; Carrington and MacPhee 2008 ; Francis 2008; Sternod 2009) 60 19 {'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 15, 'NOUN': 16, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 6, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Second', 'namely'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'critics', 'teachers', 'underachievement', 'assumption'}, 'ROOT': {'argue'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'female', 'male', 'excessive', 'misogynist'}, 'compound': {'Mil', 'role', 'model'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'acl': {'alleviate'}, 'dobj': {'problem', 'culture'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'poss': {'boys'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 'influence', 'relationship', 'blame', 'education'}, 'ccomp': {'serves'}, 'xcomp': {'mask'}, 'appos': {'ls', 'Francis', 'Sternod', 'Driessen'}, 'conj': {'Carrington', 'Martino', 'MacPhee', 'Lingard'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nummod': {'2004', '2007', '2008', '2009'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'due'}, 'npadvmod': {'Easton'}} Long High High
2909 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models As Conne ll (1995)points out, assumptions about role modelling are more likely to contribute to the reproduction of hegemonic masculinity, (described as enacting, endorsing and displaying powerful, aggressive authority) than to improve boys’ relationships with schooling 36 14 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, AUX, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'than', 'As'}, 'nsubj': {'Conne', 'assumptions'}, 'aux': {'to', 'll'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'1995)points'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'prep': {'to', 'with', 'of', 'about', 'as'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'pobj': {'masculinity', 'reproduction', 'modelling', 'schooling'}, 'advcl': {'improve', 'are'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'xcomp': {'contribute'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'hegemonic', 'aggressive', 'powerful'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'pcomp': {'enacting'}, 'conj': {'endorsing', 'displaying'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dobj': {'relationships', 'authority'}, 'poss': {'boys'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High High
2910 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Thus far the role model debate has led to a ‘reified focus on the singularity of gender (Martino and Rezai -Rashti 2012, 38) and the reproduction of masculinities (Carrington et al 2008) 32 12 {'ADV': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, ADV, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'far'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'role', 'model'}, 'nsubj': {'debate'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'led'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'punct': {'‘', '(', ',', ')'}, 'amod': {'reified'}, 'pobj': {'masculinities', 'gender', 'singularity', 'focus'}, 'conj': {'reproduction', 'Martino', '-Rashti', 'Rezai'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nummod': {'2012', '2008'}, 'appos': {'Carrington', '38'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}} Long High Low
2911 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models With a few exceptions (for example: Sternod 2009; Carrington 2002; Maylor 2009), there is little UK research foregrounding other identity constructions 21 7 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'With'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'little', 'few', 'other'}, 'pobj': {'example', 'exceptions'}, 'punct': {':', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'Sternod', 'Maylor'}, 'nummod': {'2009', '2002'}, 'dep': {'Carrington'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'compound': {'UK', 'identity'}, 'attr': {'research'}, 'acl': {'foregrounding'}, 'dobj': {'constructions'}} Long High Low
2912 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The emergence of alternate ways of thinking about role models and the teachers’ cultural identity is needed 17 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'emergence'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'amod': {'cultural', 'alternate'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'models', 'thinking'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'conj': {'identity'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}} Medium High Low
2913 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The presupposition that identity construction is neutral or universal ignores that, forB.E.M 12 5 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, NUM] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'construction', 'presupposition'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'identity'}, 'acl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'neutral'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'universal'}, 'ROOT': {'ignores'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'punct': {',', 'forB.E.M'}} Medium High High
2914 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models people, ‘race is always already refracted within and through other subject positions, such as gender, class, sexuality and nation’ (Coloma 2008, 19); further scrutiny is necessary.B.E.M 26 12 {'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'people', 'race'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', '.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'already', 'always'}, 'ccomp': {'refracted'}, 'prep': {'as', 'within'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'through', 'nation', 'class', 'sexuality'}, 'amod': {'other', 'subject', 'such', 'further'}, 'pobj': {'gender', 'positions'}, 'npadvmod': {'Coloma'}, 'nummod': {'19', '2008'}, 'nsubj': {'scrutiny'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'B.E.M'}, 'acomp': {'necessary'}} Long High Low
2915 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models boys’ underachievement is rarely argued within role model discourses as symptomatic of systemic racism operating in the education system 19 6 {'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'poss': {'boys'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'underachievement'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'rarely'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'prep': {'as', 'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'role', 'model', 'education'}, 'pobj': {'system', 'racism', 'discourses'}, 'amod': {'symptomatic', 'systemic'}, 'acl': {'operating'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
2916 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models boys’ underachievement is noticeably silent with regard to structural failures in UK education systems, its institutions or hegemonic practices (Miller 2020; Phillips 2011; Graham and Robinson 2004) 27 7 {'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 3} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'poss': {'boys', 'its'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubj': {'underachievement'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'noticeably'}, 'acomp': {'silent'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'systems', 'failures', 'regard'}, 'amod': {'structural', 'hegemonic'}, 'compound': {'UK', 'education'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'practices', 'institutions', 'Robinson'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'appos': {'Graham', 'Miller'}, 'nummod': {'2004', '2020', '2011'}, 'npadvmod': {'Phillips'}} Long High Low
2917 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models role model teachers is argued through political rhetoric in terms of the need to avoidB.E.M 15 6 {'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV] {'compound': {'role', 'model'}, 'nsubjpass': {'teachers'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'prep': {'through', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'political'}, 'pobj': {'avoidB.E.M', 'rhetoric', 'terms', 'need'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
2918 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 4 boys as future deviants has created a regime of truth that perpetuates public discourse by media campaigns (BBC 2011; Slovo 2011), from educational stakeholders (REACH 2007; Helderman 2002; Cooper 2005) and is largely uncontested 35 9 {'NUM': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'nummod': {'4', '2002', '2005', '2011'}, 'nsubj': {'boys', 'deviants', 'that'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'amod': {'future', 'public', 'educational'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'created'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'discourse', 'regime'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'stakeholders', 'campaigns', 'truth'}, 'relcl': {'perpetuates'}, 'compound': {'media'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2007', 'BBC'}, 'appos': {'REACH', 'Helderman', 'Cooper', 'Slovo'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'largely'}, 'acomp': {'uncontested'}} Long High Medium
2919 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The point made is the recruit - ment drives function as technologies of governance (Foucault 1979) and the imperative to control the social behaviour of young Black men (Brown 2012; Sternod 2009, 2011) 33 11 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'point'}, 'acl': {'made', 'control'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'compound': {'drives', 'recruit', 'ment'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'attr': {'function'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'technologies', 'governance', 'men'}, 'appos': {'Brown', 'Sternod', 'Foucault'}, 'nummod': {'1979', '2012', '2009', '2011'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'imperative'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'amod': {'social', 'young', 'Black'}, 'dobj': {'behaviour'}} Long High Low
2920 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models There is a wealth of research studies on the prevalence of institutional racism faced byB.E.M 15 7 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'wealth'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'racism', 'prevalence'}, 'amod': {'institutional'}, 'acl': {'faced'}, 'npadvmod': {'byB.E.M'}} Medium High Low
2921 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Despite the populist claim that recruitingB.E.M teachers can ameliorate the effects of systemic inequality in education, this assumption is rejected (c.f 21 8 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN] {'prep': {'of', 'Despite', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'populist', 'systemic'}, 'pobj': {'claim', 'inequality', 'education'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nummod': {'recruitingB.E.M'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'acl': {'ameliorate'}, 'dobj': {'effects'}, 'punct': {',', '('}, 'nsubjpass': {'assumption'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'rejected'}, 'npadvmod': {'c.f'}} Long High High
2922 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models While accepting there are cont ested interpretations of institutional racism made by some scholars (although compare Miles 1989), this article argues the effects of institutionalised practices and arrangements constitute a normalised oppressive social condition for a significant proport ion ofB.E.M 40 15 {'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'DET': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV] {'mark': {'although', 'While'}, 'csubj': {'accepting'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'compare', 'are'}, 'nmod': {'cont'}, 'amod': {'normalised', 'ested', 'significant', 'social', 'institutionalised', 'institutional', 'oppressive'}, 'attr': {'interpretations'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'practices', 'ion', 'scholars', 'racism'}, 'acl': {'made'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'a', 'this', 'the', 'some'}, 'punct': {'(', 'ofB.E.M', ',', ')'}, 'dobj': {'condition', 'Miles'}, 'nummod': {'1989'}, 'nsubj': {'effects', 'article'}, 'ROOT': {'argues'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'arrangements'}, 'ccomp': {'constitute'}, 'compound': {'proport'}} Long High High
2923 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Their everyday relations of power in institutions, schools or classrooms function to position them as distributors and recipients of (at times) entrenched biased forms of knowledge, beliefs andv alues 29 11 {'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'poss': {'Their'}, 'amod': {'everyday', 'biased'}, 'nsubj': {'relations'}, 'prep': {'as', 'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'distributors', 'power', 'institutions', 'knowledge', 'times'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'schools', 'recipients', 'classrooms'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'ccomp': {'function'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'position'}, 'dobj': {'forms', 'them'}, 'advcl': {'entrenched'}, 'compound': {'beliefs', 'andv'}, 'ROOT': {'alues'}} Long High Low
2924 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models teachers may at times be influential, many operate within structures that collectively limit their agency 15 7 {'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, AUX, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'many', 'teachers', 'that'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'prep': {'at', 'within'}, 'pobj': {'times', 'structures'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'influential'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'operate'}, 'advmod': {'collectively'}, 'relcl': {'limit'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'agency'}} Medium High Low
2925 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models teachers have been inured to misrepresentation and differing degrees of symbolic violation 12 5 {'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'teachers'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'inured'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'misrepresentation', 'violation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'differing', 'symbolic'}, 'conj': {'degrees'}} Medium High Low
2926 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models people is one of subjectification to derogatory dis - courses of representation and instances of resistance to domi nant paradigms (Brown 2012) 22 8 {'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [NOUN, AUX, NUM, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'people'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'one'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'resistance', 'subjectification', 'representation', 'paradigms'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'derogatory'}, 'compound': {'dis', 'domi', 'nant'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'dobj': {'courses'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'instances'}, 'appos': {'Brown'}, 'nummod': {'2012'}} Long High Low
2927 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models A rethink about what is means to be a role model calls for voices from the perspective of a marginalised group, whose narratives and knowledge are counter to (or absent from) dominant representative discourses 34 18 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, NOUN, PART, AUX, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'narratives', 'what', 'rethink'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'of', 'about', 'for'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'means'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'attr': {'model'}, 'ROOT': {'calls'}, 'pobj': {'perspective', 'group', 'voices'}, 'amod': {'marginalised', 'representative', 'dominant'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'absent', 'knowledge', 'discourses'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'counter'}} Long High Low
2928 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models role model teachers read themselves intellectually and affectively into the subject positions offered by dominant and oppositional representations (Hall 1996) by exploring their pathways and spaces for pedagogical activism 29 10 {'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'subject', 'role', 'model'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'dobj': {'themselves', 'pathways'}, 'advmod': {'intellectually'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'affectively', 'spaces', 'oppositional'}, 'prep': {'by', 'into', 'for'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'representations', 'activism', 'positions'}, 'acl': {'offered'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'pedagogical', 'dominant'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'Hall'}, 'nummod': {'1996'}, 'pcomp': {'exploring'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
2929 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models After a brief discussion of methods and methodology I aim to throw light on the predicament ofB.E.M 17 8 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV] {'prep': {'on', 'After', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'brief'}, 'pobj': {'discussion', 'predicament', 'methods'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'methodology'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'aim'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'throw'}, 'dobj': {'light'}, 'punct': {'ofB.E.M'}} Medium High Low
2930 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models peoples’ marginality and inclusivity by presenting the findings of an empirical study of three maleB.E.M 15 7 {'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN] {'poss': {'peoples'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ROOT': {'marginality'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'inclusivity'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'presenting'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'findings'}, 'amod': {'empirical'}, 'pobj': {'study', 'maleB.E.M'}, 'nummod': {'three'}} Medium High Low
2931 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 5 Methodology and Methods “Positioning is described as the discursive construction of personal stories that make a person’s actions intelligible and relatively determinate as social acts” Harré & van Langenhove’s (1991:395) This scholar’s definition is used to guide the data capture process used to shed light on theB.E.M 48 21 {'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 5, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nummod': {'5'}, 'nmod': {'Methodology'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Methods', 'Harré', 'Langenhove', 'determinate'}, 'punct': {'’s', ')', '(', '”', '“'}, 'nsubjpass': {'definition', 'Positioning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'described', 'used'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'social', 'personal', 'discursive'}, 'pobj': {'acts', 'theB.E.M', 'construction', 'stories'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'actions'}, 'relcl': {'make'}, 'poss': {'scholar', 'person'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'ccomp': {'intelligible'}, 'advmod': {'relatively'}, 'compound': {'capture', 'data', 'van'}, 'parataxis': {'1991:395'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'shed', 'guide'}, 'dobj': {'process', 'light'}, 'acl': {'used'}} Long High Low
2932 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models My position as a Black female teacher educator enabled me to identify potential participants through a combination of personal contacts and snowball sampling 23 9 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB] {'poss': {'My'}, 'nsubj': {'position'}, 'prep': {'through', 'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'female', 'Black', 'potential', 'snowball'}, 'compound': {'teacher'}, 'pobj': {'combination', 'educator', 'contacts'}, 'ROOT': {'enabled'}, 'dobj': {'me', 'participants'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'identify'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sampling'}} Long High Low
2933 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The empirical data for the article draws from a research study of seven (male and female)B.E.M 16 7 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'empirical'}, 'nsubj': {'data'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'article', 'study', 'male'}, 'ROOT': {'draws'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'nummod': {'seven'}, 'punct': {'(', 'female)B.E.M'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
2934 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Two semi -formal in -depth individual interviews with each pa rticipant lasting from between one and two hours were conducted at a location of their choice 26 14 {'NUM': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, ADJ, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, ADP, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'nummod': {'one', 'Two'}, 'amod': {'individual', '-depth', '-formal', 'semi'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'at'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interviews'}, 'det': {'a', 'each'}, 'compound': {'pa'}, 'pobj': {'location', 'rticipant', 'choice', 'hours'}, 'acl': {'lasting'}, 'quantmod': {'between'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'two'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'conducted'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
2935 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The teachers were asked about memories of their education, career journey, role models, and self - perception as teachers 19 7 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubjpass': {'teachers'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 'education', 'memories'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'role', 'self', 'career'}, 'conj': {'models', 'journey', 'perception'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
2936 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In the follow -up interviews the questio ns were around what the role model identity meant for them personally and for their work 23 12 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'around', 'In'}, 'det': {'what', 'the'}, 'amod': {'-up', 'follow'}, 'pobj': {'work', 'them', 'interviews'}, 'compound': {'role', 'model', 'questio'}, 'nsubj': {'ns'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'punct': {'identity'}, 'acl': {'meant'}, 'advmod': {'personally'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
2937 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The findings from the salient inter -related features emerging from the qualitative data reveal the complexity of living on the margins as aB.E.M 23 10 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'findings'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of', 'from'}, 'npadvmod': {'salient', 'inter'}, 'amod': {'-related', 'qualitative'}, 'pobj': {'data', 'margins', 'aB.E.M', 'features'}, 'acl': {'emerging'}, 'ROOT': {'reveal'}, 'dobj': {'complexity'}, 'pcomp': {'living'}} Long High Low
2938 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models male teachers (Nigel, Ali and Kenneth) to examine, through their narratives, the strategies and actions they embed in their praxis 20 9 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'DET': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'amod': {'male'}, 'ROOT': {'teachers'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Nigel'}, 'conj': {'strategies', 'Ali', 'actions', 'Kenneth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'examine', 'embed'}, 'prep': {'through', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'narratives', 'praxis'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}} Long High Low
2939 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In addition to schoolwork, Ali and Kenneth do outreach work within their community while Nigel manages a franchise after -school club 21 9 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, AUX, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'after', 'to', 'within', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'schoolwork', 'addition', '-school', 'community'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'Ali', 'outreach', 'Nigel'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Kenneth'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'ROOT': {'work'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'manages'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'franchise', 'club'}} Long High Medium
2940 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The aim is first to highlight the distinctive perspectives they attach to their discursive work, and the dynamics of engaging and relating withB.E.M 23 12 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'aim'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'first'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'highlight'}, 'amod': {'discursive', 'distinctive'}, 'dobj': {'withB.E.M', 'perspectives'}, 'relcl': {'attach'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'work'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'relating', 'dynamics'}, 'pcomp': {'engaging'}} Long High Low
2941 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models male teachers’ experiential knowledge that they use to signify and perform as role models toB.E.M 15 5 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX] {'amod': {'experiential', 'male'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ROOT': {'knowledge'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'use'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'signify'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'perform'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'pobj': {'models'}, 'punct': {'toB.E.M'}} Medium High Low
2942 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models boys in representation discourse, to examine the counter -narratives they use withB.E.M 12 4 {'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'boys', 'they'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'compound': {'representation'}, 'pobj': {'discourse'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ROOT': {'examine'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'counter'}, 'dobj': {'withB.E.M', '-narratives'}, 'relcl': {'use'}} Medium High Low
2943 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Far from being eternally fixed in some essentialised past, they are subject to the continuous ‘play’ of history, culture and power 21 10 {'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADP, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Far', 'eternally'}, 'prep': {'of', 'to', 'in', 'from'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'fixed'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'amod': {'essentialised', 'continuous'}, 'pobj': {'history', 'past', 'play'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'subject'}, 'conj': {'power', 'culture'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
2944 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Far from being grounded in a mere ‘recovery’ of the past, …, identities are the names we give to the different ways we are positioned by, and positiono urselves within, the narratives of the past 35 20 {'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADP, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Far', 'within'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in', 'from'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'being'}, 'pcomp': {'grounded'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'different', 'mere'}, 'punct': {'‘', '…', ',', '’'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'recovery', 'past'}, 'nsubj': {'identities', 'we', 'positiono'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'names'}, 'relcl': {'positioned', 'give'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'nsubjpass': {'we'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'narratives', 'urselves'}} Long High Low
2945 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models (Hall, 1989:225) Cultural identities’ fluidity is understood as resulting from the trauma toB.E.M 13 4 {'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')', 'toB.E.M'}, 'ROOT': {'understood', 'Hall'}, 'advmod': {'1989:225'}, 'amod': {'Cultural'}, 'poss': {'identities'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'fluidity'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'prep': {'as', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'resulting'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'trauma'}} Medium High Low
2946 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models peoples’ experiences through the exercise of dominant regimes of representation (Hall 1989; Hall 1992; Hall et al 2000) 18 4 {'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 3} [NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'poss': {'peoples'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ROOT': {'experiences', 'Hall'}, 'prep': {'through', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'regimes', 'exercise', 'representation'}, 'amod': {'dominant'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ')'}, 'appos': {'Hall'}, 'nummod': {'1992', '2000', '1989'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}} Medium High Low
2947 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models teachers position themselves as role models we need to consider the politics of their self -representation (Hall 1996; Martino and Rezai -Rashti 2012) 23 8 {'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Martino', 'teachers', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'position'}, 'dobj': {'politics', 'themselves'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'compound': {'self', 'role'}, 'pobj': {'models', '-representation'}, 'relcl': {'need'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ')'}, 'appos': {'-Rashti', 'Hall'}, 'nummod': {'2012', '1996'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Rezai'}} Long High Low
2948 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In other words, the degree to which pedagogical activism is poss ible, and the way the teachers make sense of their invisibility/hypervisibility and representation in school, the community and elsewhere 30 17 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'SYM': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'other', 'pedagogical', 'ible'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'words', 'hypervisibility', 'school'}, 'punct': {',', '/'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'degree'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers', 'activism'}, 'relcl': {'make', 'is'}, 'attr': {'poss'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'representation', 'way'}, 'dobj': {'sense'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nmod': {'invisibility'}, 'appos': {'community'}, 'advmod': {'elsewhere'}} Long High Low
2949 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models This would allow for nuanced understanding about the meaning they attach to their image and how their interpretations are actualised by their discursive work 24 14 {'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'they', 'This'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'allow'}, 'prep': {'about', 'for', 'to'}, 'amod': {'nuanced', 'discursive'}, 'pobj': {'image', 'work', 'meaning', 'understanding'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'relcl': {'attach'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interpretations'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'conj': {'actualised'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
2950 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models By taking a discursive approach to the category ‘self-represent experience’ the analysis treatsB.E.M 13 5 {'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NUM] {'ROOT': {'By'}, 'pcomp': {'taking'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'represent', 'discursive'}, 'dobj': {'approach'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'category', 'experience'}, 'punct': {'‘', 'treatsB.E.M', '-', '’'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'appos': {'analysis'}} Medium High Low
2951 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models teachers’ accounts of their everyday interactions as events they perform and that surface in the stories theyt ell 18 8 {'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2} [NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'teachers', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ROOT': {'accounts'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'theyt', 'everyday'}, 'pobj': {'stories', 'events', 'interactions'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'perform'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'conj': {'surface'}, 'appos': {'ell'}} Medium High Low
2952 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Shared discursive history proffers a holistic view of the social dynamics involved, and representations of cultural identities 17 5 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'holistic', 'cultural', 'discursive', 'social', 'Shared'}, 'compound': {'history'}, 'ROOT': {'proffers'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'appos': {'view'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'dynamics', 'identities'}, 'acl': {'involved'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'representations'}} Medium High Low
2953 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Shared discursive history is used because marginalisation processes are distinct due to its structurally racialised dimension and its interplay with culture (customs, beliefs) 23 10 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADP, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'amod': {'discursive', 'Shared', 'racialised'}, 'nsubjpass': {'history'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'compound': {'marginalisation'}, 'nsubj': {'processes'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'distinct'}, 'prep': {'with', 'due'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'advmod': {'structurally'}, 'pobj': {'dimension', 'culture'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interplay'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'beliefs', 'customs'}} Long High Medium
2954 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Shared discursive history comprises of three mutually inter -dependent generic organising themes: (i) shared marginality (ii) performance of role model identities (iii) deployment of cultural resource 26 5 {'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'shared', 'cultural', 'discursive', 'generic', 'inter', 'Shared', '-dependent'}, 'compound': {'role', 'history', 'organising', 'model'}, 'ROOT': {'comprises'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'advmod': {'mutually'}, 'pobj': {'resource', 'identities', 'themes'}, 'punct': {'(', ':', ')'}, 'nmod': {'marginality', 'i', 'iii'}, 'appos': {'performance', 'deployment', 'ii'}} Long High Low
2955 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In the findings and analysis, the personal stories (his stories) overlap intertwine and intersect with overarching teachers’ narratives; they are organised so as to structure the analysis of the findings about ‘becoming’ or ‘being’ aB.E.M 35 19 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, AUX, PUNCT, VERB] {'prep': {'about', 'with', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'findings'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'analysis', 'being', 'intersect'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'personal'}, 'nsubj': {'stories'}, 'poss': {'teachers', 'his'}, 'appos': {'stories'}, 'ccomp': {'overlap'}, 'dobj': {'narratives', 'analysis', 'intertwine'}, 'pcomp': {'becoming', 'overarching'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'organised'}, 'mark': {'as', 'so'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'structure', 'aB.E.M'}} Long High High
2956 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Shared Marginality Shared marginality refers to an empathetic perspective that underpins the way thatB.E.M 14 4 {'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NUM] {'amod': {'empathetic', 'Shared'}, 'compound': {'Marginality'}, 'nsubj': {'marginality', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'refers'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'perspective'}, 'relcl': {'underpins'}, 'dobj': {'way'}, 'npadvmod': {'thatB.E.M'}} Medium High Low
2957 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 7 experiences within the socio -political context of their work where they too have been recipients of varied forms of micro -aggression 22 11 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, AUX, AUX, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PROPN] {'nummod': {'7'}, 'ROOT': {'experiences'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'socio'}, 'amod': {'-political', 'varied'}, 'pobj': {'work', 'micro', 'context', 'forms'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'too', 'where'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'been'}, 'attr': {'recipients'}, 'appos': {'-aggression'}} Long High Medium
2958 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Their empathy is based on understanding the affective dimension of marginalised positioning and its effect on pupils’ subjectivities 18 8 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'poss': {'Their', 'its'}, 'nsubjpass': {'empathy'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'based'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'understanding'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'marginalised', 'affective'}, 'dobj': {'dimension'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'positioning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'effect'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'npadvmod': {'subjectivities'}} Medium High Low
2959 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models For example, they all talked about past, current and future events where they were confronted with, or recognised the implication of their ‘otherness’ 23 13 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'about', 'For', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'otherness', 'where', 'past', 'example'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'appos': {'all'}, 'ROOT': {'talked'}, 'amod': {'current'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'future', 'recognised'}, 'dep': {'events'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'confronted'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'implication'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
2960 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models These events are critical because they are stories about the teachers’ former (and present) ‘identities’ when they were (are) subject to certain dominant or cultural conditions 26 15 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, AUX, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'events'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'subject', 'critical'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'are', 'were'}, 'attr': {'stories', 'identities'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'conditions', 'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'dominant', 'former'}, 'punct': {'(', '‘', ')', '’'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'present', 'cultural'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'parataxis': {'are'}} Long High High
2961 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models While establishing effective relationships is central to teaching and contained in all the stories, they all emphasised educational experiences with similar preconditions (social constraints) toB.E.M 25 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2} [SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'csubj': {'establishing'}, 'amod': {'social', 'similar', 'educational', 'effective'}, 'dobj': {'experiences', 'relationships'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'central'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'teaching', 'stories', 'preconditions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'contained'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', 'toB.E.M'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'appos': {'constraints', 'all'}, 'ROOT': {'emphasised'}} Long High Medium
2962 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The argument made is that shared marginality is an empathetic and justifiable perspective that all three teach ers have because it gives them a strong sense of belonging and cultural affinity that forms the basis of their relationships 38 21 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, NUM, VERB, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'The', 'a', 'all', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'three', 'marginality', 'it', 'teach', 'argument', 'that'}, 'acl': {'made'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that', 'because'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'empathetic', 'strong', 'belonging'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'justifiable', 'cultural'}, 'attr': {'perspective'}, 'dobj': {'basis', 'that', 'ers', 'sense'}, 'relcl': {'forms', 'have'}, 'advcl': {'gives'}, 'dative': {'them'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'relationships', 'affinity'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
2963 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel taught in three quite varied schools, the first of which was a supplementary school in South London 18 10 {'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, ADP, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'first', 'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'taught'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'advmod': {'quite'}, 'amod': {'supplementary', 'varied'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'schools', 'London'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'attr': {'school'}, 'compound': {'South'}} Medium High Low
2964 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Generally, these schoo ls are understood as oppositional to the mainstream schools in terms of, for example, curriculum content, pedagogy or the regulatory ideal of ‘compulsive Eurocentrism’ (Hall 1996, 16) 30 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Generally'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'these'}, 'ROOT': {'schoo'}, 'dobj': {'ls'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'conj': {'content', 'understood', 'pedagogy', 'ideal'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'amod': {'regulatory', 'compulsive', 'oppositional'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'curriculum', 'mainstream'}, 'pobj': {'Eurocentrism', 'example', 'schools', 'terms'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'appos': {'Hall'}, 'nummod': {'1996', '16'}} Long High Low
2965 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Despite his lack of teaching experience, as a graduate, he gained recog nition and status which enhanced his self - worth 21 8 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ] {'prep': {'of', 'as', 'Despite'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'graduate', 'experience', 'lack'}, 'compound': {'teaching'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'he'}, 'ROOT': {'gained'}, 'amod': {'recog'}, 'dobj': {'nition', 'worth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'status'}, 'relcl': {'enhanced'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}} Long High Medium
2966 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models I could offer specialist knowledge that was really needed at the time’ 12 7 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'amod': {'specialist'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'really'}, 'relcl': {'needed'}, 'prep': {'at'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'time'}, 'punct': {'’'}} Medium High Low
2967 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The cultural hegemony of thes chool can be reasonably assumed to adhere to dominant traditions that emphasise patriarchal notions of deference 21 8 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'patriarchal', 'dominant', 'cultural'}, 'nsubjpass': {'hegemony'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'thes'}, 'pobj': {'deference', 'chool', 'traditions'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'reasonably'}, 'ROOT': {'assumed'}, 'xcomp': {'adhere'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'emphasise'}, 'dobj': {'notions'}} Long High Low
2968 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models As a staff member he was expected to uphold the school’s mission statement based on respect, traditional values, and unquestioned obedience (p artly due to parents’ expectations) 27 11 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'As', 'to', 'based', 'due'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'staff', 'mission'}, 'pobj': {'member', 'respect', 'parents'}, 'nsubjpass': {'he'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'uphold'}, 'poss': {'school'}, 'case': {'’', '’s'}, 'dobj': {'statement'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'unquestioned', 'traditional'}, 'conj': {'values', 'obedience'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'p', 'expectations'}, 'advmod': {'artly'}} Long High Low
2969 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel explained: ‘ of course you’re helping them with their schoolwork, but at [School X] there’s the added extra that when you’re with them it’s about showing them our ways 31 22 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 2, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 2} [PROPN, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, X, NOUN, NOUN, X, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, PRON, PRON, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'it', 'Nigel', 'you'}, 'ROOT': {'explained'}, 'punct': {'‘', ':', ','}, 'prep': {'about', 'with', 'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'schoolwork', 'them', 'X', 'course', '['}, 'aux': {'’re'}, 'ccomp': {'helping'}, 'dobj': {'ways', 'extra', 'them'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'compound': {'School'}, 'dep': {']'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'conj': {'’s'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'added'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'’re'}, 'relcl': {'’s'}, 'pcomp': {'showing'}, 'dative': {'them'}} Long High High
2970 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel illustrates empathy with the pupils by saying, ‘they relate to me because we come from the same background where education is the key and 26 15 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, CCONJ] {'nsubj': {'they', 'education', 'we', 'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'illustrates'}, 'dobj': {'empathy'}, 'prep': {'by', 'with', 'to', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'me', 'background'}, 'pcomp': {'saying'}, 'punct': {',', '‘'}, 'ccomp': {'relate'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'come'}, 'amod': {'same'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'key'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High High
2971 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Here he positions himself as someone who forges amicable relations with the pupils 13 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'positions'}, 'dobj': {'relations', 'himself'}, 'prep': {'as', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'someone'}, 'relcl': {'forges'}, 'amod': {'amicable'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
2972 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He says: There’s a strong cultural identification because there are children of similar backgrounds 14 8 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'He'}, 'ROOT': {'says'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'expl': {'There', 'there'}, 'ccomp': {'’s'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'similar', 'strong', 'cultural'}, 'dobj': {'identification'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'attr': {'children'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'backgrounds'}} Medium High Medium
2973 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models … You know the foods we eat are the same, the way we relate to our pa rents would be the same … at home we’re the same and that can be an important factor for them getting along… we make them proud of being Nigerian 46 32 {'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 9, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, ADP, AUX, ADJ] {'punct': {',', '…'}, 'nsubj': {'You', 'foods', 'them', 'way', 'that', 'we'}, 'parataxis': {'know'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'relcl': {'relate', 'eat'}, 'ccomp': {'proud', 'be', 'are', '’re'}, 'attr': {'same', 'factor'}, 'prep': {'for', 'at', 'to', 'of'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'pa'}, 'pobj': {'rents', 'home'}, 'aux': {'would', 'can'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'be'}, 'amod': {'important'}, 'pcomp': {'getting', 'being'}, 'advmod': {'along'}, 'ROOT': {'make'}, 'acomp': {'Nigerian'}} Long High Low
2974 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel positions himself as someone who, through the promotion of a collective identity, endears himself to pupils 17 10 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, PRON, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'positions'}, 'dobj': {'himself'}, 'prep': {'through', 'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'someone', 'identity', 'promotion'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'collective'}, 'relcl': {'endears'}} Medium High Low
2975 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 8 when he frequently switched to the collective ‘we’ and ‘us’, giving weight tot he argument that the school’s inclusive environment provided Nigel with cultural affiliation and a sense of belonging 31 15 {'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [NUM, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'meta': {'8'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'frequently'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'environment'}, 'relcl': {'switched'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'inclusive', 'collective', 'cultural'}, 'punct': {'‘', ',', '’'}, 'pobj': {'we', 'affiliation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'us', 'sense'}, 'advcl': {'giving'}, 'compound': {'weight'}, 'dobj': {'tot', 'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'argument'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'school'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'ccomp': {'provided'}, 'pcomp': {'belonging'}} Long High High
2976 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He reflected on contrasting critical events when he moved to his second school where the teachers, as in most European schools, were alm ost exclusively White and middle class (Ross and Hutchings 2003 ; Escayg 2010) 36 14 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, ADV, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'he', 'teachers', 'He'}, 'ROOT': {'reflected'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'to', 'in'}, 'amod': {'White', 'critical', 'second', 'contrasting', 'most', 'European'}, 'pobj': {'schools', 'school', 'events'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'where', 'alm', 'exclusively', 'ost'}, 'advcl': {'moved'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Hutchings', 'middle'}, 'attr': {'class'}, 'appos': {'Escayg', 'Ross'}, 'nummod': {'2003', '2010'}} Long High High
2977 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Here Nigel had to navigate and learn how to contest a very different disciplinary regime 15 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 1} [ADV, PROPN, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here', 'very', 'how'}, 'nsubj': {'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'navigate', 'contest'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'learn'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'different', 'disciplinary'}, 'dobj': {'regime'}} Medium High Medium
2978 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He recalled that his attempts at managing his teaching groups were initially confrontat ional and emotionally frustrating 17 7 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'He'}, 'ROOT': {'recalled'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'nsubjpass': {'attempts'}, 'prep': {'at'}, 'pcomp': {'managing'}, 'compound': {'teaching'}, 'dobj': {'groups'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'emotionally', 'initially'}, 'ccomp': {'confrontat'}, 'acomp': {'ional'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'frustrating'}} Medium High Medium
2979 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel says he chose the school because he believes that any school is a potentially transformative site for the ‘ empowerment of pupils 24 11 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [PROPN, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'he', 'school', 'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'says'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'chose'}, 'det': {'any', 'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'school'}, 'mark': {'that', 'because'}, 'advcl': {'believes'}, 'advmod': {'potentially'}, 'amod': {'transformative'}, 'attr': {'site'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'punct': {'‘'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'empowerment'}} Long High High
2980 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Although Nigel occupied a less powerful position within the hierarchy of the school, he was surprised to be estranged from theB.E.M 21 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'Nigel'}, 'advcl': {'occupied'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'less'}, 'amod': {'powerful'}, 'dobj': {'position'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'theB.E.M', 'school', 'hierarchy'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'surprised', 'estranged'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}} Long High Medium
2981 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models pupils and disappointed with the attitude and behaviour towards him by many of the Nigerian boys in his teaching groups: Once they are in the same environment as the other children they become different 34 23 {'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ] {'dep': {'pupils'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'disappointed', 'behaviour'}, 'prep': {'in', 'with', 'towards', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'him', 'children', 'boys', 'many', 'attitude', 'environment', 'groups'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'other', 'same', 'Nigerian'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'compound': {'teaching'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'mark': {'Once'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'become'}, 'acomp': {'different'}} Long High Medium
2982 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models … They’re just totally different … desp ite both of you being of the same cultural background and [they are] totally aware of that … [they] don’t really want to be identified with you 34 23 {'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 7, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 2, 'PART': 2} [PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, X, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, X, PRON, PUNCT, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'punct': {'…', ']'}, 'nsubj': {'They', 'both', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'’re'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'really', 'totally'}, 'acomp': {'different', 'aware'}, 'conj': {'desp', 'want'}, 'dep': {'[', 'ite'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'background', 'that', 'you'}, 'advcl': {'being'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'same', 'cultural'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'aux': {'to', 'do'}, 'neg': {'n’t'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'identified'}} Long High Low
2983 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models His power associated with traditio nal forms of relating with the Nigerian boys is constrained 15 6 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'poss': {'His'}, 'nsubjpass': {'power'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'nal', 'traditio', 'Nigerian'}, 'pobj': {'boys', 'forms'}, 'pcomp': {'relating'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'constrained'}} Medium High Low
2984 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Within this classroom Nigel is denied an authoritative position from which he can relate to the boys; their resistance to his expected deference is disempowering 25 14 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PROPN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'Within', 'to', 'from'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'boys', 'deference', 'classroom'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Nigel'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'denied'}, 'amod': {'authoritative', 'expected'}, 'dobj': {'position'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'resistance'}, 'aux': {'can', 'is'}, 'relcl': {'relate'}, 'punct': {';'}, 'poss': {'his', 'their'}, 'ROOT': {'disempowering'}} Long High Low
2985 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nor do positioning strategies ba sed on parity provide automatic membership; Nigel is viewed and treated as an ‘outsider’ 19 7 {'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 1} [CCONJ, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'cc': {'and', 'Nor'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'xcomp': {'positioning'}, 'dobj': {'strategies', 'membership'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ba', 'Nigel'}, 'relcl': {'sed'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'parity', 'outsider'}, 'ccomp': {'provide'}, 'amod': {'automatic'}, 'punct': {'‘', ';', '’'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'viewed'}, 'conj': {'treated'}, 'det': {'an'}} Medium High Low
2986 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He later rationalised the boys’ behaviour in terms of alternative (friendship, ability, locality) allegiances and concluded by saying: ‘obviously 20 6 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV] {'nsubj': {'He'}, 'advmod': {'obviously', 'later'}, 'ROOT': {'rationalised'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'boys'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'behaviour'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'terms', 'allegiances'}, 'nmod': {'alternative', 'friendship', 'locality'}, 'punct': {'‘', ':', ')', '(', ','}, 'conj': {'ability', 'concluded'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pcomp': {'saying'}} Long High Low
2987 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models It is possible that the pressure for the Nigerian boys (positioned as ‘other’) to conform to the dominant mode of relating/behaving may have been comp elling, however, Nigel’s estrangement forced him to re -appraise the veracity of his earlier beliefs 40 23 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SYM, NOUN, AUX, AUX, AUX, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PART, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'estrangement', 'It', 'pressure'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'possible'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'to', 'as'}, 'amod': {'other', 'earlier', 'dominant', 'Nigerian'}, 'pobj': {'boys', 'mode', 'beliefs'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ',', '/'}, 'acl': {'positioned'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'conform'}, 'pcomp': {'relating'}, 'dobj': {'him', 'veracity', 'behaving'}, 'conj': {'forced', 'been'}, 'compound': {'comp'}, 'attr': {'elling'}, 'advmod': {'however'}, 'poss': {'his', 'Nigel'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'xcomp': {'re'}, 'dep': {'-appraise'}} Long High Medium
2988 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Despite their apparent cultural affinity, the classroom environment produced exclusive boundaries which Nigel, a marginalised Nigerian man, could not cross 21 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, VERB] {'prep': {'Despite'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'cultural', 'exclusive', 'apparent', 'Nigerian', 'marginalised'}, 'pobj': {'affinity'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'classroom'}, 'nsubj': {'environment', 'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'produced'}, 'dobj': {'which', 'boundaries'}, 'appos': {'man'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'cross'}} Long High Medium
2989 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models So, although shared marginality describes empathetic perspectives, teacher -pupil relations are also fragile and always contingent on other power 19 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'also', 'always', 'So'}, 'punct': {',', '-pupil'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'amod': {'other', 'shared', 'empathetic'}, 'nsubj': {'marginality', 'relations'}, 'ROOT': {'are', 'describes'}, 'dobj': {'perspectives'}, 'compound': {'teacher'}, 'acomp': {'fragile'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'contingent'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'power'}} Medium High Medium
2990 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models We turn now to Ali who attended primary, secondary school, university and subsequently obtained a teaching post in one of London’s most densely populated areas (Keith 1995; Hutchinson and Varlaam 1985) noted for its higher levels of poverty and unemployment when compared nationally (Murshid 1990; Tomlinson 1992) 47 17 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 5, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, PROPN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADP, PROPN, PART, ADV, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'We', 'who', 'Hutchinson'}, 'ccomp': {'turn'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'densely', 'now', 'subsequently', 'nationally', 'most'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'areas', 'Ali', 'poverty', 'levels', 'one'}, 'relcl': {'attended'}, 'amod': {'secondary', 'primary', 'higher', 'populated'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'dobj': {'post', 'school'}, 'conj': {'obtained', 'university', 'unemployment', 'Varlaam'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'teaching'}, 'poss': {'its', 'London'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'appos': {'Keith', 'Tomlinson'}, 'nummod': {'1990', '1992', '1985', '1995'}, 'ROOT': {'noted'}, 'advcl': {'compared'}, 'npadvmod': {'Murshid'}} Long High Medium
2991 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models His empathy derived partly from kno wing about the social conditions many of his pupils had to operate under: ……..first of all, I think I have a basic under standing of most of the Asian pupils in the school 39 24 {'PRON': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 9, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 5} [PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'poss': {'His', 'his'}, 'nsubj': {'many', 'I', 'empathy'}, 'ROOT': {'derived'}, 'advmod': {'first', 'partly'}, 'prep': {'under', 'from', 'in', 'of', 'about'}, 'compound': {'kno'}, 'pobj': {'wing', 'school', 'pupils', 'conditions', 'most', 'standing', 'all'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'social', 'Asian'}, 'relcl': {'had'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'operate'}, 'punct': {',', '…', ':'}, 'dobj': {'..', '…', 'basic'}, 'advcl': {'think'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}} Long High Low
2992 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models I do understand how their life works and where their life has started off from…… 15 10 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'life', 'I'}, 'aux': {'has', 'do'}, 'ROOT': {'understand'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'how'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ccomp': {'works'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'started'}, 'prt': {'off'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pobj': {'……'}} Medium High High
2993 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models what happened for me in school is when I needed that extra help at home it wasn't there …my mum speaks no English she was not able to help me with my education 33 22 {'PRON': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, VERB, DET, PROPN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'what', 'she', 'I', 'it', 'mum'}, 'csubj': {'happened'}, 'prep': {'for', 'at', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'home', 'me', 'education', 'school'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'there'}, 'advcl': {'needed'}, 'det': {'no', 'that'}, 'amod': {'extra'}, 'dobj': {'help', 'me', 'English'}, 'ccomp': {'was', 'speaks'}, 'neg': {'n't', 'not'}, 'punct': {'…'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'help'}} Long High High
2994 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models By way of compensating for his earlier disadvantage, Ali began volunteering in after school clubs in the local area, he modestly states: ‘I’m just a person who I would say is involved in this community… so in that respect I do have some standing’ 44 27 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 9, 'PRON': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 3} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, VERB, PUNCT] {'prep': {'after', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'By'}, 'pobj': {'disadvantage', 'clubs', 'way', 'community', 'respect', 'area'}, 'pcomp': {'compensating'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'amod': {'earlier', 'local'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ':', ',', '…'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'he', 'Ali'}, 'ccomp': {'’m', 'involved', 'began'}, 'xcomp': {'volunteering'}, 'compound': {'school'}, 'det': {'some', 'this', 'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'modestly', 'just', 'so'}, 'ROOT': {'states'}, 'attr': {'person'}, 'dobj': {'standing', 'who'}, 'aux': {'would', 'do'}, 'relcl': {'say'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'conj': {'have'}} Long High Low
2995 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The term ‘community’ is contestable and ambiguous, withd ifferent interpretations within disciplines (Howorth citing Crow and Allan, 2001:1) 18 5 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'term'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'Howorth', 'community', '2001:1'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'contestable'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ambiguous', 'interpretations', 'Allan'}, 'compound': {'ifferent', 'withd'}, 'prep': {'within'}, 'pobj': {'disciplines'}, 'acl': {'citing'}, 'dobj': {'Crow'}} Medium High Low
2996 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Here I apply Back’s interpretation that ‘communities do not exist sui generis, they are instead imagined and created on a, more or less, daily basis’ (Back, 1996: 238) 28 16 {'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PRON, VERB, ADP, PART, NOUN, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Here', 'Back', 'instead'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'communities'}, 'ccomp': {'apply'}, 'prt': {'Back'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ':', '’s', ')', '(', ','}, 'dobj': {'generis', 'interpretation'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'exist'}, 'compound': {'sui'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'imagined'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'created', 'less'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'a', 'more'}, 'amod': {'daily'}, 'npadvmod': {'basis', '238', '1996'}} Long High Low
2997 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Ali says he is renowned because of his participation in various community activities: …the younger generation do see me and they know me, who I am and where I’m from…… 30 22 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [PROPN, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, AUX, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'generation', 'Ali', 'they', 'I', 'he'}, 'ccomp': {'says', 'is'}, 'acomp': {'renowned'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'because'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'activities', '……', 'participation'}, 'amod': {'various', 'younger'}, 'compound': {'community'}, 'punct': {',', '…', ':'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'me'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'’m', 'know'}, 'attr': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'am'}, 'advmod': {'where'}} Long High High
2998 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models after school as well … so they do see my face around, they know how I was before … 19 14 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, PUNCT] {'prep': {'after'}, 'pobj': {'school'}, 'advmod': {'before', 'so', 'well', 'as', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '…'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'face', 'they'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'advcl': {'see'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'ccomp': {'around', 'was'}, 'ROOT': {'know'}} Medium High Medium
2999 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models I saw someone else a couple of weeks back, he wasn’t doing sow ell in terms of his education 19 13 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, VERB, PRON, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'he'}, 'ccomp': {'saw'}, 'dobj': {'someone', 'ell'}, 'advmod': {'else', 'back'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'npadvmod': {'couple'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'weeks', 'education', 'terms'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'was'}, 'neg': {'n’t'}, 'ROOT': {'doing'}, 'compound': {'sow'}, 'poss': {'his'}} Medium High Low
3000 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He was involved in gang violence, even he came up to me, you know, said how can I get out of this, you know, what can I do 28 21 {'PRON': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PRON, VERB] {'nsubjpass': {'He'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ccomp': {'involved', 'get', 'do', 'came'}, 'prep': {'out', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'gang'}, 'pobj': {'violence', 'me', 'this'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'even', 'how'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'he', 'you'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'parataxis': {'know'}, 'ROOT': {'said'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'dobj': {'what'}} Long High Medium
3001 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Here Ali alludes to having a reputation although he does not make his ‘former’ life explicit except to suggest he turned his life around in a significant way thereby changing his life outcomes: ‘they know what I do, that I’m a teacher 43 27 {'ADV': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 9, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PROPN, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here', 'thereby'}, 'nsubj': {'Ali', 'they', 'I', 'he', 'life'}, 'ROOT': {'alludes'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'having'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'life', 'reputation', 'outcomes', 'what'}, 'mark': {'although', 'except', 'that'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'make', 'changing'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'punct': {'‘', ':', ',', '’'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'former'}, 'ccomp': {'know', 'turned', '’m', 'explicit', 'do'}, 'xcomp': {'suggest'}, 'prt': {'around'}, 'pobj': {'way'}, 'compound': {'life'}, 'attr': {'teacher'}} Long High High
3002 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models For Ali, his empathy is a result of comparing his past identity with that of hisB.E.M 16 9 {'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'hisB.E.M', 'Ali', 'that'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'nsubj': {'empathy'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'result'}, 'pcomp': {'comparing'}, 'amod': {'past'}, 'dobj': {'identity'}} Medium High Low
3003 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models pupils and having experiential knowledge about the ch oices available to them 12 5 {'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON] {'ROOT': {'pupils'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'having'}, 'amod': {'experiential', 'available'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'ch'}, 'pobj': {'oices', 'them'}} Medium High Low
3004 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Ali’s belonging is multi -layered, since he ‘achieves membership and recognition at both an individual and social group level’ (Milling 2013, 1) 22 9 {'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 2} [PROPN, AUX, VERB, AUX, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'he', 'Ali'}, 'aux': {'’s'}, 'csubj': {'belonging'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'multi'}, 'attr': {'-layered'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'advcl': {'Milling', 'achieves'}, 'dobj': {'membership'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'social', 'recognition'}, 'prep': {'at'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'compound': {'group'}, 'pobj': {'level'}, 'nummod': {'2013'}, 'npadvmod': {'1'}} Long High Medium
3005 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 10 frequently approached by parents about their child’s progress or demo tivation in the school or arbitrating in inter -generational disputes 21 9 {'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'10'}, 'advmod': {'frequently'}, 'acl': {'approached'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'disputes', 'progress', 'school', 'parents'}, 'prep': {'about', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their', 'child'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'demo'}, 'conj': {'arbitrating', 'tivation'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'-generational', 'inter'}} Long High Low
3006 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He says he must conform to cultural protocols since unexpected encounters often occur at social or religious gatherings 18 8 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'he', 'encounters', 'He'}, 'ROOT': {'says'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ccomp': {'conform'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to'}, 'amod': {'social', 'unexpected', 'cultural'}, 'pobj': {'protocols', 'gatherings'}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'advcl': {'occur'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'religious'}} Medium High Medium
3007 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models For Ali, there was a constant blurring of his private and profess ional life, ‘ all the time 19 9 {'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'life', 'Ali'}, 'punct': {',', '‘'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'private', 'constant', 'ional'}, 'attr': {'blurring'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'profess'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'npadvmod': {'time'}} Medium High Low
3008 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models everywhere, I can’t really go undercover!’ Ali’s interactions within his community are understood as a discursive experience about belonging (Delanty 2006, 188), since he relates to pupils through his inter actions with their extended family 35 20 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'everywhere', 'really'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', '!', ','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'he'}, 'aux': {'ca'}, 'neg': {'n’t'}, 'ROOT': {'understood', 'go'}, 'acomp': {'undercover'}, 'poss': {'their', 'Ali', 'his'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interactions'}, 'prep': {'through', 'within', 'to', 'with', 'about', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'family', 'actions', 'community', 'pupils', 'experience'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'inter', 'discursive', 'extended'}, 'pcomp': {'belonging'}, 'npadvmod': {'Delanty'}, 'nummod': {'2006'}, 'appos': {'188'}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'advcl': {'relates'}} Long High Medium
3009 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The community sees Ali as belonging to them because he inhabits spaces where formal cultural modes of relating cannot be easily resisted 22 11 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, ADP, VERB, ADP, PRON, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX, PART, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'modes', 'community'}, 'ROOT': {'sees'}, 'dobj': {'spaces', 'Ali'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'relating', 'belonging'}, 'pobj': {'them'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'inhabits'}, 'advmod': {'easily', 'where'}, 'amod': {'formal', 'cultural'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'resisted'}} Long High High
3010 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Ali constructed a life world that he shared with London’s Bengali youths where his manoeuvres through their community could be precarious 21 11 {'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PART, PROPN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'he', 'Ali', 'manoeuvres'}, 'ROOT': {'constructed'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'life', 'Bengali'}, 'dobj': {'world', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'shared', 'be'}, 'prep': {'through', 'with'}, 'poss': {'their', 'London', 'his'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'pobj': {'youths', 'community'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'acomp': {'precarious'}} Long High High
3011 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Gang violence and territorial aggression to and among Muslim men is not uncommon (Keith 1995; Dwyer 2000; Modood 2005) 19 6 {'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 3} [NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Gang'}, 'nsubj': {'violence'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'territorial', 'Muslim'}, 'conj': {'aggression', 'among'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'men'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'uncommon'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ')'}, 'attr': {'Keith'}, 'nummod': {'2000', '2005', '1995'}, 'appos': {'Dwyer', 'Modood'}} Medium High Low
3012 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models To indicate his insider knowledge of Bengali people’s marginalised positioning in society, at the start of our first interview Ali extensively recounted an incident in which he was stabbed and subjected to an unprovoked racist attack 36 18 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'indicate'}, 'poss': {'our', 'people', 'his'}, 'compound': {'Bengali', 'insider'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'incident'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'marginalised', 'racist', 'first', 'unprovoked'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'positioning', 'interview', 'start', 'attack', 'society'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'Ali'}, 'advmod': {'extensively'}, 'ROOT': {'recounted'}, 'nsubjpass': {'he'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'relcl': {'stabbed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'subjected'}} Long High Low
3013 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Ali explained he relates to the youths, because the incident he experienced typifies the social reality of street life experienced by some young Bengali youths, … you see this area and you think it’s all Bengali people so everything’s OK, but it’s not … there’s a lot you don’t realise … or you’re on the outside looking in at us so you don’t know what it is really like living here … it’s not that safe for us! It’s not just me, random stuff happe ns to loads of guys I’ve known 92 63 {'PROPN': 4, 'VERB': 19, 'PRON': 19, 'ADP': 9, 'DET': 8, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 9, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 4, 'AUX': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 5} [PROPN, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, NUM, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, PRON, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, VERB, ...] {'nsubj': {'Ali', 'It', 'you', 'incident', 'he', 'everything', 'happe', 'I', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'explained', '’s'}, 'ccomp': {'ns', 'is', 'relates', '’s'}, 'prep': {'on', 'like', 'for', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'at'}, 'det': {'this', 'some', 'a', 'all', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'loads', 'life', 'guys', 'youths', 'us', 'outside'}, 'punct': {',', '!', '…'}, 'mark': {'so', 'because'}, 'relcl': {'realise', 'experienced', 'known'}, 'dobj': {'reality', 'people', 'area', 'typifies'}, 'amod': {'social', 'random', 'young'}, 'compound': {'stuff', 'Bengali', 'street'}, 'acl': {'experienced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'advcl': {'see', 'know', '’s'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'conj': {'think', '’s', '’re'}, 'acomp': {'safe', 'OK'}, 'neg': {'not', 'n’t'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'attr': {'lot', 'me', 'what'}, 'aux': {'’ve', 'do'}, 'xcomp': {'looking'}, 'advmod': {'here', 'just', 'so', 'that', 'really'}, 'pcomp': {'living'}} Long High High
3014 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Ali has a territorial perspective due to his close affinity to his local area (Pickering, Kintrea, and Bannister 2012) yet is frustrated by the dangerous social conditions he shares with other youths in the community 35 17 {'PROPN': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'he', 'Ali'}, 'ROOT': {'has'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'close', 'social', 'other', 'local', 'territorial', 'dangerous'}, 'dobj': {'perspective'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'in', 'due'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'community', 'conditions', 'affinity', 'youths', 'area'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Pickering'}, 'conj': {'Bannister', 'Kintrea', 'frustrated'}, 'cc': {'and', 'yet'}, 'nummod': {'2012'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'relcl': {'shares'}} Long High Low
3015 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Shared marginality is interpreted as a perspective derived from Ali’s experiential knowledge of ‘street culture which is male dominated and highly macho’ (Hopkins 2006, 338) 25 9 {'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 2} [VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'experiential', 'Shared'}, 'nsubjpass': {'marginality'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'interpreted'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'perspective', 'culture'}, 'acl': {'derived'}, 'poss': {'Ali'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'compound': {'street'}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'npadvmod': {'male'}, 'acomp': {'dominated'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'highly'}, 'conj': {'macho'}, 'appos': {'Hopkins'}, 'nummod': {'338', '2006'}} Long High Low
3016 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models His empathy extended to his pupils through his work in his school, the community and relations with their families 19 11 {'PRON': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'poss': {'His', 'their', 'his'}, 'nsubj': {'empathy'}, 'ROOT': {'extended'}, 'prep': {'through', 'with', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'work', 'families', 'school'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dep': {'community'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'relations'}} Medium High Low
3017 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models These relations promoted a sense of belonging, for example by his adherence to dominant ways of cultural social interacting 19 8 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'relations'}, 'ROOT': {'promoted'}, 'dobj': {'sense'}, 'prep': {'by', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'belonging'}, 'punct': {','}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'interacting', 'adherence', 'example'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'amod': {'social', 'dominant', 'cultural'}} Medium High Low
3018 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models As we shall also see for Kenneth, Ali’s empathetic perspective derived from knowing what it meant to negotiate complex assaults (internal and external) on one’s cultural group 27 14 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, NUM, PART, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we'}, 'aux': {'shall', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'group', 'Kenneth'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'one', 'Ali'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'empathetic', 'cultural', 'complex', 'internal'}, 'appos': {'perspective'}, 'acl': {'derived'}, 'pcomp': {'knowing'}, 'dobj': {'assaults', 'what'}, 'ccomp': {'meant'}, 'xcomp': {'negotiate'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'external'}} Long High Medium
3019 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth said he strategically choses to be at times ‘a silent witness’ to the collective entrenched biases that impact onB.E.M 20 8 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [PROPN, VERB, PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, AUX, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON] {'nsubj': {'he', 'that', 'Kenneth'}, 'ROOT': {'said'}, 'advmod': {'strategically'}, 'ccomp': {'choses'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'times', 'biases'}, 'punct': {'‘', 'onB.E.M', '’'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'entrenched', 'collective', 'silent'}, 'appos': {'witness'}, 'relcl': {'impact'}} Long High Low
3020 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 11 Following the appointment of key personnel, entry selection procedures to re -configure the schools’ pupil demography were introduced 19 6 {'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2} [NUM, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'dep': {'11'}, 'prep': {'Following', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'personnel', 'appointment'}, 'amod': {'key'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'compound': {'selection', 'entry', 'pupil'}, 'nsubjpass': {'schools', 'procedures'}, 'aux': {'to', 're'}, 'advcl': {'-configure'}, 'appos': {'demography'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'introduced'}} Medium High Low
3021 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth claims part of his schools’ revised vision was to attract ‘alternative’ clientele i.e 14 5 {'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'vision', 'Kenneth'}, 'ROOT': {'claims'}, 'dobj': {'clientele', 'part'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'schools'}, 'punct': {'’', '‘', 'i.e'}, 'amod': {'alternative', 'revised'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'attract'}} Medium High Low
3022 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The school intended to raise its academic profile and enhance its market position by ‘cream -skimming’ (Apple 2001; Whitty, Power, and Halpin 1998) 23 7 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'school'}, 'ROOT': {'intended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'raise'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'amod': {'cream', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'position', 'profile'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Whitty', 'Power', 'enhance', 'Halpin'}, 'compound': {'market'}, 'prep': {'by'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'pobj': {'-skimming'}, 'npadvmod': {'Apple'}, 'nummod': {'1998', '2001'}} Long High Low
3023 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The schools’ initiative typifies perspectives fuelled by a collective memory of Britishness (Hesse 2000), in which there is an imagined future with a particular type of pupil population while at the same time the local reality is one of an increasingly racialised population 43 21 {'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NUM, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'poss': {'schools'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubj': {'reality', 'initiative'}, 'ROOT': {'typifies'}, 'dobj': {'perspectives'}, 'acl': {'fuelled'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'same', 'imagined', 'local', 'collective', 'racialised', 'particular'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'type', 'Britishness', 'population', 'time', 'memory'}, 'prep': {'with', 'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Hesse'}, 'nummod': {'2000'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'future', 'one'}, 'compound': {'pupil'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'increasingly'}} Long High Medium
3024 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The implication is the schools’ academic profile is achieved by pre - selection (racial profiling) rather than celebrating diversity or valuingB.E.M 21 8 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'implication'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'schools'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'racial', 'academic'}, 'nsubjpass': {'profile'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'achieved'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'pre'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'pobj': {'selection'}, 'appos': {'profiling'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'cc': {'or', 'than'}, 'pcomp': {'celebrating'}, 'dobj': {'diversity'}, 'conj': {'valuingB.E.M'}} Long High Low
3025 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models pupils’ cultural capital, Kenneth commented on the school’s ‘regime change’ by saying: … it is an issue for me, because I would assume that in any school there is always a cultural baseline from which to teach kids, … 39 22 {'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'pupils', 'assume'}, 'punct': {'’', '‘', ':', ',', '…'}, 'amod': {'cultural'}, 'appos': {'capital'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'it', 'Kenneth'}, 'ROOT': {'commented'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'in', 'by', 'for'}, 'det': {'any', 'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'poss': {'school'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'regime'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'which', 'me', 'school'}, 'pcomp': {'saying'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'baseline', 'issue'}, 'mark': {'that', 'because'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advmod': {'always'}, 'relcl': {'teach'}, 'dobj': {'kids'}} Long High High
3026 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models and how you interact with children, and if it is not empathetic within the cultural context within which the school is located … then you are goi ng to have confusion and disparity there 34 22 {'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'INTJ': 1} [CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, ADJ, INTJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV] {'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'there', 'how'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'you'}, 'ROOT': {'interact'}, 'prep': {'with', 'within'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'children', 'context'}, 'punct': {',', '…'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'goi', 'empathetic'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'cultural'}, 'nsubjpass': {'school'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'located'}, 'conj': {'are', 'disparity'}, 'intj': {'ng'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'confusion'}} Long High High
3027 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Furthermore, according to Kenneth, the creaming initiative creates attitudinal indifference among some colleagues towards certain groups of children 18 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Furthermore'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'according', 'to', 'towards', 'among', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'children', 'colleagues', 'Kenneth', 'groups'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'attitudinal', 'creaming'}, 'nsubj': {'initiative'}, 'ROOT': {'creates'}, 'dobj': {'indifference'}} Medium High Low
3028 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He add ed: … When I look at how my White colleagues interact with the Black kids I see them enforcing a culture upon Black kids without any dialogue with them 31 17 {'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON] {'nsubj': {'I', 'them', 'He', 'colleagues'}, 'ROOT': {'add'}, 'dobj': {'ed', 'culture'}, 'punct': {'…', ':'}, 'advmod': {'When', 'how'}, 'advcl': {'see', 'look'}, 'prep': {'at', 'upon', 'without', 'with'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'amod': {'White', 'Black'}, 'pcomp': {'interact'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'any'}, 'pobj': {'dialogue', 'them', 'kids'}, 'ccomp': {'enforcing'}} Long High High
3029 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Or blatantly saying , in fact rejecting and ridiculing it, “oh that’s stupid…I think that way is nonsense … this is the way” 23 12 {'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 5, 'INTJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2} [CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, PUNCT, INTJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'cc': {'and', 'Or'}, 'advmod': {'blatantly'}, 'advcl': {'saying'}, 'punct': {',', '…', '”', '“'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'fact'}, 'ccomp': {'rejecting', 'is'}, 'conj': {'ridiculing'}, 'dobj': {'it'}, 'intj': {'oh'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'this', 'that', 'way'}, 'dep': {'’s'}, 'acomp': {'stupid'}, 'ROOT': {'think'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'attr': {'way', 'nonsense'}} Long High Low
3030 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models It’s as if there is some universal blueprint about how people should behave 13 10 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'people', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'’s'}, 'mark': {'if', 'as'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'det': {'some'}, 'amod': {'universal'}, 'attr': {'blueprint'}, 'prep': {'about'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'pcomp': {'behave'}} Medium High High
3031 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models That’s what I see, big time! … I think that’s the difference between my interaction and theirs 17 12 {'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'That', 'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'think', '’s'}, 'dobj': {'difference', 'what'}, 'ccomp': {'see', '’s'}, 'punct': {',', '!', '…'}, 'amod': {'big'}, 'npadvmod': {'time'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'pobj': {'interaction'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'theirs'}} Medium High Low
3032 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth further referred to his colleagues as ‘cultural bullies’ thereby positioning them as ‘others ’ who impose hegemonic perspectives or preferred forms of comportment and behaviour (Brooks 2012; Allen 2013) 30 12 {'PROPN': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2} [PROPN, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Kenneth', 'who'}, 'advmod': {'further', 'thereby'}, 'ROOT': {'referred'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'bullies', 'comportment', 'colleagues', 'others'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ';'}, 'amod': {'preferred', 'hegemonic', 'cultural'}, 'pcomp': {'positioning'}, 'dobj': {'perspectives', 'them'}, 'relcl': {'impose'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'forms', 'behaviour'}, 'appos': {'Allen', 'Brooks', '2013'}, 'nummod': {'2012'}} Long High Low
3033 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Symbolic violence concerns the ways in which people in positions of power maintain the dominance and subordin ation of others through various practices (Bourdieu 1986) 25 11 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Symbolic', 'subordin', 'various'}, 'nsubj': {'violence', 'people'}, 'ROOT': {'concerns'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'ways', 'dominance'}, 'prep': {'through', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'practices', 'power', 'others', 'positions'}, 'relcl': {'maintain'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ation'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'Bourdieu'}, 'nummod': {'1986'}} Long High Low
3034 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Although Kenneth does not use the term, I interpret symbolic violence (which is usually linked to class) as forms of racialised insults directed atB.E.M 24 10 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NUM] {'mark': {'as', 'Although'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'forms', 'Kenneth'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'directed', 'use'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'violence', 'atB.E.M', 'term'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'interpret'}, 'amod': {'symbolic', 'racialised'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'usually'}, 'relcl': {'linked'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'insults', 'class'}} Long High High
3035 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Hall and Jefferson 1989, 394) poin ts out, with regard to Black people in British society, ‘race is the modality in which class is lived’ 25 10 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Hall', 'race'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Jefferson'}, 'nummod': {'1989'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', ')', '’'}, 'appos': {'394', 'poin'}, 'ccomp': {'ts'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'people', 'regard', 'society'}, 'amod': {'British', 'Black'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'which', 'the'}, 'attr': {'modality'}, 'nsubjpass': {'class'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'lived'}} Long High Low
3036 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 12 ridicule Kenneth observes are read here as forms of symbolic violence perpetrated onB.E.M 14 4 {'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, PROPN, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NUM] {'nummod': {'12'}, 'nsubj': {'ridicule', 'forms'}, 'compound': {'Kenneth'}, 'ROOT': {'observes'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'read'}, 'advmod': {'here'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'symbolic'}, 'pobj': {'violence'}, 'advcl': {'perpetrated'}, 'dobj': {'onB.E.M'}} Medium High Medium
3037 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth’s ‘conscious dec ision’ not to advance to managerial posts means that he is not in a position to significantly alter the attitudes and views of the dominant group 29 15 {'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PART, PUNCT, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'Kenneth'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’'}, 'amod': {'conscious', 'dominant', 'managerial'}, 'compound': {'dec'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'ision'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'advance'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'group', 'posts', 'position'}, 'ROOT': {'means'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'significantly'}, 'acl': {'alter'}, 'dobj': {'attitudes'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'views'}} Long High Medium
3038 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Ke nneth had a conflicting sense of belonging to some groups of colleagues and with pupils at times 18 9 {'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'Ke'}, 'nsubj': {'nneth'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'det': {'a', 'some'}, 'amod': {'conflicting'}, 'dobj': {'sense'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'belonging'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'times', 'colleagues', 'groups'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'with'}} Medium High Low
3039 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models I prompted him to disclose how, or whether he crosses this divide given that his positioning is often at the ‘interface’ 21 14 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'I', 'he', 'positioning'}, 'ROOT': {'prompted'}, 'dobj': {'him', 'divide'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'disclose'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'mark': {'that', 'whether'}, 'ccomp': {'crosses'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'prep': {'given', 'at'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pcomp': {'is'}, 'pobj': {'interface'}} Long High High
3040 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth said: ‘talking to the pupils , hearing their point of view often gives me the chance to either speak on their behalf or talk to them about what they would do next time .. 35 20 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PRON, DET, NOUN, PART, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'they', 'Kenneth'}, 'ROOT': {'said'}, 'punct': {'‘', '..', ':', ','}, 'csubj': {'talking'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'them', 'view', 'behalf'}, 'advcl': {'hearing'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'point', 'what', 'chance'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'ccomp': {'gives'}, 'dative': {'me'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'acl': {'speak'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'talk'}, 'pcomp': {'do'}, 'amod': {'next'}, 'npadvmod': {'time'}} Long High Low
3041 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models some get it, but dealing with provocation can only be understood in hindsight’ 13 9 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'some'}, 'ROOT': {'get'}, 'dobj': {'it'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'csubjpass': {'dealing'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'provocation', 'hindsight'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'conj': {'understood'}} Medium High Low
3042 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He related to the pupils because, like him, they were sometimes subjected to having their ‘different’ knowledges devalued 18 10 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB] {'nsubj': {'He'}, 'ROOT': {'related'}, 'prep': {'like', 'to'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'him'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'sometimes'}, 'advcl': {'subjected'}, 'pcomp': {'having'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'different'}, 'dobj': {'knowledges'}, 'conj': {'devalued'}} Medium High Medium
3043 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Conflict resolution requires both parties to reflect on previous actions and to develop strategies for imagined or future events 19 7 {'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Conflict'}, 'nsubj': {'resolution'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'det': {'both'}, 'dobj': {'strategies', 'parties'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'reflect'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for'}, 'amod': {'imagined', 'previous'}, 'pobj': {'actions', 'events'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'future', 'develop'}} Medium High Low
3044 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models However, for Kenneth, an overwhelming barrier for him was his colleagues’ ingrained fear 13 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'him', 'Kenneth'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'overwhelming', 'ingrained'}, 'appos': {'barrier'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'attr': {'fear', 'colleagues'}} Medium High Low
3045 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He described the situation with colleagues by saying, ‘they are worried about the Black pupils 16 8 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'He', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'situation'}, 'prep': {'by', 'with', 'about'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'colleagues'}, 'pcomp': {'saying'}, 'punct': {',', '‘'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'worried'}, 'amod': {'Black'}} Medium High Low
3046 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models scared mostly of the boys.’ According to Kenneth, how his colleagues related to the boys was disrespe ctful, because, too often, it lead to unwelcomed confrontations: ‘the Black boys are more concerned about losing face 36 18 {'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4} [VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'scared', 'are'}, 'advmod': {'too', 'often', 'mostly', 'more', 'how'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'According', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'boys', 'confrontations', 'Kenneth'}, 'punct': {'’', '‘', '.', ':', ','}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'nsubj': {'boys', 'it', 'colleagues'}, 'relcl': {'related'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'attr': {'disrespe'}, 'oprd': {'ctful'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'lead'}, 'amod': {'unwelcomed', 'Black'}, 'acomp': {'concerned'}, 'pcomp': {'losing'}, 'dobj': {'face'}} Long High High
3047 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth was frus trated with the absence of collective dialogue between White and Black teachers (Delpit 1988, 1995) on how to relate withB.E.M 23 9 {'PROPN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, AUX, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Kenneth', 'frus'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'trated'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of', 'between'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'dialogue', 'teachers', 'absence'}, 'amod': {'collective'}, 'nmod': {'White'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Black'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Delpit'}, 'nummod': {'1988', '1995'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'pcomp': {'relate'}, 'dobj': {'withB.E.M'}} Long High Medium
3048 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Shared marginality was an empathetic perspective shared by all three teachers that gave them a strong sense of belonging (IBerd ún and Guibernau 2013) and cultural affinity since it underpinned the relationships they developed withB.E.M 35 15 {'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [VERB, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'amod': {'empathetic', 'cultural', 'Shared', 'strong'}, 'nsubj': {'marginality', 'it', 'that', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'all', 'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'attr': {'perspective'}, 'acl': {'shared'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'2013', 'three'}, 'pobj': {'teachers'}, 'relcl': {'gave', 'developed'}, 'dative': {'them'}, 'dobj': {'withB.E.M', 'ún', 'relationships', 'sense'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pcomp': {'belonging'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'compound': {'IBerd'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Guibernau', 'affinity'}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'advcl': {'underpinned'}} Long High Medium
3049 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Their stories later revealed the politics of the teacher s’ interactions in school and their communities that at times manifested as symbolic violence 23 10 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'Their', 'their'}, 'nsubj': {'stories'}, 'advmod': {'later'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'politics'}, 'prep': {'at', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'nmod': {'teacher'}, 'case': {'s'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'violence', 'times', 'school', 'interactions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'communities'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'manifested'}, 'amod': {'symbolic'}} Long High Medium
3050 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The his -stories have discursive authority to describe a unique relational view about sharing pupils’ sense of powerlessness, and a perspective about what it means to relate toB.E.M 28 13 {'DET': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'nsubj': {'it', '-stories'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'amod': {'unique', 'discursive'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'view', 'sense', 'toB.E.M', 'authority'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'describe'}, 'compound': {'relational'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'means', 'sharing'}, 'nmod': {'pupils'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'pobj': {'powerlessness'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'perspective'}, 'xcomp': {'relate'}} Long High Low
3051 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models pupils, in the next section the teachers describe interventions they think epitomise their identification and enactment of their notion of a role model teacher 24 11 {'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'pupils', 'teachers', 'they'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'next'}, 'pobj': {'section', 'teacher', 'notion'}, 'ROOT': {'describe'}, 'dobj': {'interventions', 'identification'}, 'relcl': {'think'}, 'ccomp': {'epitomise'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'enactment'}, 'compound': {'role', 'model'}} Long High Low
3052 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Performance of role model identities The teachers’ stories were, as expected, saturated with typical everyday teacherly inter - 18 5 {'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'stories', 'Performance'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'pobj': {'model', 'inter'}, 'ROOT': {'identities'}, 'det': {'The'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'expected', 'saturated'}, 'amod': {'everyday', 'teacherly', 'typical'}} Medium High Medium
3053 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models They were asked to rationalise their work and give examples to illustrate what performing as a role model meant to them 21 12 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'nsubjpass': {'They'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'rationalise'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'work', 'examples'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'give'}, 'advcl': {'illustrate'}, 'nsubj': {'what'}, 'ccomp': {'performing'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'pobj': {'model', 'them'}, 'acl': {'meant'}} Long High Low
3054 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models An overriding concern was not only the politics of their enactment of a role model tea cher but also the image they constructed for themselves 25 15 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'det': {'An', 'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'overriding'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'concern'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'attr': {'politics'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'cher', 'themselves', 'enactment'}, 'compound': {'role', 'model', 'tea'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'image'}, 'relcl': {'constructed'}} Long High Low
3055 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In the following extract Kenneth talks about the way he interacts withB.E.M 12 5 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'about', 'In'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'following'}, 'pobj': {'extract', 'way'}, 'compound': {'Kenneth'}, 'ROOT': {'talks'}, 'nsubj': {'he'}, 'relcl': {'interacts'}, 'dobj': {'withB.E.M'}} Medium High Low
3056 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models parents and pupils: Kenneth: Because I think, not within because people don’t see who I am within, but what you can see on the outside is still a rare thing 30 23 {'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PART, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'people', 'you', 'parents'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'pupils'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'appos': {'Kenneth'}, 'mark': {'Because', 'because'}, 'advcl': {'see', 'think'}, 'neg': {'not', 'n’t'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within'}, 'aux': {'can', 'do'}, 'pobj': {'outside', 'who'}, 'ccomp': {'am'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'csubj': {'see'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'still'}, 'amod': {'rare'}, 'attr': {'thing'}} Long High High
3057 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models A black guy who is in a profession, who looks like he’s doing well, and when he speaks he sounds like he’s talking some sort of sense, yet still able to communicate with them, who hasn’t … and I use this phrase carefu lly … ‘sold out’ 47 30 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 9, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PUNCT] {'det': {'A', 'a', 'this', 'some'}, 'amod': {'black'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'guy', 'he', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'is', 'has', 'looks'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'them', 'sense', 'profession'}, 'punct': {',', '…', '‘', '’'}, 'mark': {'like'}, 'aux': {'to', '’s'}, 'advcl': {'talking', 'speaks', 'doing'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'lly', 'yet', 'well', 'still'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'sounds'}, 'dobj': {'phrase', 'sort', 'n’t'}, 'conj': {'able', 'use'}, 'xcomp': {'communicate', 'sold'}, 'oprd': {'carefu'}, 'prt': {'out'}} Long High High
3058 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth: There’s a general feeling, and I will take this from the communities that I know about in North and South London 22 15 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3} [PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN] {'ROOT': {'Kenneth'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'expl': {'There'}, 'acl': {'’s'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'general'}, 'attr': {'feeling'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'conj': {'South', 'take'}, 'dobj': {'this'}, 'prep': {'about', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'communities', 'that', 'London'}, 'relcl': {'know'}, 'nmod': {'North'}} Long High Low
3059 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models When black guys get to a certain level their cultural allegiances change 12 5 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'black', 'cultural'}, 'nsubj': {'allegiances', 'guys'}, 'advcl': {'get'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'level'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ROOT': {'change'}} Medium High Medium
3060 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models People believe that they are playing the game so much that they forget the culture that we have as African and Caribbean people and only go for white middle -class culture that we are situated in … and kids see that … and are not all that impressed 49 30 {'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 8, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, PART, ADV, PRON, VERB] {'nsubj': {'kids', 'they', 'People', 'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'believe'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'ccomp': {'playing', 'forget', 'impressed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'game', 'that', 'culture'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'much', 'so'}, 'relcl': {'situated', 'have'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'in'}, 'amod': {'white', 'African', 'middle'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'see', 'go', 'Caribbean', 'are'}, 'pobj': {'people', 'that', 'culture'}, 'compound': {'-class'}, 'nsubjpass': {'we'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'punct': {'…'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'all'}} Long High High
3061 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models teachers’ identification as role models and the importance they attach to social signifiers 13 5 {'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ROOT': {'identification'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'signifiers'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'importance'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'attach'}, 'amod': {'social'}} Medium High Low
3062 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth’s account typifies situations where the teachers disrupt the signifying process so as to be read as authentic 18 9 {'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ] {'poss': {'Kenneth'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'account', 'typifies'}, 'ROOT': {'situations'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers'}, 'relcl': {'disrupt'}, 'amod': {'authentic', 'signifying'}, 'dobj': {'process'}, 'mark': {'as', 'so'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'read'}, 'prep': {'as'}} Medium High High
3063 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Here, Kenneth rejects being positioned as ‘ sold out ’ by others since it is a pejorative term synonymous with someone who internalises and wears as a social mask the White man’s disposition 34 18 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PART, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'compound': {'White', 'Kenneth'}, 'ROOT': {'rejects'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'xcomp': {'positioned'}, 'prep': {'by', 'as', 'with'}, 'pcomp': {'sold'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'pobj': {'someone', 'mask', 'others'}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'who'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'social', 'synonymous', 'pejorative'}, 'attr': {'term'}, 'relcl': {'internalises'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'wears'}, 'poss': {'man'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'dobj': {'disposition'}} Long High Medium
3064 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In similar ways, all the teachers refer to construction of themselves in terms of how they may be read inter-textual ly 21 12 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'textual', 'similar', '-', 'inter'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'construction', 'terms', 'themselves'}, 'punct': {','}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers'}, 'ROOT': {'refer'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'pcomp': {'read'}, 'oprd': {'ly'}} Long High Medium
3065 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Following Glaude (2007) , an important aspect of performance is the manner in which the teachers enact their beliefs within a social space (Glaude, 2007) 25 10 {'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2} [VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'within', 'Following', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'performance', 'Glaude', 'space'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Glaude', '2007'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'social', 'important'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers', 'aspect'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'manner'}, 'relcl': {'enact'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'beliefs'}, 'npadvmod': {'2007'}} Long High Low
3066 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Here the suggestion made is the teachers’ beliefs formed by the empathetic relationships they establish withB.E.M 16 8 {'ADV': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'suggestion', 'beliefs', 'they'}, 'acl': {'made', 'formed'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'empathetic'}, 'pobj': {'relationships'}, 'ccomp': {'establish'}, 'dobj': {'withB.E.M'}} Medium High Low
3067 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Although their beliefs are influential in defining themselves as, or becoming a role model , the argument made is teachers strategically perform their particular ‘role’ by offering preferred readings of themselves toB.E.M 32 16 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, PRON, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'argument', 'teachers', 'beliefs'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'influential'}, 'prep': {'by', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'offering', 'defining'}, 'dobj': {'readings', 'role', 'themselves'}, 'punct': {',', 'toB.E.M', '‘', '’'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'becoming'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'attr': {'model'}, 'acl': {'made'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'strategically'}, 'ccomp': {'perform'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'preferred'}, 'pobj': {'themselves'}} Long High Medium
3068 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel, Ali and Kenneth talk about hyper -visibility in their schools as productive and view ownership pivotal to their acceptance or rejection byB.E.M 23 9 {'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Nigel'}, 'punct': {',', 'byB.E.M'}, 'conj': {'Ali', 'view', 'Kenneth', 'rejection'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'ROOT': {'talk'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'as', 'in'}, 'compound': {'hyper'}, 'pobj': {'schools', '-visibility', 'acceptance'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'productive'}, 'dobj': {'ownership'}, 'advmod': {'pivotal'}} Long High Low
3069 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models … Th ey want to know if you are someone they want to relate to 16 8 {'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP] {'punct': {'…'}, 'nsubj': {'ey', 'Th', 'they', 'you'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'relate', 'know'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'someone'}, 'relcl': {'want'}, 'prep': {'to'}} Medium High Medium
3070 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Throughout many of his stories Kenneth ma de repeated reference to ‘black guys’ which I read illustrates he engages withB.E.M 20 8 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'X': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 2} [ADP, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, X, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Throughout'}, 'pobj': {'many', 'stories', 'guys'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'compound': {'Kenneth'}, 'nmod': {'ma'}, 'advmod': {'de'}, 'amod': {'black', 'repeated'}, 'appos': {'reference'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’'}, 'dobj': {'which', 'withB.E.M', 'illustrates'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'he'}, 'relcl': {'read'}, 'ccomp': {'engages'}} Long High Low
3071 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Ali recalls an occasion he overhears a group of boys in the school corridor talking about him, when asked to repeat their comments they responded by saying : ‘Sir, the new kid was saying that you’re the safest teacher in the school’ 42 21 {'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 9, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Ali', 'they', 'you', 'he', 'kid'}, 'ROOT': {'recalls'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'group', 'comments', 'occasion'}, 'relcl': {'responded', 'overhears'}, 'prep': {'by', 'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'boys', 'school', 'corridor', 'him'}, 'compound': {'school'}, 'acl': {'talking'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', ':', '’'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'was', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'repeat'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'saying'}, 'npadvmod': {'Sir'}, 'amod': {'safest', 'new'}, 'ccomp': {'saying', '’re'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'attr': {'teacher'}} Long High High
3072 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models One of several remarks about his hypervisibility made by Ali: You get it [attention] from kids wanting to know [how you’ve walked the steps] and how to do it and they see you as one of their role models or they see you as their peers and they look up to you 52 40 {'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 9, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 13, 'VERB': 9, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'X': 2, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 4} [NUM, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, X, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, X, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, NUM, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADP, PRON] {'dep': {'[', 'One'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'of', 'about', 'as'}, 'amod': {'several'}, 'pobj': {'Ali', 'hypervisibility', 'kids', 'you', 'models', 'peers', 'remarks', 'one', 'attention'}, 'poss': {'their', 'his'}, 'acl': {'made', 'wanting'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {':', ']'}, 'nsubj': {'You', 'they', 'you'}, 'ROOT': {'see', 'get'}, 'dobj': {'steps', 'it', 'you'}, 'aux': {'’ve', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'know'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'ccomp': {'walked'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'see', 'do', 'look'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'prt': {'up'}} Long High High
3073 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models teachers merely for curiosity, or that they seek out culturally relevant teachers, or those known for having empowering pedagogical practices (Sefa Dei and James 1998; Simon 1995) 27 9 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'teachers'}, 'advmod': {'merely', 'culturally'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'curiosity'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'conj': {'Dei', 'James', 'those', 'seek'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'pedagogical'}, 'dobj': {'teachers', 'practices'}, 'acl': {'known'}, 'aux': {'having'}, 'pcomp': {'empowering'}, 'compound': {'Sefa'}, 'nummod': {'1998', '1995'}, 'appos': {'Simon'}} Long High Medium
3074 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth and Ali’so bservations support the findings of other scholars that minority pupils come to the classroom with cultural terms of reference about theirB.E.M 24 10 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM] {'nsubj': {'pupils', 'Kenneth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'Ali’so', 'minority'}, 'conj': {'bservations'}, 'ROOT': {'support'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'findings'}, 'prep': {'about', 'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'other', 'cultural'}, 'pobj': {'scholars', 'terms', 'classroom', 'theirB.E.M', 'that', 'reference'}, 'relcl': {'come'}} Long High Low
3075 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models teachers that may affect interactions (Brown, 2012 ; Johnson 1995; Simon 1995) 12 2 {'NOUN': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 3} [NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'teachers'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'relcl': {'affect'}, 'dobj': {'interactions'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Johnson', 'Simon', 'Brown'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012'}, 'nummod': {'1995'}} Medium High Low
3076 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models A politics of representation ap proach to studies on role model ‘teacher identity’ raises questions not only about the silenced voice but also about the invisible image 27 12 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PART, ADV, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'politics', 'ap'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'image', 'model', 'representation', 'voice'}, 'dobj': {'questions', 'proach'}, 'compound': {'role', 'teacher'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’'}, 'appos': {'identity'}, 'ROOT': {'raises'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'amod': {'silenced', 'invisible'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'about'}} Long High Low
3077 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Simon (1995) uses the term ‘image text’ to describe the discourses that students construct about the competence of min ority teachers 21 7 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'students', 'Simon'}, 'punct': {'(', '‘', ')', '’'}, 'appos': {'1995'}, 'ROOT': {'uses'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'discourses', 'that', 'term', 'text'}, 'compound': {'ority', 'image'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'describe'}, 'relcl': {'construct'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'competence', 'teachers'}, 'amod': {'min'}} Long High Low
3078 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel talked about his high profile and popularity at his current (third) school by noting, ‘ some of these things are subliminal 23 11 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'some', 'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'talked'}, 'prep': {'by', 'about', 'at', 'of'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'amod': {'high', 'third', 'current'}, 'pobj': {'profile', 'things', 'school'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'popularity'}, 'punct': {'(', '‘', ',', ')'}, 'pcomp': {'noting'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'subliminal'}} Long High Low
3079 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models and in this school I’m talking about reaching children of a different racial background to myself’ 16 10 {'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT] {'cc': {'and'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'myself', 'background', 'school'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'’m'}, 'ROOT': {'talking'}, 'pcomp': {'reaching'}, 'dobj': {'children'}, 'amod': {'different', 'racial'}, 'punct': {'’'}} Medium High Low
3080 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Here Nigel is referring to his body as an image text that he creates to clearly distinguish him from his colleagues 21 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here', 'clearly'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'Nigel'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'referring'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'from'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'body', 'colleagues', 'text'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'compound': {'image'}, 'dobj': {'him', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'creates'}, 'xcomp': {'distinguish'}} Long High Low
3081 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He later added: Even in your everyday going from here to there, somebody is watching, seeing your demeanour, seeing your outlook and wanting to relate to you 27 15 {'PRON': 6, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'nsubj': {'somebody', 'He'}, 'advmod': {'later', 'Even'}, 'ROOT': {'added'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in'}, 'poss': {'your'}, 'pobj': {'everyday', 'you'}, 'advcl': {'going', 'seeing'}, 'pcomp': {'here', 'there'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'watching'}, 'dobj': {'outlook', 'demeanour'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'wanting'}, 'xcomp': {'relate'}} Long High Low
3082 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models … It’s almost a bit scary … cause you’re not always aware of them but they are aware of you 20 15 {'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON] {'punct': {'…'}, 'nsubj': {'It', 'they', 'you'}, 'ROOT': {'’s'}, 'advmod': {'almost', 'always'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'npadvmod': {'bit'}, 'acomp': {'aware', 'scary'}, 'xcomp': {'cause'}, 'ccomp': {'’re'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'them', 'you'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'are'}} Long High Low
3083 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Two inter -related points emerged from the teachers’ reflections: their hyper visibility and its influence on how they perceived their role model identities 23 10 {'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NUM, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'Two'}, 'npadvmod': {'inter', 'visibility'}, 'amod': {'hyper', '-related'}, 'nsubj': {'points', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'emerged'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'advcl': {'reflections'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'poss': {'its', 'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'influence'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'pcomp': {'perceived'}, 'compound': {'role', 'model'}, 'dobj': {'identities'}} Long High Medium
3084 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models First, all the teachers in the study believed that the pupils’ gaze is highly significant and influential in what they do. 21 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'highly', 'First'}, 'punct': {',', '.', '’'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers', 'they', 'gaze'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'study'}, 'ROOT': {'believed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nmod': {'pupils'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'significant'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'influential'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'do'}} Long High Medium
3085 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 15 Second, they were driven by a sense of accountability and therefore mindful of the quality of the interactions they had withB.E.M 22 13 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'nummod': {'15'}, 'advmod': {'therefore', 'Second'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'driven'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'accountability', 'quality', 'sense', 'interactions'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'mindful'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'had'}, 'dobj': {'withB.E.M'}} Long High Low
3086 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models As Nigel subsequently pointed out, ‘I think children are very smart, I think it is often underestimatedw hat you give to children, 23 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, ADV, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'children', 'Nigel', 'you'}, 'advmod': {'very', 'often', 'subsequently'}, 'advcl': {'pointed'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'punct': {',', '‘'}, 'ccomp': {'think', 'are', 'underestimatedw'}, 'acomp': {'smart'}, 'ROOT': {'think'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'dobj': {'hat'}, 'relcl': {'give'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'children'}} Long High Medium
3087 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models pupils in their stories as critical evaluative learners with a burgeoning curiosity about forms ofB.E.M 15 6 {'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV] {'ROOT': {'pupils'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as', 'with', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'curiosity', 'stories', 'forms'}, 'amod': {'evaluative', 'burgeoning', 'critical'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'advmod': {'ofB.E.M'}} Medium High Low
3088 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models These be liefs underpinned the way they interpreted and performed their roles, and characterised as scaffoldingB.E.M 16 8 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, AUX, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'liefs', 'they', 'These'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'underpinned'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'way', 'roles'}, 'relcl': {'interpreted'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performed', 'characterised'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'pobj': {'scaffoldingB.E.M'}} Medium High Low
3089 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models By way of illustration, Ali described an intervention where he prompted pupils to re - examine their ideas about repres entations of cultural groups in discourse and expressions of masculinity 30 13 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, VERB, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'about', 'By', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'way', 'masculinity', 'illustration', 'entations', 'discourse', 'groups'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'Ali'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'dobj': {'intervention', 'ideas', 'pupils'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'relcl': {'prompted'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'examine', '-', 're'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'repres'}, 'amod': {'cultural'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'expressions'}} Long High Medium
3090 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He recalled a situation where his initial aim was to disrupt pupils’ pre - conceived ideas about peer group expectations, ‘one of the boys told me there was going to be a big fight ha ppening 36 16 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'INTJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, INTJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'one', 'He', 'aim'}, 'ROOT': {'recalled'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'situation', 'me', 'ideas', 'pupils'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'amod': {'big', 'initial', 'conceived'}, 'relcl': {'was'}, 'aux': {'was', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'ppening', 'disrupt'}, 'punct': {'’', '‘', '-', 'ha', ','}, 'npadvmod': {'pre'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'compound': {'group', 'peer'}, 'pobj': {'boys', 'expectations'}, 'advcl': {'told'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'going'}, 'attr': {'fight'}} Long High Medium
3091 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Cause I’ve seen it all my life when I was growing up’ 12 9 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, DET, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PUNCT] {'mark': {'Cause'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'’ve', 'was'}, 'ROOT': {'seen'}, 'dobj': {'it'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'npadvmod': {'life'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'growing'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'punct': {'’'}} Medium High High
3092 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Here Ali positions himself in the story as a chosen arbitrator, yet there is a poignancy to the situation given his ‘street’ experiences 23 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PROPN, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here'}, 'nsubj': {'Ali'}, 'ROOT': {'positions'}, 'dobj': {'himself'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'given', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'situation', 'arbitrator', 'story', 'experiences'}, 'amod': {'chosen'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'cc': {'yet'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'conj': {'is'}, 'attr': {'poignancy'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'nmod': {'street'}} Long High Low
3093 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He continued by saying, ‘ I kinda like got in the middle of it 15 7 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'INTJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, INTJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON] {'nsubj': {'I', 'He'}, 'ROOT': {'continued'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'saying'}, 'punct': {',', '‘'}, 'advmod': {'kinda'}, 'intj': {'like'}, 'ccomp': {'got'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'it', 'middle'}} Medium High Low
3094 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models and spoke about the rights as a human being, “Is this right 12 8 {'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1} [CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, NOUN] {'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'spoke'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'rights', 'being'}, 'amod': {'human'}, 'punct': {',', '“'}, 'conj': {'Is'}, 'nsubj': {'this'}, 'acomp': {'right'}} Medium High Low
3095 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Do you think it’s going to be acceptable?” Ali positioned himself (physically) within the body of the spectators, transforming the pedagogical space to stage/instigate arguments about choices and consequences 29 15 {'AUX': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'SYM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [AUX, PRON, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, SYM, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'aux': {'to', 'stage', '’s', 'Do'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'Ali', 'you'}, 'ROOT': {'positioned', 'think'}, 'ccomp': {'going'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'acceptable'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '/', '?'}, 'dobj': {'space', 'himself', 'arguments'}, 'advmod': {'physically'}, 'prep': {'about', 'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'spectators', 'body', 'choices'}, 'advcl': {'transforming'}, 'amod': {'pedagogical'}, 'conj': {'consequences', 'instigate'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
3096 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models One reading would be that all teachers have a duty of care, so Ali’s intervention was a justifiable exercise of disciplinary power 22 13 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [NUM, NOUN, AUX, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PROPN, PART, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'intervention', 'reading', 'teachers'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'be', 'have'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'all'}, 'dobj': {'duty'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'care', 'power'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'so'}, 'poss': {'Ali'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'amod': {'disciplinary', 'justifiable'}, 'attr': {'exercise'}} Long High Medium
3097 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models His actio ns are undeniably what one would expect of any teacher in such a situation 16 10 {'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3} [PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN] {'poss': {'His'}, 'compound': {'actio'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'ns'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'undeniably'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'expect'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'any', 'a'}, 'pobj': {'situation', 'teacher'}, 'predet': {'such'}} Medium High Low
3098 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models However, Ali interpreted the situation as a chance to perform his role, namely disrupting the boys’ collective understandings around dishonour and masculinity 22 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'namely'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'Ali'}, 'ROOT': {'interpreted'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'situation', 'role', 'understandings'}, 'prep': {'as', 'around'}, 'pobj': {'dishonour', 'chance'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'perform'}, 'poss': {'boys', 'his'}, 'advcl': {'disrupting'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'collective'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'masculinity'}} Long High Low
3099 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models A dominant cultural reading of such an event, and for the boys concerned, as ‘backing down’ interprets as an act as ‘unmanly’ and shameful (Modood 2005; Ouzgane 2006) 28 13 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'A', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'unmanly', 'dominant', 'cultural'}, 'nsubj': {'reading'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'pobj': {'boys', 'Ouzgane', 'event', 'act'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'for', 'shameful'}, 'acl': {'concerned'}, 'pcomp': {'backing'}, 'prt': {'down'}, 'ROOT': {'interprets'}, 'appos': {'Modood'}, 'nummod': {'2005', '2006'}} Long High Low
3100 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Ali explained the challenge of being a role model was not only about getting the boys to question their ideas about their masculinity, or group expectations around honour; he said that you have to model your beliefs, … and just speak … on a level where they understand you and don’t see you as a teacher then, but as a friend and they kinda underst and 66 42 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 10, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 9, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, AUX, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, CCONJ, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ] {'nsubj': {'Ali', 'they', 'you', 'boys', 'he'}, 'ccomp': {'have', 'was', 'explained', 'question'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'challenge', 'ideas', 'beliefs', 'you'}, 'prep': {'on', 'around', 'of', 'about', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'getting', 'being'}, 'compound': {'group', 'role'}, 'attr': {'model'}, 'neg': {'not', 'n’t'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'just', 'where', 'kinda', 'then'}, 'aux': {'do', 'to'}, 'poss': {'their', 'your'}, 'pobj': {'teacher', 'friend', 'masculinity', 'level', 'honour'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '…'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'conj': {'see', 'underst', 'speak', 'as', 'expectations'}, 'ROOT': {'said'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'xcomp': {'model'}, 'relcl': {'understand'}} Long High High
3101 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Who’s going to be on the losing side?” … I just try to explain to them that … “yes … think about your actions.” Turning to Kenneth, his exemplars were interventions where he promoted counter - narratives to pupils’ views a bout culture 43 22 {'PRON': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADV': 1, 'INTJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, PUNCT, PUNCT, INTJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'exemplars', 'I', 'he', 'Who'}, 'aux': {'to', '’s'}, 'ROOT': {'going', 'try', 'were'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'explain'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'losing'}, 'pobj': {'side', 'actions', 'them', 'Kenneth', 'pupils'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', '.', '”', ',', '…', '?', '“'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'where'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'intj': {'yes'}, 'ccomp': {'think'}, 'poss': {'his', 'your'}, 'advcl': {'views', 'Turning'}, 'attr': {'interventions'}, 'relcl': {'promoted'}, 'compound': {'counter', 'bout'}, 'dobj': {'narratives', 'culture'}} Long High Medium
3102 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 16 transformative part of his work as a constant challenge because it requires expecting resistance and de -mystifying certain popularly held truisms 22 8 {'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PROPN, ADJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'nummod': {'16'}, 'compound': {'transformative'}, 'ROOT': {'part'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'challenge', 'work'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'held', 'constant'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'advcl': {'requires'}, 'xcomp': {'expecting'}, 'dobj': {'resistance'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'de'}, 'conj': {'-mystifying'}, 'advmod': {'popularly'}, 'appos': {'truisms'}} Long High Medium
3103 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The first are pupils who he says were, ‘quite proud of their cultural heritage and will cling onto it but tend to use it aggressively, against the culture that is in the school’ 33 22 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [DET, ADJ, AUX, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'first', 'he', 'that', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'pupils'}, 'relcl': {'says', 'is'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'aggressively'}, 'acomp': {'proud'}, 'prep': {'in', 'onto', 'of', 'against'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'cultural'}, 'pobj': {'it', 'heritage', 'school', 'culture'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'conj': {'cling', 'tend'}, 'xcomp': {'use'}, 'dobj': {'it'}} Long High Low
3104 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models pupils perpetuate the stereotyping through wh ich Black boys are frequently labelled Sewell 1997; Vincent et al 17 3 {'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'pupils'}, 'ROOT': {'perpetuate'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'stereotyping'}, 'prep': {'through'}, 'compound': {'wh'}, 'pobj': {'ich'}, 'amod': {'Black'}, 'nsubjpass': {'boys'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'frequently'}, 'conj': {'labelled'}, 'oprd': {'Sewell'}, 'nummod': {'1997'}, 'punct': {';'}, 'npadvmod': {'Vincent'}, 'appos': {'al', 'et'}} Medium High Low
3105 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 2012) or the ‘loud’ or sexual scripting attached to Black girls in dominant discourses (Fordham 1993; French 2013) 18 5 {'NUM': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'2012', 'French'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ';'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'dominant', 'loud', 'Black', 'sexual'}, 'conj': {'scripting'}, 'acl': {'attached'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'girls', 'discourses'}, 'appos': {'Fordham'}, 'nummod': {'1993', '2013'}} Medium High Low
3106 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models His view supports common findings from these research studies that pupils ’ resistant stances are expressions of, and responses to the hidden injuries of racism and sexism or other forms of categorisation 32 14 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'poss': {'His'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'view'}, 'ROOT': {'supports'}, 'amod': {'other', 'hidden', 'resistant', 'common'}, 'dobj': {'stances', 'findings'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'categorisation', 'racism', 'injuries'}, 'relcl': {'pupils'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'conj': {'forms', 'responses', 'are', 'sexism'}, 'attr': {'expressions'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}} Long High Low
3107 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The second group he identified were those embarrassed by how their culture is represented in dominant dis - courses 19 9 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, PRON, ADJ, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'second', 'dominant', 'embarrassed'}, 'nsubj': {'group', 'he'}, 'relcl': {'identified'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'those'}, 'prep': {'by', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubjpass': {'culture'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'represented'}, 'compound': {'dis'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'courses'}} Medium High Medium
3108 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth explain ed by saying: ‘they think it’s inferior whether in the intellectual sense 15 7 {'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 1} [PROPN, VERB, PROPN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'they', 'it', 'Kenneth'}, 'ROOT': {'explain'}, 'dobj': {'ed'}, 'prep': {'by'}, 'pcomp': {'saying'}, 'punct': {'‘', ':'}, 'ccomp': {'think', '’s', 'in'}, 'acomp': {'inferior'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'intellectual'}, 'pobj': {'sense'}} Medium High Medium
3109 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models or in the cultural sense, in comparison to the main culture that’s in the school’ 15 10 {'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'cc': {'or'}, 'ROOT': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'main', 'cultural'}, 'pobj': {'comparison', 'sense', 'school', 'culture'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'conj': {'in'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'’s'}} Medium High Low
3110 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth felt that other, more deep -rooted issues relating to the representation of culture need exploration and said that they equally apply to either groups of pupils 27 12 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'issues', 'they', 'Kenneth'}, 'ROOT': {'felt'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'other', '-rooted'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'deep', 'equally', 'more'}, 'acl': {'relating'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'either'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'representation', 'groups', 'culture'}, 'ccomp': {'apply', 'need'}, 'dobj': {'exploration'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'said'}} Long High High
3111 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models I prompted Kenneth to explain how he dealt with the differe nt views pupils hold: I ask them why they think this, … where’s it coming from 27 15 {'PRON': 7, 'VERB': 8, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, PROPN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, ADP] {'nsubj': {'I', 'he', 'it', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'coming', 'prompted', 'views', 'think', 'dealt'}, 'dobj': {'hold', 'this', 'them', 'Kenneth'}, 'aux': {'to', '’s'}, 'xcomp': {'explain'}, 'advmod': {'nt', 'where', 'why', 'how'}, 'prep': {'with', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'differe'}, 'compound': {'pupils'}, 'punct': {',', '…', ':'}, 'ROOT': {'ask'}} Long High High
3112 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models I discuss and show them sometimes that the choices that cultures have made are historically based or indeed ad hoc and there’s nothing underneath it that gives one culture more merit than another, it’s just the way … and for them to become more aware, and when reports on this culture or other cultures are made, they look at the culture from another point of view 66 47 {'PRON': 11, 'VERB': 10, 'CCONJ': 6, 'ADV': 5, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 3, 'X': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PART': 1} [PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, X, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, PART, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'them', 'they', 'I', 'it', 'that', 'cultures'}, 'ccomp': {'based', 'discuss'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'’s', 'look', 'show', 'hoc', 'cultures', 'become'}, 'dobj': {'merit', 'that', 'them'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'sometimes', 'just', 'historically', 'indeed', 'more'}, 'mark': {'for', 'that'}, 'det': {'another', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'choices', 'reports'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'made'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'npadvmod': {'ad', 'way'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'attr': {'nothing'}, 'prep': {'underneath', 'on', 'at', 'from', 'of', 'than'}, 'pobj': {'another', 'view', 'culture', 'point', 'it'}, 'advcl': {'made', 'gives'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'dative': {'culture'}, 'amod': {'other', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '…'}, 'ROOT': {'’s'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}} Long High High
3113 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The term I use with these kids is Eurocentric, that the views and criticisms of their culture are Eurocentric, because they [the speaker/writer] are not in that culture … their views of it are biased 35 22 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'SYM': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PROPN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, X, DET, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'the', 'The', 'these', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'I', ']', 'views', 'term'}, 'relcl': {'use'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'it', 'writer', 'kids', 'culture'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'Eurocentric'}, 'punct': {',', '…', '/'}, 'mark': {'that', 'because'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'criticisms', 'biased'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'dep': {'['}, 'nmod': {'speaker'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}} Long High High
3114 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models … I’m mostly provoking their views on a one -to-one basis, but I do assemblies … with the tutor group too 22 14 {'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV] {'punct': {',', '-', '…'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'’m'}, 'advmod': {'too', 'mostly'}, 'ROOT': {'provoking'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'views', 'assemblies'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'compound': {'-to', 'tutor'}, 'pobj': {'group', 'basis'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'do'}} Long High Low
3115 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Confrontations of this kind were on -going strategic challenges for the maleB.E.M 12 6 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Confrontations'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'kind', 'maleB.E.M'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'pcomp': {'-going'}, 'amod': {'strategic'}, 'dobj': {'challenges'}} Medium High Low
3116 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models teachers since they believed their performance as ‘role model’ was predicated on developing pupils’ criticality 15 6 {'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'teachers'}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'advcl': {'believed'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'performance'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'nsubjpass': {'model'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'pcomp': {'predicated'}, 'amod': {'developing'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'criticality'}} Medium High Medium
3117 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 17 ‘parrhesia’ to describe true speech in which the subject is articulating sincere convictions that they authenticate by their public actions in a context where the act itself pre -supposes an asymmetry of power 34 16 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 5, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nummod': {'17'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'subject', 'parrhesia', 'act', 'they'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'describe'}, 'amod': {'public', 'true', 'sincere'}, 'dobj': {'convictions', 'asymmetry', '-supposes', 'that', 'speech'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'actions', 'power', 'context'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'relcl': {'authenticate', 'pre', 'articulating'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'appos': {'itself'}} Long High Medium
3118 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth performed his role by promoting counter -narratives both to individual pupils and in the public assembly domain 18 7 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [PROPN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Kenneth'}, 'ROOT': {'performed'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'dobj': {'role'}, 'prep': {'by', 'counter', 'to'}, 'pcomp': {'promoting'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', '-narratives', 'domain'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'public'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'assembly'}} Medium High Low
3119 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Here, the audience included colleagues from whom his opinion may have risked reprisal but he was empowered to ‘speak a truth’ (Foucault 2001, 15) 24 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Here'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'audience', 'opinion'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'reprisal', 'truth', 'colleagues'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pobj': {'whom'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'risked'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'nsubjpass': {'he'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'conj': {'empowered'}, 'xcomp': {'speak'}, 'npadvmod': {'Foucault'}, 'nummod': {'2001', '15'}} Long High Low
3120 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In a si milar vein Ali, performed in the spaces available in school to engage with pupils in ways which questioned their attachment to dominant discourses around honour and cultural representation or their assumptions about masculinity 36 16 {'ADP': 8, 'DET': 2, 'X': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, X, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'In'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'vein', 'si', 'milar'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'spaces', 'Ali', 'school', 'discourses', 'pupils', 'masculinity', 'representation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'acl': {'performed'}, 'prep': {'around', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'about'}, 'amod': {'available', 'dominant'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'engage'}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'relcl': {'questioned'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'attachment'}, 'nmod': {'honour'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'assumptions', 'cultural'}} Long High Low
3121 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models As the teachers’ intervent ion stories suggest, the power of minority groups to represent themselves within dominant discourses is complex and diverse (Brown 2009, 2012; Van Dijk 2008) 28 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 3} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'As'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'Van', 'ion', 'intervent', 'minority'}, 'nsubj': {'stories', 'power'}, 'advcl': {'suggest'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'groups', 'discourses'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'represent'}, 'dobj': {'themselves'}, 'amod': {'dominant'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'complex'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'diverse'}, 'npadvmod': {'Brown'}, 'nummod': {'2008', '2009'}, 'appos': {'2012', 'Dijk'}} Long High Medium
3122 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models For these teachers, being and performing as a role model becomes synonymous with any act where cr itical engagement with pupils is directed at re - thinking what self -representation as aB.E.M 32 16 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'at', 'as', 'For', 'with'}, 'det': {'a', 'what', 'these', 'any'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 're', 'pupils', 'model', 'act', 'aB.E.M'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'csubj': {'being'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performing'}, 'compound': {'itical', 'role', 'cr', 'self'}, 'ROOT': {'becomes'}, 'acomp': {'synonymous'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'nsubjpass': {'engagement'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'directed'}, 'advcl': {'thinking'}, 'ccomp': {'-representation'}} Long High Medium
3123 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models pupil resistance, the teachers’ actions were informed by a shared marginality and the need to eq uip pupils to critique dominant narratives about themselves and others 26 12 {'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'uip', 'pupil'}, 'dep': {'resistance'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'actions'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'informed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'dominant'}, 'pobj': {'marginality', 'themselves'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'others', 'need'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'eq', 'critique'}, 'dobj': {'pupils', 'narratives'}, 'prep': {'about'}} Long High Low
3124 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Deployment of cultural resource People know what they do; they frequently know why they do what they do; but what they don’t know is what they do does 28 21 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 8, 'PRON': 10, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, PRON, AUX, NOUN, VERB, AUX, PRON, PRON, VERB, VERB] {'nmod': {'Deployment'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'cultural'}, 'pobj': {'resource'}, 'nsubj': {'People', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'does', 'know', 'do'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'punct': {';'}, 'advmod': {'frequently', 'why'}, 'ROOT': {'know'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'n’t'}, 'csubj': {'know'}, 'conj': {'is'}} Long High Medium
3125 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models A significant interconnecting theme to emerge is the divergent ways all the teachers in the study utilised cultural resources 19 8 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1} [DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, DET, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'cultural', 'divergent', 'interconnecting'}, 'nsubj': {'theme', 'teachers'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'emerge', 'utilised'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'ways'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'study'}, 'dobj': {'resources'}} Medium High Low
3126 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models teachers knew their cultural capital in school was a beneficial commodity, so applied their bilingual skills (translation, advocate work) 19 6 {'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'capital', 'teachers'}, 'ROOT': {'knew'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'beneficial', 'bilingual', 'cultural'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'school'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'commodity'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'so'}, 'conj': {'applied'}, 'dobj': {'skills'}, 'appos': {'translation', 'work'}, 'compound': {'advocate'}} Medium High Low
3127 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Also, their familiarity with patois (or other community dialects) was valued (and welcomed) by manyB.E.M 15 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NUM] {'advmod': {'Also'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubjpass': {'familiarity'}, 'prep': {'by', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'patois', 'manyB.E.M'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'compound': {'community'}, 'conj': {'dialects', 'welcomed'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'valued'}} Medium High Low
3128 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Kenneth’s community connections allowed him to offer a lternate experiences (ranging from participation in fringe theatre to access to recording studio) wheneverB.E.M 22 8 {'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 4} [PROPN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'poss': {'Kenneth'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'fringe', 'recording', 'community'}, 'nsubj': {'him', 'connections'}, 'ROOT': {'allowed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'offer'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'lternate'}, 'dobj': {'experiences'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'acl': {'ranging'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'theatre', 'access', 'studio', 'participation'}, 'npadvmod': {'wheneverB.E.M'}} Long High Low
3129 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In addition, Nigel deployed an interesting resource because his actions epitomised the neo -liberal mindset 15 5 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN] {'prep': {'In'}, 'pobj': {'addition'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'actions', 'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'deployed'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'-liberal', 'interesting'}, 'dobj': {'resource', 'mindset'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'advcl': {'epitomised'}, 'compound': {'neo'}} Medium High Medium
3130 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Teachers in English schools operate within a performance culture that encourages them to engage in self -forming practices while being conditioned and constrained in contexts characterised by increasing competition 29 12 {'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'Teachers'}, 'prep': {'within', 'in'}, 'amod': {'increasing', 'English'}, 'pobj': {'culture', 'practices', 'schools', 'contexts', 'competition'}, 'ROOT': {'operate'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'self', '-forming'}, 'relcl': {'encourages'}, 'dobj': {'them'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'advcl': {'conditioned'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'constrained', 'characterised'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
3131 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models 18 the onus of responsibil ity for professional development on the individual (rather than the school) whose decision pre -determine their career potential 23 10 {'NUM': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'meta': {'18'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'onus'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'compound': {'responsibil', 'career'}, 'pobj': {'individual', 'development', 'ity'}, 'amod': {'professional'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'conj': {'school'}, 'poss': {'whose', 'their'}, 'nsubj': {'decision'}, 'aux': {'pre'}, 'acl': {'-determine'}, 'dobj': {'potential'}} Long High Low
3132 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models As Hamann (2009) points out, one effect of neo -liberalism is to make competition among human beings appear ‘natural’ or a matter of ‘common sense’ because of its active interventions in the social realm 34 16 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'effect', 'Hamann'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'2009'}, 'advcl': {'points'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'prep': {'in', 'among', 'of', 'because'}, 'compound': {'neo'}, 'pobj': {'interventions', 'sense', 'beings', 'realm', '-liberalism'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}, 'dobj': {'competition'}, 'amod': {'social', 'active', 'common', 'human'}, 'conj': {'appear', 'matter'}, 'oprd': {'natural'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High High
3133 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models At his third (current) school, Nigel was one of five minority teachers, (but part of the middle management team) 19 11 {'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, NUM, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'At', 'of'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'amod': {'third', 'middle', 'current'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'pobj': {'part', 'team', 'teachers', 'school'}, 'nsubj': {'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'one'}, 'nummod': {'five'}, 'compound': {'management', 'minority'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
3134 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In his attempts to stand out among his colleagues he drew on his knowledge of the aesthetic preferences of youth neo -subcultures as an exploitable resource 26 14 {'ADP': 7, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'In'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'attempts', '-subcultures', 'preferences', 'resource', 'knowledge', 'colleagues'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'stand'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'as', 'among'}, 'nsubj': {'he'}, 'relcl': {'drew'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'exploitable', 'aesthetic'}, 'compound': {'neo', 'youth'}} Long High Low
3135 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel actively constructed a personal style that he said productively demonstrated his individuality 13 4 {'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PRON': 3} [PROPN, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'he', 'that', 'Nigel'}, 'advmod': {'actively', 'productively'}, 'ROOT': {'constructed'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'personal'}, 'dobj': {'individuality', 'style'}, 'relcl': {'said'}, 'ccomp': {'demonstrated'}, 'poss': {'his'}} Medium High Low
3136 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He claimed to ‘make more of a concerted effort’ regarding his sartorial choices 13 8 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2} [PRON, VERB, PART, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'He'}, 'ROOT': {'claimed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}, 'dobj': {'more'}, 'prep': {'regarding', 'of'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'concerted', 'sartorial'}, 'pobj': {'effort', 'choices'}, 'poss': {'his'}} Medium High Low
3137 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel’s commodification of his body can be described as a form of neo - liberal entrepreneurial activity 17 8 {'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'his', 'Nigel'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubjpass': {'commodification'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'body', 'form', 'activity'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'neo', 'entrepreneurial', 'liberal'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Medium High Low
3138 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models As a keen sports person who regularly participated in staff sporting events, he said pupils frequently commented on his athletic pr owess and physique 24 8 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'As', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'athletic', 'keen'}, 'compound': {'staff', 'pr', 'sports', 'sporting'}, 'pobj': {'owess', 'events', 'person'}, 'nsubj': {'pupils', 'he', 'who'}, 'advmod': {'regularly', 'frequently'}, 'relcl': {'participated'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'said'}, 'ccomp': {'commented'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'physique'}} Long High Low
3139 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The potential for dialogue was powerfully present and exploitable by Nigel who said pupils asked: ‘ Do you do marathon running sir?’, ‘Are you in training for body building sir?’ and, ‘sir, shouldn’t you be a footballer 37 19 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'potential', 'pupils', 'who', 'you'}, 'prep': {'by', 'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'dialogue', 'training', 'sir', 'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'be', 'was'}, 'advmod': {'powerfully'}, 'acomp': {'present'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'exploitable'}, 'relcl': {'said'}, 'ccomp': {'asked', 'Are', 'do'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ':', ',', '?'}, 'aux': {'should', 'Do'}, 'dobj': {'marathon'}, 'acl': {'running'}, 'npadvmod': {'sir'}, 'compound': {'building', 'body'}, 'neg': {'n’t'}, 'attr': {'footballer'}} Long High Low
3140 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel explained that textual readings in the form of questions were not restricted toB.E.M 14 6 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'explained'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'textual'}, 'nsubjpass': {'readings'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'form', 'questions'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'restricted'}, 'punct': {'toB.E.M'}} Medium High Medium
3141 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Given the stereotypes linking Black men with sport, one effect of his commodification could be to reproduce dominant discourses around Black masculinity 22 9 {'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'around', 'of', 'Given'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'masculinity', 'stereotypes', 'sport', 'commodification'}, 'acl': {'linking'}, 'amod': {'dominant', 'Black'}, 'dobj': {'discourses', 'men'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'nsubj': {'effect'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'reproduce'}} Long High Low
3142 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel claimed that it offered a space to discuss an unusual range of diverse topics and thereby extend his pedagogical relations 21 9 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'it', 'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'claimed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'offered'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'dobj': {'range', 'relations', 'space'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'discuss'}, 'amod': {'unusual', 'pedagogical', 'diverse'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'topics'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'thereby'}, 'conj': {'extend'}, 'poss': {'his'}} Long High Medium
3143 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models He reflected on the positivity of these interactions by saying, “ I feel that some of the young boys they kinda looked up to me” 26 15 {'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADP, PRON, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'I', 'they', 'He', 'some'}, 'ROOT': {'reflected'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'boys', 'me', 'positivity', 'interactions'}, 'pcomp': {'saying'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'ccomp': {'looked', 'feel'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'young'}, 'advmod': {'kinda'}, 'prt': {'up'}} Long High Medium
3144 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models I’m pleas antly surprised how easy we can then go on to talk about other stuff that’s important to them’ 20 15 {'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 4, 'NOUN': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, ADV, NOUN, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'’m'}, 'dobj': {'pleas'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'antly', 'how'}, 'acl': {'surprised'}, 'acomp': {'easy', 'important'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'go'}, 'prt': {'on'}, 'advcl': {'talk'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'pobj': {'stuff', 'them'}, 'relcl': {'’s'}, 'punct': {'’'}} Long High Medium
3145 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel’s body as a text also engaged pupils vicariously in discourses about what they could become 16 10 {'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'poss': {'Nigel'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'body', 'they'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'discourses', 'text'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'vicariously'}, 'ROOT': {'engaged'}, 'dobj': {'pupils', 'what'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'pcomp': {'become'}} Medium High Low
3146 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models One interpretation is that Nigel’s style preferences convey culturally coded meanings in a subtle manner giving them their own communicative power (Hebdige 1995) 23 9 {'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [NUM, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PROPN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'One', '1995'}, 'nsubj': {'interpretation', 'preferences'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'their', 'Nigel'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'style'}, 'ccomp': {'convey'}, 'advmod': {'culturally'}, 'amod': {'coded', 'communicative', 'subtle', 'own'}, 'dobj': {'meanings', 'power'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'manner'}, 'acl': {'giving'}, 'dative': {'them'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'Hebdige'}} Long High Medium
3147 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models For Nigel, ‘becoming’ a role model in school required him to offer forms of expression recognisable within youth subcultures 19 8 {'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'subcultures', 'school', 'expression', 'Nigel'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'ROOT': {'becoming'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'role', 'youth'}, 'nsubj': {'model'}, 'ccomp': {'required'}, 'dobj': {'him', 'forms'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'offer'}, 'amod': {'recognisable'}} Medium High Low
3148 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In that case, Nigel’s sarto rial choices – fashionable or ‘designer labels’ – were a mode of signification denoting membership of a particular lifestyle and an expression of individuality 29 12 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'that'}, 'pobj': {'individuality', 'case', 'lifestyle', 'membership'}, 'punct': {',', '–', '‘', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'mode', 'sarto', 'Nigel'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'fashionable', 'denoting', 'particular', 'rial'}, 'dobj': {'choices'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'compound': {'designer'}, 'appos': {'labels'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'npadvmod': {'signification'}, 'conj': {'expression'}} Long High Low
3149 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel was replicating processes young people undertake when they attempt to express their indiv iduality 15 5 {'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'they', 'people', 'Nigel'}, 'aux': {'was', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'replicating'}, 'dobj': {'processes', 'iduality'}, 'amod': {'indiv', 'young'}, 'advcl': {'undertake', 'attempt'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'xcomp': {'express'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Medium High Medium
3150 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models I questioned Nigel about whether his expressions of a particular style and sartorial choice might be misconstrued: 17 9 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, VERB, PROPN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'questioned'}, 'dobj': {'Nigel'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'nsubjpass': {'expressions'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'sartorial'}, 'pobj': {'style'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'choice'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'pcomp': {'misconstrued'}, 'punct': {':'}} Medium High Medium
3151 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models But the kids are quite smart they know the difference between a good teacher and a bad teacher: … what messages are you giving 24 13 {'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 2} [CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, PRON, VERB] {'cc': {'and', 'But'}, 'det': {'a', 'what', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'kids', 'you'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'quite'}, 'acomp': {'smart'}, 'parataxis': {'know'}, 'dobj': {'difference', 'messages'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'amod': {'bad', 'good'}, 'pobj': {'teacher'}, 'conj': {'teacher'}, 'punct': {'…', ':'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'giving'}} Long High Low
3152 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models … Opens you to a lot of thoughts … to what’s going on 13 8 {'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 1} [PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP] {'punct': {'…'}, 'ROOT': {'Opens'}, 'dobj': {'you'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'lot', 'thoughts'}, 'nsubj': {'what'}, 'aux': {'’s'}, 'pcomp': {'going'}, 'prt': {'on'}} Medium High Low
3153 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models … I suppose it’s about connecting with them in a way that shows them you can always change, … improve on yourself and be pleased with the re sult, … without totally forgetting who you are, yes, never forget you’re still … unique 43 28 {'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 10, 'VERB': 9, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'INTJ': 1} [PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, INTJ, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ] {'punct': {',', '…'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'it', 'that', 'you'}, 'ROOT': {'suppose'}, 'ccomp': {'’s', 'change', 'are', '’re', 'improve'}, 'prep': {'on', 'without', 'in', 'with', 'about'}, 'pcomp': {'connecting', 'forgetting'}, 'pobj': {'sult', 'yourself', 'them', 'way'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'relcl': {'shows'}, 'dobj': {'them'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'advmod': {'totally', 'always', 'still'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'unique', 'pleased'}, 'nmod': {'re'}, 'attr': {'who'}, 'intj': {'yes'}, 'neg': {'never'}, 'dep': {'forget'}} Long High Low
3154 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Nigel’s style could be regarded as a ‘temporal imagination negotiating its embodied experience’ (Bordo 1993, 181) that he re -configured in ways that he believed comple - mented his notion of professionalism 32 14 {'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PART, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'poss': {'its', 'his', 'Nigel'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubjpass': {'style'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'regarded'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'amod': {'embodied', 'temporal'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'professionalism', 'imagination'}, 'acl': {'negotiating'}, 'dobj': {'experience', 'notion'}, 'appos': {'Bordo'}, 'nummod': {'1993', '181'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'he'}, 'relcl': {'believed', 're'}, 'acomp': {'-configured'}, 'advmod': {'that'}, 'npadvmod': {'comple'}, 'ccomp': {'mented'}} Long High Medium
3155 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models In that case, his adaptations were significant because he constructed himself as recognisable as ‘good’ and his adaptations could be read as attempts to cross the cultural divide 28 16 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'In'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'case', 'attempts'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'adaptations'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'significant'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'constructed', 'recognisable'}, 'dobj': {'divide', 'himself'}, 'advmod': {'as'}, 'amod': {'good', 'cultural'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubjpass': {'adaptations'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'conj': {'read'}, 'acl': {'cross'}} Long High Medium
3156 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models One cannot discount the idea that his self -image is itself a product of normalisation 15 10 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'One', '-image'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'discount'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'idea'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'acl': {'is'}, 'dative': {'itself'}, 'attr': {'product'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'normalisation'}} Medium High Medium
3157 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models However, this would do him a disservice since, within the performance culture and neo -liberal principles infiltrating schools, only certain types of subjectivities were possible 25 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'advmod': {'only', 'However', 'since'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'types', 'this'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'do'}, 'dative': {'him'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'schools', 'disservice', 'principles'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'compound': {'performance'}, 'pobj': {'subjectivities', 'culture'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'neo'}, 'amod': {'certain', '-liberal'}, 'xcomp': {'infiltrating'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'possible'}} Long High Medium
3158 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models I read that Nigel’s deployment of style allows him to purposely engage in informal critical dialogue 16 7 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'him', 'I', 'deployment'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'Nigel'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'dialogue', 'style'}, 'ccomp': {'allows', 'engage'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advmod': {'purposely'}, 'amod': {'informal', 'critical'}} Medium High Medium
3159 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models His intentional adaptations were always understood as shaped by prevailing and popular discourses operating in the school 17 8 {'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'poss': {'His'}, 'amod': {'prevailing', 'intentional'}, 'nsubjpass': {'adaptations'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'always'}, 'ROOT': {'understood'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'shaped'}, 'prep': {'by', 'in'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'popular'}, 'pobj': {'school', 'discourses'}, 'acl': {'operating'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Medium
3160 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models By taking up a unique style, Nigel engaged with the everyday practices of the ‘neo -liberal mindset’ often associated with young people’s aesthetic preferences 24 10 {'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'By', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'taking'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'unique', 'aesthetic', 'young', '-liberal', 'everyday'}, 'dobj': {'style'}, 'punct': {',', '‘', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'Nigel'}, 'ROOT': {'engaged'}, 'pobj': {'practices', 'preferences', 'mindset'}, 'nmod': {'neo'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'poss': {'people'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High Low
3161 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models To quote Butler (2005, 1086), ‘in order to change things, we have to be prepared to conf ront ourselves, to become undone in relation to others, and to accept moments of unknowingness’ 32 17 {'PART': 6, 'VERB': 7, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'quote'}, 'dobj': {'ront', 'moments', 'Butler', 'ourselves', 'things'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'1086', '2005'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'unknowingness', 'order', 'relation', 'others'}, 'acl': {'change'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'conf', 'become'}, 'acomp': {'prepared', 'undone'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'accept'}} Long High Low
3162 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Concluding remarks assuming the mantle of role model is ‘rarely, if ever, a solely individual or completely social matter …[what] … seems to be a deeply personal act takes place in a profoundly political environment’ (Fisher, 1998, p221) 38 14 {'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADV': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, X, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'compound': {'role', 'Concluding'}, 'nsubj': {'remarks', 'act'}, 'acl': {'assuming'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'place', 'mantle'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'model', 'environment'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'Fisher'}, 'punct': {'‘', '’', ')', '(', ',', '…'}, 'advmod': {'rarely', 'solely', 'completely', 'profoundly', 'deeply', 'ever'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'personal', 'political'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'social'}, 'attr': {'matter'}, 'dep': {'[', 'what', ']'}, 'ccomp': {'takes', 'seems'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998'}, 'appos': {'p221'}} Long High Medium
3163 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Teachers as role models is a proble matic notion and cannot be uncritically accepted 14 7 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, PART, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'nsubj': {'Teachers'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'compound': {'role'}, 'pobj': {'models'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'proble', 'matic'}, 'attr': {'notion'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'uncritically'}, 'conj': {'accepted'}} Medium High Low
3164 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The approach taken in this article examines the teachers’ actions and provides multi -layered readings about the teachers’ positioning in the stories that they interpret as meaningful 27 12 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'approach', 'they'}, 'acl': {'taken'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'stories', 'article', 'positioning'}, 'ROOT': {'examines'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'readings', 'actions', 'that'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'provides'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'multi', '-layered'}, 'relcl': {'interpret'}} Long High Low
3165 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models It proposes a radical departure from traditional role model research that focuses on gender identity binaries, to interrogate identity constructions vis -à-vis race and ethnicity 25 7 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, X, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'proposes'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'traditional', 'radical'}, 'dobj': {'constructions', 'departure'}, 'prep': {'on', 'vis', 'from'}, 'compound': {'role', 'model', 'gender', 'identity'}, 'pobj': {'race', 'research', 'binaries'}, 'relcl': {'focuses'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'interrogate'}, 'intj': {'-à-vis'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ethnicity'}} Long High Low
3166 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Shared discursive history is a conceptual frame that foregrounds both cultural identity 12 4 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'discursive', 'conceptual', 'Shared', 'cultural'}, 'nsubj': {'history', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'both'}, 'attr': {'frame'}, 'relcl': {'foregrounds'}, 'dobj': {'identity'}} Medium High Low
3167 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Shared discursive history is used to contextualise the dynamics of the teachers’ relations with pupils, how they signify themselves toB.E.M 20 10 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'amod': {'discursive', 'Shared'}, 'nsubjpass': {'history'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'used'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'contextualise'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'dynamics', 'themselves'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'relations'}, 'punct': {',', 'toB.E.M'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'signify'}} Long High Medium
3168 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models pupils and others, perform their pedagogical work, and creatively utilise (seemingly inconsequential) resources 13 4 {'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 2} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'pupils'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'utilise', 'others'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'perform'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'pedagogical', 'inconsequential'}, 'dobj': {'work', 'resources'}, 'advmod': {'creatively', 'seemingly'}} Medium High Low
3169 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Although assuming they mimic their white counterparts is often unquestioned in teacher role model political discourse, theB.E.M 17 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'advcl': {'assuming'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ccomp': {'mimic', 'unquestioned'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'white', 'political'}, 'nsubjpass': {'counterparts'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'compound': {'role', 'teacher'}, 'pobj': {'model'}, 'appos': {'discourse'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'theB.E.M'}} Medium High Medium
3170 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Shared discursive history revealed an equally powerful counter -narrative voiced by these teachers whose perceptions of their transformative role was informed by experiential knowledge aboutB.E.M 25 8 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NUM] {'amod': {'powerful', 'discursive', 'transformative', 'Shared', 'experiential'}, 'nsubj': {'history'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed'}, 'det': {'an', 'these'}, 'advmod': {'equally'}, 'dobj': {'counter'}, 'appos': {'aboutB.E.M', '-narrative'}, 'acl': {'voiced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'role', 'teachers'}, 'poss': {'whose', 'their'}, 'nsubjpass': {'perceptions'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'relcl': {'informed'}} Long High Low
3171 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models pupils were entangled with various conflict allegiances and views about membership and exclusion 13 6 {'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'pupils'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'entangled'}, 'prep': {'about', 'with'}, 'amod': {'various'}, 'compound': {'conflict'}, 'pobj': {'membership', 'allegiances'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'views', 'exclusion'}} Medium High Low
3172 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models They performed their roles premised on beliefs about pupils’ burgeoning criticality and a sense of accountability 16 7 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They'}, 'ROOT': {'performed'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'roles'}, 'acl': {'premised'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'accountability', 'criticality', 'beliefs'}, 'nmod': {'pupils'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'amod': {'burgeoning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'conj': {'sense'}} Medium High Low
3173 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Their actions produced counter -narratives because they chose to perform by modelling conflict resolution 14 5 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'poss': {'Their'}, 'nsubj': {'actions', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'produced'}, 'compound': {'counter', 'conflict'}, 'dobj': {'-narratives'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'chose'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'perform'}, 'prep': {'by'}, 'amod': {'modelling'}, 'pobj': {'resolution'}} Medium High Medium
3174 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Through the political lens of representation, one can read the teachers’ perceptions of their role as alert to opportunities to scaffold pupils’ criticalt hinking 24 11 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'Through'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'alert', 'political'}, 'pobj': {'role', 'lens', 'representation', 'opportunities'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'one'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'poss': {'teachers', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'pupils', 'perceptions', 'hinking'}, 'acl': {'scaffold'}, 'compound': {'criticalt'}} Long High Low
3175 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models While their role demands the flexibility to respond to events at a moment notice, they viewed such interventions as random opportunities to question the veracity of representations of culture and masculinity in discourse 33 16 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'role', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'demands'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'veracity', 'interventions', 'flexibility'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'respond', 'question'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'at', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'culture', 'opportunities', 'events', 'representations', 'discourse', 'notice'}, 'compound': {'moment'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'viewed'}, 'amod': {'such', 'random'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'masculinity'}} Long High Medium
3176 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The interventions were st rategic and based on the belief that their actions model crucial, necessary survival skills 18 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'actions', 'interventions'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'st'}, 'attr': {'rategic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'based'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'belief'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'acl': {'model'}, 'amod': {'necessary', 'crucial'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'survival'}, 'dobj': {'skills'}} Medium High Medium
3177 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models The teachers were cognisant of the culminative nature of their actions on pupils’ thinking 14 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'cognisant'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'amod': {'culminative'}, 'pobj': {'pupils', 'nature', 'actions'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'advcl': {'thinking'}} Medium High Low
3178 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models For the teachers in this article, all of whom self - defined as role mode ls, their positioning strategies withB.E.M 20 9 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'article', 'whom', 'teachers', 'ls'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'all'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'acl': {'defined'}, 'compound': {'role', 'mode'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'positioning'}, 'ROOT': {'strategies'}, 'appos': {'withB.E.M'}} Long High Low
3179 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models Despite the small sample size, the data is rich with stories about the inner and other struggles theB.E.M 18 8 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX] {'prep': {'about', 'with', 'Despite'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'inner', 'small'}, 'compound': {'sample'}, 'pobj': {'stories', 'size', 'struggles'}, 'punct': {',', 'theB.E.M'}, 'nsubj': {'data'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'rich'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'other'}} Medium High Medium
3180 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models They embody alternate beliefs abou t, and criteria for what constitutes role modelling 13 4 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They', 'what'}, 'ROOT': {'embody'}, 'amod': {'alternate'}, 'compound': {'role', 'beliefs', 'abou'}, 'dobj': {'modelling', 't'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'criteria'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pcomp': {'constitutes'}} Medium High Low
3181 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models pupils to be(come) mindful and engage in critical enquirers about what it means to have/or make cultural representation 18 10 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SYM': 1} [NOUN, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, SYM, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'pupils'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'be(come', 'enquirers', 'mindful'}, 'punct': {'/', ')'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'make', 'engage'}, 'amod': {'cultural', 'critical'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'representation'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'pcomp': {'means'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'have'}} Medium High Low
3182 Shared Discursive History- Rethinking Teachers as Role Models teachers who identify with being/becoming a significant role in the lives ofB.E.M 12 7 {'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, AUX, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NUM] {'nsubj': {'teachers', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'identify'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'aux': {'being'}, 'punct': {'/'}, 'pcomp': {'becoming'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'significant'}, 'attr': {'role'}, 'pobj': {'lives'}, 'ROOT': {'ofB.E.M'}} Medium High Low
3183 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration see advantages for multimodality in general or for certain learner populations, such as for English language learners or others who struggle with the processing of written language (Rose & Dalton,2009 ; Serafini, 2011 ) 34 14 {'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'advantages'}, 'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'language', 'learners', 'populations', 'multimodality'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'written', 'such', 'learner', 'English', 'general'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Serafini', 'for', 'Dalton,2009', 'others'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'language'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'struggle'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'Rose', '2011'}} Long High Low
3184 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For these researchers, multimodal texts can afford learners alternative path- ways to acquiring critical content through informative visuals or graphic displays 21 6 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'through', 'For', 'to'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'researchers'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'critical', 'graphic', 'multimodal', 'informative', 'alternative'}, 'nsubj': {'texts'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'afford'}, 'dobj': {'ways', 'learners', 'content'}, 'compound': {'path-'}, 'pcomp': {'acquiring'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'displays'}} Long High Low
3185 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Yet, there is a substantial literature showing that many students are ill-prepared to make sense of the graphs, maps, diagrams, or other informational visuals they are presented (Canham & Hegarty, 2010 ; Cromley et al., 2016 ) 37 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'ill', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'many', 'substantial', 'other', 'informational'}, 'attr': {'literature'}, 'acl': {'showing'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'prepared'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}, 'dobj': {'Canham', 'sense'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'graphs'}, 'conj': {'visuals', 'Hegarty', 'diagrams', 'maps'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'presented'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2016', '2010'}, 'dep': {'Cromley'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Medium
3186 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration When those visuals are embedded in texts, there are added processing demands 12 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'nsubjpass': {'visuals'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'embedded'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'texts'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'added'}, 'compound': {'processing'}, 'attr': {'demands'}} Medium High Medium
3187 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration One compli- cating factor that researchers have chronicled are students ’difficulties in constructing an inte- grated and coherent understanding of content represented in both the text and accompanyingvisuals (Alvermann & Wilson, 2011 ; Bartholom /C19e & Bromme, 2009 ; Kress & Van Leeuwen, 1996 ; Van Leeuwen, 2015 ) 49 12 {'NUM': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PROPN': 10} [NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'amod': {'grated', 'compli-', 'inte-'}, 'compound': {'Van', 'cating', 'Bartholom'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'factor'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'understanding'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'chronicled'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'students', 'difficulties'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'constructing'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'coherent', 'accompanyingvisuals', 'Bromme', 'Leeuwen', 'Kress', 'Wilson'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'text'}, 'acl': {'represented'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'appos': {'2015', '2009', 'Leeuwen', '1996', 'Alvermann'}, 'npadvmod': {'2011'}, 'dep': {'/C19e'}} Long High Low
3188 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Even with these added demands, the empirical findings pertaining to com- prehension performance for multimodal texts are mixed 18 7 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'advmod': {'Even'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'to'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'added', 'multimodal', 'com-', 'empirical'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'demands', 'texts'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'findings'}, 'acl': {'pertaining'}, 'compound': {'prehension'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'mixed'}} Medium High Low
3189 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For example, Jewitt ( 2008 ) reported improved comprehension when visuals were included in texts, whereas Cromley et al 19 5 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'prep': {'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'example', 'texts'}, 'punct': {',', '(', 'al', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Jewitt'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'amod': {'improved'}, 'dobj': {'comprehension'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'nsubjpass': {'visuals'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advcl': {'included', 'et'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'compound': {'Cromley'}} Medium High High
3190 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration ( 2011 ) found that students struggled to interpret the meaning of visuals and to build an integrated representation of textual and visual content 24 9 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', '2011'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'struggled'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'interpret'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'representation', 'meaning'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'visuals'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'visual', 'build'}, 'amod': {'textual', 'integrated'}} Long High Medium
3191 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The picture becomes evenmore complicated when the form of comprehension assessment is considered 13 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'picture'}, 'ROOT': {'becomes'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'evenmore'}, 'acomp': {'complicated'}, 'nsubjpass': {'form'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'pobj': {'assessment'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'considered'}} Medium High Medium
3192 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration ( 2020 ) concluded that visuals such as pictures, diagrams, and flow or procedural charts were generally facilitative of comprehension when assess-ments consisted of true/false questions 26 9 {'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SYM': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, SYM, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', '/'}, 'nsubj': {'visuals', 'ments', '2020'}, 'ROOT': {'concluded'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'procedural', 'such', 'true', 'false'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'pictures', 'questions', 'comprehension'}, 'conj': {'charts', 'diagrams', 'flow'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'generally'}, 'acomp': {'facilitative'}, 'compound': {'assess'}, 'advcl': {'consisted'}} Long High High
3193 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In contrast, when comprehension was assessed by moreopen-ended items or constructed-response questions, the effects of visuals were again mixed 19 9 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'visuals', 'contrast'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'again'}, 'nsubjpass': {'comprehension'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'assessed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'npadvmod': {'moreopen'}, 'amod': {'constructed', 'ended'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'response'}, 'conj': {'questions'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'effects'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'mixed'}} Medium High Medium
3194 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration also reported differential outcomes depending on the types of visuals that had been exam- ined, with pictures being more facilitative to comprehension than diagrams or other forms 27 14 {'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'also', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'amod': {'other', 'differential'}, 'dobj': {'outcomes'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'than', 'depending'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'diagrams', 'types', 'comprehension'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'exam-'}, 'conj': {'forms', 'ined'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'pictures'}, 'pcomp': {'being'}, 'acomp': {'facilitative'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Low
3195 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Eye-tracking studies have also provided clues about how readers differ in the attention they afford to visuals in multimodal texts and the way that their eyes move between the visuals and related text (Scheiter et al., 2019 ) 38 17 {'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'way', 'et', 'Eye'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'amod': {'multimodal', 'related', 'tracking'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'they', 'eyes', 'readers'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'that', 'how'}, 'ROOT': {'provided'}, 'dobj': {'clues'}, 'prep': {'between', 'about', 'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'differ'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'attention', 'texts'}, 'relcl': {'afford', 'move'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'text'}, 'appos': {'2019', 'Scheiter'}} Long High Medium
3196 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration ( 2013b ) used eye-tracking to examine fourth graders ’processing of multimodal science texts 14 3 {'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ')', '’'}, 'dep': {'2013b'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'compound': {'eye', 'science'}, 'dobj': {'processing', 'tracking'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'examine'}, 'amod': {'multimodal', 'fourth'}, 'nmod': {'graders'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'texts'}} Medium High Low
3197 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Employing person-centered ana- lysis, they found that significantly higher comprehension occurred for those students who fixatedlonger on the prominent illustration on the page when initially encountered and for those whoseeyes more frequently moved back and forth between relevant text and the illustration, suggesting greater effort toward integration of pictorial and textual content 52 22 {'VERB': 8, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 3, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'CCONJ': 4} [VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, X, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Employing', 'suggesting', 'encountered'}, 'npadvmod': {'person'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'pictorial', 'prominent', 'centered', 'greater', 'relevant', 'higher', 'ana-'}, 'dobj': {'effort', 'lysis'}, 'nsubj': {'whoseeyes', 'who', 'they', 'comprehension'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'for', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'initially', 'when', 'frequently', 'significantly', 'back', 'more'}, 'ccomp': {'occurred'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'toward', 'for', 'between'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'integration', 'students', 'illustration', 'page', 'text'}, 'relcl': {'fixatedlonger'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'textual', 'moved', 'forth', 'illustration'}} Long High High
3198 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration ( 2013a ) also used eye-tracking to test whether a science text with a more concrete visual (i.e., skier racing down anincline), a more abstract visual (i.e., generic plane and incline), or no visual at all would affecthigh-school students ’comprehension differentially 41 17 {'PUNCT': 13, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'X': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADV, ADV, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV] {'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'2013a'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'i.e.', 'differentially', 'at', 'all', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'compound': {'eye', 'school', 'science'}, 'dobj': {'anincline', 'text', 'tracking'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'test'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'a', 'no'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'amod': {'generic', 'visual', 'abstract', 'affecthigh', 'concrete'}, 'nmod': {'visual'}, 'appos': {'skier', 'plane', 'students'}, 'acl': {'racing'}, 'prt': {'down'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'incline', 'visual'}, 'pobj': {'comprehension'}} Long High Medium
3199 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration They found that having either the more con- crete or abstract illustration embedded in the science text was superior to the unillustrated text on the students ’comprehension measured immediately after reading 31 14 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB] {'nsubj': {'They'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'having'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'advmod': {'immediately', 'the'}, 'amod': {'unillustrated', 'crete', 'more'}, 'nmod': {'con-'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'abstract'}, 'dobj': {'illustration'}, 'acl': {'embedded', 'measured'}, 'prep': {'after', 'on', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'science'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'text'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'superior'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'appos': {'comprehension'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
3200 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, at delayed post testing, the researchers found that only students receiving the more concrete picture significantlyoutperformed students in the no-illustration condition 22 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'at', 'in'}, 'amod': {'delayed', 'concrete', 'only'}, 'compound': {'post', 'illustration'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'testing'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'receiving'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'picture'}, 'ccomp': {'significantlyoutperformed'}} Long High Medium
3201 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Further, what Mayer ( 2002 ; Moreno & Mayer, 1999 ) and others (O ’Neil, 2011 ; Serafini, 2011 ) investigating multimodal texts have demonstrated is that the placement of visuals in relation toassociated textual content can either support or interfere with comprehension 43 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'INTJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, INTJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, CCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'what', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'Mayer', 'placement'}, 'appos': {'Serafini', '2011', '2002', 'Neil'}, 'conj': {'Mayer', 'Moreno', 'interfere', 'others'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'npadvmod': {'2011', '1999'}, 'intj': {'O'}, 'csubj': {'investigating', 'demonstrated'}, 'amod': {'textual', 'multimodal'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'texts'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'relation', 'comprehension'}, 'ccomp': {'toassociated', 'support'}, 'preconj': {'either'}} Long High Medium
3202 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In fact, several ofMayer ’s cognitive principles of multimedia learning (Mayer & Fiorella, 2014 ) expressly address this issue of visual-text alignment and integration 24 7 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'alignment', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'visual', 'several', 'cognitive'}, 'poss': {'ofMayer'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'principles'}, 'compound': {'multimedia', 'text'}, 'conj': {'Mayer', 'integration', 'Fiorella'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'appos': {'2014'}, 'advmod': {'expressly'}, 'ROOT': {'address'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'dobj': {'issue'}} Long High Low
3203 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For example, the principle of spatial contiguity states that visuals should be presented in close proximity to the associated text to enhance learn- ing 24 10 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'proximity', 'text', 'example', 'states'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'principle'}, 'amod': {'close', 'associated', 'spatial', 'learn-'}, 'compound': {'contiguity'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'visuals'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'presented'}, 'advcl': {'enhance'}, 'dobj': {'ing'}} Long High Medium
3204 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration These principles have influenced multimodal investigations, including with the eye-trackingstudies by Mason et al 14 5 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 3} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'principles'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'influenced'}, 'amod': {'multimodal'}, 'dobj': {'investigations'}, 'punct': {',', '-', 'al'}, 'prep': {'by', 'with', 'including'}, 'compound': {'eye'}, 'pobj': {'Mason', 'trackingstudies'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Medium High Low
3205 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration ( 2013a ,2013b ) in which the authors positioned the visual relative to the text to maximize spatial contiguity 19 7 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'2013a'}, 'npadvmod': {'2013b'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'text'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'relcl': {'positioned'}, 'amod': {'spatial', 'visual'}, 'dobj': {'contiguity', 'relative'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'maximize'}} Medium High Low
3206 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Although the growing literature on multimodal texts has enhanced what is known about learn- ing from text containing visuals, significant limitations of this work remain for understandinghow students learn from academic texts under more typical conditions 36 14 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'for', 'Although'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'learn-', 'typical', 'significant', 'multimodal', 'growing', 'understandinghow', 'academic'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'literature', 'limitations'}, 'prep': {'on', 'under', 'from', 'of', 'about'}, 'pobj': {'ing', 'work', 'conditions', 'texts'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'advcl': {'enhanced', 'learn'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'known'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'pcomp': {'containing'}, 'dobj': {'visuals'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'remain'}, 'advmod': {'more'}} Long High High
3207 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration research examining the effects of multimodal text on comprehension often involve quite short texts with a carefully generated visual that has been intentionally positioned 24 10 {'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2} [NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'nsubj': {'research'}, 'acl': {'examining'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'texts'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'short', 'generated', 'multimodal'}, 'pobj': {'visual', 'comprehension', 'text'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'often', 'carefully', 'intentionally'}, 'ROOT': {'involve'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'positioned'}} Long High Low
3208 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration ( 2013a ) developed for their multimodal study was only 243 words in length, and another text illustrating how air occupies space used in Mason et al.(2013b ) was just 219 words long 33 12 {'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, NUM, NOUN, ADV] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2013a', 'text'}, 'ROOT': {'developed'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'multimodal'}, 'pobj': {'length', 'study', 'et'}, 'conj': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'only', 'long', 'how'}, 'nummod': {'219', '243'}, 'attr': {'words'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'another'}, 'acl': {'illustrating', 'used'}, 'compound': {'Mason', 'occupies', 'air'}, 'dobj': {'space'}, 'appos': {'al.(2013b'}} Long High Medium
3209 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration study involved fourth graders, which may have been a consideration in the shorter texts the researchers used 17 9 {'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 1} [NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'nsubj': {'which', 'researchers', 'study'}, 'ROOT': {'involved'}, 'amod': {'shorter', 'fourth'}, 'dobj': {'graders'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'relcl': {'been'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'consideration'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'texts'}, 'parataxis': {'used'}} Medium High Low
3210 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration ( 2013a ) used materials of similar length for eleventh graders whom we would describe as more mature readers capable of processing appreciably longer texts 25 9 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3} [PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADV, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we', '2013a'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'dobj': {'whom', 'materials', 'texts'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'eleventh', 'similar', 'capable', 'mature'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'graders', 'length'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'relcl': {'describe'}, 'advmod': {'longer', 'appreciably', 'more'}, 'pcomp': {'processing'}} Long High Low
3211 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As noted, the placement of the visual in these studies was informed by Mayer ’s(2002 ) principles of multimedia design 20 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'noted'}, 'punct': {',', ')', '’'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'placement'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'design', 'principles', 'visual'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'informed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nmod': {'Mayer', 's(2002'}, 'compound': {'multimedia'}} Long High Medium
3212 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Even when texts are short and visuals are more intentional positioned, manystudents do not appear to recognize the informative nature of visuals nor not put much effortinto integrating textual and visual content (Van Meter et al., 2017 ) 38 16 {'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'more', 'when', 'Even'}, 'nsubj': {'visuals', 'manystudents', 'texts'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'positioned', 'short'}, 'cc': {'and', 'nor'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'amod': {'textual', 'informative', 'much', 'intentional'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'aux': {'to', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'appear'}, 'xcomp': {'recognize'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'nature', 'integrating'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'visuals'}, 'conj': {'visual', '.', 'put'}, 'nmod': {'effortinto'}, 'compound': {'Van', 'Meter', 'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '2017'}} Long High Medium
3213 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We acknowledge that some multimedia researchers have used texts of over 1000 words made to resemble textbook readings (Scheiter et al., 2014 ,2019 ) 24 9 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 4} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADP, NUM, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'researchers', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledge'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'some'}, 'compound': {'textbook', 'multimedia'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'used'}, 'dobj': {'readings', 'texts'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'quantmod': {'over'}, 'nummod': {'1000'}, 'pobj': {'words'}, 'acl': {'made'}, 'xcomp': {'resemble'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2014', '2019', 'Scheiter'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}, 'conj': {'.'}} Long High Medium
3214 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, studies employing these more extended texts are not the norm within this literature 14 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'studies'}, 'acl': {'employing'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'amod': {'extended'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'norm'}, 'prep': {'within'}, 'pobj': {'literature'}} Medium High Low
3215 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Of particular concern to the present investigation, the orchestrated nature of the multimodal materials used in the aforementioned research appears to have little bearing on the materials thatstudents are required to process routinely 33 15 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'DET': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'Of', 'of'}, 'amod': {'orchestrated', 'multimodal', 'little', 'aforementioned', 'present', 'particular'}, 'pobj': {'thatstudents', 'investigation', 'materials', 'concern', 'research'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'nature'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'ROOT': {'appears'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'have', 'process'}, 'dobj': {'bearing'}, 'compound': {'materials'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'conj': {'required'}, 'advmod': {'routinely'}} Long High Low
3216 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Rather, the expository texts that are standard fare in academic domains (e.g., history or biology) from upper elementary through college are not only appreciably longer, but also include multiple visuals of varying types (e.g., diagrams, maps, or pic-tures) 38 15 {'ADV': 7, 'PUNCT': 11, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'longer', 'appreciably', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'pic', 'expository'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'texts'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'amod': {'varying', 'multiple', 'standard', 'upper', 'academic'}, 'attr': {'fare'}, 'prep': {'through', 'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'domains', 'elementary', 'types', 'college'}, 'nmod': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'history'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'biology', 'include', 'tures', 'diagrams', 'maps'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'dobj': {'visuals'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}} Long High Low
3217 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Moreover, the placement of these visuals does not appear to conform to any theoretical orempirically-derived principles (Canham & Hegarty, 2010 ; Serafini, 2011 ; Serafini & Ladd, 2008 ; Unsworth & Cl /C19eirigh, 2014 ) 35 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 11, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'orempirically', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'any', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'placement'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'principles'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'appear'}, 'xcomp': {'conform'}, 'amod': {'derived', 'theoretical'}, 'appos': {'Canham', '2008', 'Serafini', '2011'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Cl', '/C19eirigh', 'Hegarty', 'Unsworth', 'Ladd', 'Serafini'}, 'npadvmod': {'2014', '2010'}} Long High Low
3218 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration ( 2014 ,2019 ) again varied from this trend in that these researchers attempted to construct materials that resembled the exposition their participants would typically read in their courses 29 13 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2014', 'researchers', 'that', 'participants'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}, 'advmod': {'typically', 'again'}, 'ROOT': {'varied'}, 'prep': {'in', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'trend', 'courses'}, 'mark': {'that', 'in'}, 'advcl': {'attempted'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'construct'}, 'dobj': {'exposition', 'materials'}, 'relcl': {'resembled'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'read'}} Long High High
3219 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, we did not encounter studies within the multi-media literature that used longer and unmodified or unmanipulated texts when studying multi- media principles forwarded by Mayer ( 2002 ) 29 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'longer', 'However', 'when'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'encounter'}, 'dobj': {'studies', 'principles', 'texts'}, 'prep': {'within'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'media', '-', 'multi', 'unmodified'}, 'pobj': {'Mayer', 'literature'}, 'relcl': {'used'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'unmanipulated'}, 'advcl': {'studying'}, 'compound': {'media', 'multi-'}, 'acl': {'forwarded'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'appos': {'2002'}} Long High Medium
3220 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Consequently, it cannot be presumed that findings from the multimedia literature readily generalize to the conditions that exist in typical academiccontexts 21 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'readily', 'Consequently'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'presumed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'findings', 'that'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'multimedia'}, 'pobj': {'conditions', 'literature', 'academiccontexts'}, 'ccomp': {'generalize'}, 'relcl': {'exist'}, 'amod': {'typical'}} Long High Medium
3221 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration If anything, it might be argued that the outcomes reported in much of the multimodalliterature are apt to be more optimistic than what would likely be unearthed under more eco- logically valid conditions 33 21 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 3} [SCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'If', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'anything'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'it', 'what'}, 'aux': {'would', 'might', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'outcomes'}, 'ccomp': {'reported'}, 'prep': {'under', 'than', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'conditions', 'multimodalliterature', 'much'}, 'conj': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'apt', 'optimistic'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'logically', 'likely', 'more'}, 'pcomp': {'unearthed'}, 'amod': {'valid', 'eco-'}} Long High High
3222 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration There is one more shortcoming of the existing multimodal literature that warrants attention 13 7 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'amod': {'multimodal', 'existing', 'more'}, 'attr': {'shortcoming'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'literature'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'warrants'}, 'dobj': {'attention'}} Medium High Low
3223 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Specifically, there is a paucity of research that has systematically investigated whether the medium of delivery of multimodal texts has any bearing on what students understand or remember fromreading 29 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, VERB] {'advmod': {'Specifically', 'systematically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'any'}, 'attr': {'paucity'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'delivery', 'research', 'texts'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'medium', 'that'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'relcl': {'investigated'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'amod': {'multimodal'}, 'ccomp': {'has'}, 'dobj': {'bearing', 'what'}, 'pcomp': {'understand'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'remember'}, 'xcomp': {'fromreading'}} Long High Medium
3224 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In effect, the text-processing landscape framed by multiple modalities and multiplemediums remains virtually unexplored 14 4 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ] {'prep': {'In'}, 'pobj': {'modalities', 'effect'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'amod': {'processing', 'multiple'}, 'nsubj': {'landscape'}, 'acl': {'framed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'multiplemediums'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'advmod': {'virtually'}, 'acomp': {'unexplored'}} Medium High Low
3225 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Multiple Mediums and Text Comprehension From the research we have been conducting for the past several years, we have garnered a richand quite consistent picture of the role that medium plays in college students ’comprehension of academic texts delivered on paper or on screen (Singer Trakhman et al., 2019 ; Singer & Alexander, 2017a ,2017b ) 56 21 {'PROPN': 11, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'college', 'Multiple', 'et', 'Text', 'Singer'}, 'nsubj': {'Mediums', 'that', 'we'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'on', 'Comprehension', 'Singer'}, 'prep': {'on', 'From', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'screen', 'texts', 'students', 'years', 'role', 'paper', 'research'}, 'aux': {'have', 'been'}, 'relcl': {'plays', 'conducting'}, 'amod': {'past', 'medium', 'consistent', 'several', 'academic'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'ROOT': {'garnered'}, 'nmod': {'richand'}, 'advmod': {'quite'}, 'dobj': {'picture', 'comprehension'}, 'acl': {'delivered'}, 'npadvmod': {'Trakhman', '2017a', '2019', '2017b'}, 'appos': {'al', '.'}} Long High Low
3226 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As part of this research program, we have explored the effects of medium while systematically varying certain text elements such as the academic domain (e.g.,psychology and earth science), text length (e.g., 450 to 1800 words), comprehension focus (e.g.,main idea or points and supporting details), and question format (e.g., multiple choice and short constructed response items) 55 18 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 23, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 15, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, PART, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'as', 'As', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'program', 'part', 'medium'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'earth', 'question', 'comprehension', 'response', 'text', 'research'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ',', 'e.g.', ',psychology', ',main'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'explored'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'details', 'elements'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'systematically'}, 'advcl': {'varying'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'short', 'such', 'constructed', 'multiple', 'academic'}, 'intj': {'e.g.'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'supporting', 'focus', 'science', 'points', 'length', 'items', 'idea', 'format'}, 'quantmod': {'450', 'to'}, 'nummod': {'1800'}, 'appos': {'choice', 'words'}} Long High Medium
3227 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We have also investigated the medium effects by means of variable- centered and person-centered analyses and have incorporated behavioral data gathered duringTHE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 601 27 10 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NUM] {'nsubj': {'data', 'We'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'investigated'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'medium', 'centered', 'behavioral', 'variable-'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'JOURNAL'}, 'prep': {'by', 'OF', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'EDUCATION', 'analyses', 'means'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'person'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'conj': {'incorporated', 'centered'}, 'ccomp': {'gathered'}, 'compound': {'EXPERIMENTAL', 'duringTHE'}, 'nummod': {'601'}} Long High Low
3228 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Regardless of the variations we have implemented, clear trends have been documented 12 6 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Regardless'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'variations'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'implemented'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'clear'}, 'nsubjpass': {'trends'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'documented'}} Medium High Low
3229 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Medium effects are more pronounced with longer texts (500 words or more) 12 5 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT] {'amod': {'longer', 'Medium'}, 'nsubj': {'effects'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'ROOT': {'pronounced'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'texts'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'more', '500'}, 'appos': {'words'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Medium High Low
3230 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Undergraduates judge their comprehension performance as higher after reading and answer- ing questions digitally than when reading and answering questions on paper 22 8 {'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, X, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, SCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Undergraduates'}, 'ROOT': {'judge'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'questions'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'digitally', 'when'}, 'amod': {'answer-', 'ing', 'higher'}, 'prep': {'after', 'on', 'than'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'answering', 'questions'}, 'pobj': {'paper'}} Long High Medium
3231 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Despite their predictions, comprehension performance for the college students is significantly higher in the print than digital condition for all but gist or main idea questions for which there is no medium effect 33 16 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'than', 'for', 'Despite', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'predictions', 'which', 'students', 'questions', 'print'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'idea', 'college', 'comprehension'}, 'nsubj': {'performance'}, 'det': {'no', 'all', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'significantly'}, 'acomp': {'higher'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'main', 'medium'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'gist'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'effect'}} Long High Medium
3232 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Students tend to read faster when the text is on screen rather than on paper.6 15 8 {'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3} [NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students', 'text'}, 'ROOT': {'tend'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'advmod': {'faster', 'when', 'rather'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'screen', 'paper.6'}, 'cc': {'than'}} Medium High Medium
3233 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The significant gap between predicted and actual performance when it comes to medium indicates that these college students are not effectively monitoring their performance during reading or when answering questions 30 14 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'these'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'predicted'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'gap', 'it'}, 'prep': {'during', 'to', 'between'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'answering', 'actual'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'reading', 'medium'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'effectively'}, 'advcl': {'comes'}, 'ROOT': {'indicates'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'college'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'monitoring'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'questions'}} Long High High
3234 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, while the naturally-occurring texts used in the aforementioned investigations have typically been multimodal in character, with diagrams, maps, and photographs accompanying the written text, we have not expressly factored in those multiple representations in our research designs, comprehension assessments, or analyses 42 20 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'naturally', 'expressly', 'However', 'typically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'aforementioned', 'written', 'occurring'}, 'nsubjpass': {'texts'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'investigations', 'character', 'diagrams', 'designs', 'representations'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advcl': {'multimodal'}, 'conj': {'photographs', 'assessments', 'analyses', 'maps'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'xcomp': {'accompanying'}, 'dobj': {'text'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'factored'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'research', 'comprehension'}} Long High Medium
3235 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Thus, we had not considered whether the proc- essing of multimodal texts under print or digital conditions would differentially affect students ’ understanding of the content conveyed in the written text or in accompanying visuals, or their ability to self-monitor their processing or comprehension effectively 45 21 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'differentially', 'effectively'}, 'punct': {',', '-', 'ability', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'essing', 'understanding'}, 'aux': {'would', 'had', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'proc-', 'digital', 'multimodal', 'written', 'accompanying'}, 'prep': {'under', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'visuals', 'texts', 'text', 'print'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'conditions', 'comprehension', 'in'}, 'ccomp': {'conveyed', 'affect'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'processing'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'acl': {'monitor'}} Long High Medium
3236 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Mediums and Multimodality In the current study, we sought to extend our prior investigations of the effects of print and digitalmediums on students ’comprehension and calibration (i.e., accuracy of performance self-judgments) by expressly considering the visual, as well as linguistic, content of the reading materials 45 20 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 16, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 3} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Mediums', 'we'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'digitalmediums', 'calibration', 'linguistic', 'Multimodality'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'visual', 'prior', 'current'}, 'pobj': {'comprehension', 'judgments', 'effects', 'materials', 'print', 'study'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'extend'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'dobj': {'investigations', 'content'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'advmod': {'expressly', 'i.e.', 'well', 'as'}, 'appos': {'accuracy'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'self', 'reading'}, 'pcomp': {'considering'}} Long High Low
3237 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We were aware that this consideration of the visual-text interface deviated from much of the modality litera- ture due to: (a) the use of lengthy naturally-occurring texts; (b) the inclusion of multiple and diverse visuals; and (c) the placement of visuals without explicit regard to principles of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2002; Moreno & Mayer, 1999) 55 24 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADP': 11, 'PUNCT': 16, 'VERB': 2, 'X': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'ccomp': {'consideration'}, 'prep': {'without', 'from', 'to', 'of', 'due'}, 'amod': {'visual', 'lengthy', 'occurring', 'multiple', 'explicit'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'compound': {'litera-', 'multimedia', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'texts', 'much', 'learning', 'regard', 'ture', 'interface', 'principles'}, 'acl': {'deviated'}, 'nmod': {'modality'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'meta': {'a', 'b', 'c'}, 'dobj': {'use'}, 'advmod': {'naturally'}, 'conj': {'placement', 'diverse', 'Mayer', 'Moreno', 'inclusion'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'appos': {'Mayer', '2002', '1999'}} Long High Medium
3238 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, we viewed the opportunity to examine what stu- dents comprehend from the integration of textual andvisual content, as well as the accuracy of their performance judgments, as informative to both the multimodal and multiple mediums literatures 37 19 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'dents', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'viewed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'opportunity', 'what'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'examine'}, 'compound': {'stu-', 'performance'}, 'ccomp': {'comprehend'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'integration', 'literatures', 'judgments'}, 'amod': {'andvisual', 'textual', 'multimodal', 'informative'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'mediums', 'multiple', 'accuracy'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'predet': {'both'}} Long High Low
3239 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For one, it would explore visual-text integration under less constrained, albeit less controlled, conditions 14 7 {'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'under', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'one'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'explore'}, 'amod': {'constrained', 'visual'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'dobj': {'conditions', 'integration'}, 'advmod': {'less'}, 'mark': {'albeit'}, 'advcl': {'controlled'}} Medium High Medium
3240 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We recognized from the outset that there were cost-benefits to the more ecologically valid design of this study 18 11 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'recognized'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'design', 'study', 'outset'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'compound': {'cost'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'attr': {'benefits'}, 'advmod': {'ecologically', 'more'}, 'amod': {'valid'}} Medium High Medium
3241 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, understanding better how students process the multimodal materials they are regularly assigned in their coursework was worth the loss of controls that have been frequently imposed in the literature 30 15 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'frequently', 'better', 'regularly', 'However', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'csubj': {'understanding'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ccomp': {'process'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'multimodal'}, 'dobj': {'materials'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that', 'they'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'been'}, 'relcl': {'imposed', 'assigned'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'loss', 'controls', 'coursework', 'literature'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'worth'}, 'aux': {'have'}} Long High Medium
3242 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For another, the current investigation would introduce another element of complexity to prior print-versus-digital investigations that has not been given adequate attention 22 11 {'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, PRON, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'investigations', 'another', 'complexity', 'digital'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'another', 'the'}, 'amod': {'prior', 'adequate', 'versus', 'current'}, 'nsubj': {'investigation'}, 'aux': {'would', 'has'}, 'ROOT': {'introduce'}, 'dobj': {'attention', 'element'}, 'npadvmod': {'print'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'given'}} Long High Low
3243 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Specifically, by assessing what students recall from the textual and visual con- tent, we may better understand the differences in comprehension performance that have arisen across print and digital mediums, and we might learn more about how students ’self-monitoring (or lack thereof) may be contributing to those differences 48 24 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 13, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 5, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'thereof', 'Specifically', 'better', 'how'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'by', 'about', 'across'}, 'pcomp': {'assessing'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'more', 'differences'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that', 'we'}, 'ccomp': {'recall'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'textual'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'lack', 'digital', 'visual', 'contributing', 'con-', 'learn'}, 'pobj': {'differences', 'tent', 'monitoring', 'performance', 'mediums'}, 'aux': {'be', 'may', 'have', 'might'}, 'ROOT': {'understand'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'relcl': {'arisen'}, 'nmod': {'print'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}} Long High Medium
3244 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Visuals and Text Comprehension For the present investigation, we had undergraduates read selections from a college textbookunder both print and digital conditions, as we have done in prior studies 29 14 {'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'dep': {'Visuals'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'Text', 'college'}, 'conj': {'conditions', 'print', 'Comprehension'}, 'prep': {'For', 'in', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'present', 'prior', 'digital'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'textbookunder', 'investigation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'dobj': {'selections', 'undergraduates'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advcl': {'done'}} Long High Medium
3245 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The students were told that they would be ask questions about the readings The readings we chose were from chapters602L.M 20 12 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'were'}, 'ROOT': {'told'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'readings', 'we', 'they'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'ask'}, 'dobj': {'questions'}, 'prep': {'about', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'readings', 'chapters602L.M'}, 'relcl': {'chose', 'were'}} Long High Medium
3246 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration on soil and weather in an introductory textbook on Geology and the Environment (Pipkin et al., 2014 ) 18 7 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'textbook', 'Geology', 'soil'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'weather', '.', 'Environment'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'introductory'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'Pipkin'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}} Medium High Low
3247 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In selecting these segments, we aimed for comparability on critical characteristics without manipulating the text or visuals in any fashion 20 10 {'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'without', 'in', 'for', 'In'}, 'pcomp': {'selecting', 'manipulating'}, 'det': {'any', 'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'segments', 'text'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'aimed'}, 'pobj': {'fashion', 'characteristics', 'comparability'}, 'amod': {'critical'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'visuals'}} Long High Low
3248 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration These characteristics, detailed in the Method sec-tion, included the number and types of visuals (i.e., a graph, a diagram, and three photographs),as well as word length (i.e., 1602 for weather and 1658 for soil) 34 15 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 10, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'X': 2, 'NUM': 3, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'characteristics'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'advcl': {'detailed'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'Method', 'word', 'sec'}, 'pobj': {'weather', 'visuals', 'tion', 'soil'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'number'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'photographs),as', '1658', 'types', 'length', 'diagram'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'well'}, 'appos': {'graph', '1602'}, 'nummod': {'three'}} Long High Low
3249 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration When it came to assessing students ’comprehension of what was read, we focused on different question levels that had proven informative in the past 24 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'came'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'read', 'assessing'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'dep': {'comprehension'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'amod': {'different'}, 'compound': {'question'}, 'pobj': {'past', 'levels'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'relcl': {'proven'}, 'oprd': {'informative'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Medium
3250 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration What we altered for the current study was the source of that information, with one detail question relying on content found only in the written text or only in the visuals, as well as two questions where the targeted content could befound in both the textual or the visual content 50 30 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 8, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, NUM, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'nsubj': {'content', 'we', 'question'}, 'csubj': {'altered'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'visual', 'written', 'targeted', 'current'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'visuals', 'information', 'text', 'textual', 'study'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'source'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'two', 'one'}, 'compound': {'detail'}, 'acl': {'relying'}, 'pcomp': {'found'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'as', 'well', 'where'}, 'cc': {'or', 'as'}, 'conj': {'content', 'questions'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'relcl': {'befound'}, 'preconj': {'both'}} Long High Medium
3251 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration By constructing the post-reading comprehensionmeasure in this way, we would have some evidence of whether students were attending carefully to the visuals in the chapter segments 26 15 {'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'By', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'attending', 'constructing'}, 'det': {'some', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'reading', '-', 'post'}, 'dobj': {'evidence', 'comprehensionmeasure'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'segments', 'way'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'aux': {'would', 'were'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'advmod': {'carefully'}, 'compound': {'chapter'}} Long High Medium
3252 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Calibration Calibration or individuals ’ability to monitor their understanding or judge their performance accur- ately has a long history within the text processing literature (Delgado & Salmer /C19on,2021;G le nbe rg et al., 1985) 34 9 {'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'INTJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, INTJ, INTJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'processing', 'Calibration', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'Calibration'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'individuals', 'Salmer', 'judge'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', '/C19on,2021;G'}, 'appos': {'1985', 'accur-', 'ability', 'Delgado'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'monitor'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'history', 'understanding'}, 'advmod': {'ately'}, 'ROOT': {'has', 'le'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'long'}, 'prep': {'within'}, 'pobj': {'literature'}, 'intj': {'rg', 'nbe'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Low
3253 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration It has been fairly well documented that those who monitor their performance more effectively during reading or studying do better on measures of comprehension than those who are less effective at monitoring (Dunlosky & Thiede, 2013; Nietfeld & Schraw, 2002) 40 20 {'PRON': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'It'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advmod': {'fairly', 'well', 'less', 'better', 'effectively', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'documented'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'those', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'monitor', 'are'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'performance'}, 'prep': {'on', 'than', 'during', 'of', 'at'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'measures', 'comprehension', 'those', 'monitoring'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'studying', 'Schraw', 'Thiede', 'Nietfeld'}, 'ccomp': {'do'}, 'acomp': {'effective'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Dunlosky'}, 'appos': {'2013', '2002'}} Long High Medium
3254 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration It has been argued that those who are poorly calibrated —leading to an overestimation of what they understand —are less likely to invest the time or strategic energy required to improve their overall performance (Hattie, 2013) 36 19 {'PRON': 6, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'It', 'who'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'been'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'those'}, 'advmod': {'poorly', 'less'}, 'relcl': {'calibrated'}, 'punct': {'(', ')', ',', '—'}, 'acl': {'required', 'leading'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'overestimation'}, 'dobj': {'energy', 'performance', 'what'}, 'pcomp': {'understand'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'xcomp': {'improve', 'invest'}, 'nmod': {'time'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'strategic'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'overall'}, 'appos': {'Hattie'}, 'npadvmod': {'2013'}} Long High Medium
3255 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Factors such as students ’age, text complexity, and prior knowledge have also been shown to effect calibration accuracy and, thus, comprehension performance (Lin et al., 2002) 26 9 {'NOUN': 10, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Factors'}, 'amod': {'such', 'prior'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'pobj': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'age', 'performance', '2002', 'Lin'}, 'compound': {'calibration', 'comprehension', 'text'}, 'conj': {'complexity', '.', 'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'thus'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'shown'}, 'xcomp': {'effect'}, 'dobj': {'accuracy'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}} Long High Low
3256 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In our past studies comparing print and digital mediums (e.g., Singer Trakhman et al., 2019 ; Singer & Alexander, 2017a ), calibration accuracy was generally not good for students but signifi- cantly poorer when they read on screen 38 10 {'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADV': 3, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, PART, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'for', 'In'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'past'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'screen', 'students'}, 'acl': {'comparing'}, 'nmod': {'print'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', '&'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'digital', 'signifi-', 'Singer'}, 'dobj': {'mediums'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'generally', 'poorer', 'cantly', 'e.g.'}, 'compound': {'calibration', 'Singer', 'et'}, 'nsubj': {'Trakhman', 'they', 'accuracy'}, 'appos': {'al', '.'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017a', '2019'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'good'}, 'advcl': {'read'}} Long High Medium
3257 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Other researchers have also reported that students areless well calibrated when reading on screen than on paper (Delgado & Salmer /C19on,2021 ) 22 9 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Other'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'researchers'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'also', 'when'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'appos': {'Delgado', 'areless'}, 'ccomp': {'calibrated'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}, 'prep': {'on', 'than'}, 'pobj': {'screen', 'paper'}, 'punct': {'(', '/C19on,2021', ')'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Salmer'}} Long High High
3258 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Because students in our studies read excerpts from the same source under both conditions, factors like text complexity, prior knowledge, or age could not account for this consistent difference 29 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Because'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'factors'}, 'prep': {'under', 'from', 'like', 'in', 'for'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'complexity', 'conditions', 'difference', 'source'}, 'advcl': {'read'}, 'dobj': {'excerpts'}, 'det': {'both', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'same', 'prior', 'consistent'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'age'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'account'}} Long High Medium
3259 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Whatwe came to regard as potential contributors to lower calibration in the digital condition were speed or ease of processing (Ackerman & Goldsmith, 2011 ; Koriat et al., 2006 ), judgments of learning (Nietfeld & Schraw, 2002 ), and scrolling behaviors (Singer & Alexander, 2017a ) 46 10 {'PROPN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 13, 'NUM': 4} [PROPN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Whatwe'}, 'ROOT': {'came'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'lower', 'regard'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'potential', 'digital', 'scrolling'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'contributors', 'processing', 'learning'}, 'dobj': {'calibration', 'Nietfeld'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'Schraw', 'judgments', 'Goldsmith', 'behaviors', 'Alexander', 'ease', 'were'}, 'attr': {'speed'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2006', 'Ackerman', 'et', 'Singer', '2011'}, 'nmod': {'Koriat'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017a', '2002'}} Long High Low
3260 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration ( 2006) investigation, the less effort that participants exerted in task performance, the higher their judgments of learning 18 7 {'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nummod': {'2006'}, 'ROOT': {'investigation'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'less'}, 'appos': {'effort', 'judgments'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'participants'}, 'acl': {'exerted'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'task'}, 'pobj': {'performance'}, 'advmod': {'the'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Medium
3261 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration When students move through a digital text more rapidly than a comparable text read in print, they may assume that this differential speed sig-naled greater ease of processing 28 13 {'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'rapidly', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'move'}, 'prep': {'through', 'than', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'amod': {'-', 'differential', 'comparable', 'digital', 'greater', 'naled'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'print', 'text'}, 'acl': {'read'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'assume'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'speed'}, 'appos': {'ease', 'sig'}} Long High High
3262 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In fact, this faster processing rate meant that students had less timeto reflect on their level of understanding, which could contribute to miscalibrations 23 11 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'miscalibrations', 'level', 'fact', 'understanding'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'this'}, 'amod': {'faster', 'timeto'}, 'compound': {'processing'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'which', 'rate'}, 'ROOT': {'meant'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'had'}, 'advmod': {'less'}, 'dobj': {'reflect'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'relcl': {'contribute'}} Long High Medium
3263 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Delgado and Salmer /C19on (2021) felt that students engage in more shallow information processing when reading on screen than on paperwhen time is an issue 25 10 {'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'students', 'Delgado'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'paperwhen', 'Salmer', 'information'}, 'conj': {'is', '/C19on'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2021'}, 'ROOT': {'felt'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'on', 'than', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'more'}, 'amod': {'shallow'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'screen', 'time'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'attr': {'issue'}} Long High High
3264 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Of course, it is possible that students ’preference for reading online and the time they spend on screens (Singer & Alexander, 2017b ) contributes to greater confidence in their performance in the digital versus print condition 36 14 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'course', 'online', 'Of'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'preference', 'Singer', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'possible'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'prep': {'on', 'versus', 'to', 'in', 'for'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'time', 'Alexander'}, 'relcl': {'spend'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'screens', 'confidence', 'digital', 'performance'}, 'appos': {'2017b'}, 'ccomp': {'contributes'}, 'amod': {'greater'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'print'}} Long High Medium
3265 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, whether these findings for calibrationhold when multimodality interfaces with multiple mediums remain to be seen 16 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB] {'ROOT': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'advcl': {'findings'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'mediums', 'calibrationhold'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'compound': {'multimodality'}, 'nsubj': {'interfaces'}, 'amod': {'multiple'}, 'relcl': {'remain'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'seen'}} Medium High High
3266 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The Present Study For the current investigation, we continued to target college students ’comprehension of naturally- occurring texts read both in print and digitally 24 9 {'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Present', 'college'}, 'dep': {'Study'}, 'prep': {'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'occurring', 'current'}, 'pobj': {'print', 'investigation', 'texts'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'comprehension'}, 'ROOT': {'continued'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'target'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'nmod': {'naturally-'}, 'conj': {'digitally', 'read'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
3267 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The principal difference in this study was the added focus on multimodal elements of the text segments in comprehension assessment 20 9 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'added', 'multimodal', 'principal'}, 'nsubj': {'difference'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'assessment', 'elements', 'segments', 'study'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'focus'}, 'compound': {'comprehension', 'text'}} Long High Low
3268 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration evidence that multiple representations can increase cognitive demands (Cromley et al., 2016; McNamara et al., 2012), we wanted to test their effects with more competent readers who are likely more equipped to deal with the added complexity than younger or struggling readers 42 15 {'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'dep': {'evidence'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'competent', 'younger', 'added', 'multiple', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'representations', 'who'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'acl': {'increase'}, 'dobj': {'readers', 'effects', 'demands'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2012', 'Cromley', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'.', 'et'}, 'conj': {'struggling', 'al', '.'}, 'compound': {'McNamara', 'et'}, 'ROOT': {'wanted'}, 'xcomp': {'test', 'deal'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'prep': {'than', 'with'}, 'advmod': {'likely', 'more'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'complexity'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'equipped'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Medium
3269 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Further, we incorporated an additional calibration measure in this study that centered on topic knowledge 15 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'incorporated'}, 'det': {'an', 'this'}, 'amod': {'additional'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'calibration'}, 'dobj': {'measure'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'study'}, 'relcl': {'centered'}} Medium High Low
3270 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The rationale for that addition was the emphasis placed on students ’existing topic knowledge as a sig- nificant predictor of their comprehension performance (McCarthy & McNamara, 2021) 27 10 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, X, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'rationale'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'performance', 'addition', 'predictor'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'emphasis'}, 'acl': {'placed'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'amod': {'nificant', 'existing'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'comprehension'}, 'appos': {'knowledge', '2021', 'McCarthy'}, 'nmod': {'sig-'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'McNamara'}} Long High Low
3271 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Thus, cali- bration in the current study pertained to college students ’ability to accurately predict their topic knowledge prior to reading, as well as their comprehension performance after reading 29 12 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'accurately', 'well', 'as', 'prior'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'amod': {'cali-', 'current'}, 'nsubj': {'bration'}, 'prep': {'after', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'reading', 'study'}, 'acl': {'pertained', 'predict'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'comprehension', 'college'}, 'ROOT': {'ability'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'performance'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High Low
3272 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Research questions The specific research questions we sought to address in the present study were: 1 16 6 {'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, NUM] {'compound': {'research', 'Research'}, 'nsubj': {'questions', 'we'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'present', 'specific'}, 'relcl': {'sought'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'address'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'study'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'attr': {'1'}} Medium High Low
3273 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration How accurate are students ’perceptions of their topic knowledge compared to what they demonstrated on the topic knowledge pretests 19 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'How'}, 'acomp': {'accurate'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'nsubj': {'perceptions', 'they'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'compared', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'topic'}, 'pobj': {'pretests', 'knowledge'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'demonstrated'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Medium
3274 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Informed by the literature on calibration (Delgado & Salmer /C19on,2021 ; Hattie, 2013 ; Singer & Alexander, 2017b ), we hypothesize that undergraduate students in this investigation would inaccurately predict what they know about weather or soil —the topics about which they would be reading 45 18 {'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'advcl': {'Informed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'investigation', 'literature', 'weather', 'calibration'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'in'}, 'punct': {')', '—', '(', ',', ';', '/C19on,2021'}, 'appos': {'2013', '2017b', 'Delgado'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'Salmer', 'Singer', 'soil'}, 'npadvmod': {'Hattie'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'hypothesize'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate'}, 'aux': {'would', 'be'}, 'advmod': {'inaccurately'}, 'ccomp': {'know', 'predict'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'dep': {'topics'}, 'relcl': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
3275 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, we expected that students would judge their existing knowledge of weather higher than their knowledge of soil, given that weather seems to be a more common topic in and out of school 33 19 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'expected'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'judge'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'existing', 'common'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'in', 'than', 'of', 'given'}, 'pobj': {'weather', 'school', 'knowledge', 'soil'}, 'det': {'a', 'that'}, 'pcomp': {'seems'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'topic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'out'}} Long High Medium
3276 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration To what extent are students able to respond to comprehension questions that require infor- mation only from the text, only from the visuals, or from both the textual and vis- ual content 32 17 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'X': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, X, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'To', 'to', 'from'}, 'det': {'what', 'the'}, 'pcomp': {'extent'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that'}, 'amod': {'textual', 'able', 'infor-'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'respond'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'visuals', 'questions', 'text'}, 'relcl': {'require'}, 'dobj': {'mation'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'ual', 'vis-', 'from'}, 'predet': {'both'}} Long High Low
3277 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration What we expected in terms of the comprehension questions varying by source (text, visual, or both) was that students ’performance would be best on those items where the relevant content could be found in the written text and in the visuals 41 23 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'DET': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 5, 'SCONJ': 2} [PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'performance', 'we'}, 'csubj': {'expected'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'terms', 'questions', 'items', 'source', 'text'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'acl': {'varying'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '’'}, 'appos': {'text'}, 'conj': {'both', 'in', 'visual'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'could'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'best'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'amod': {'written', 'relevant'}, 'nsubjpass': {'content'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'found'}} Long High High
3278 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Conversely, we were less confident about students ’attention to relevant content found only in the visuals 16 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'less', 'Conversely'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'confident'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'content', 'visuals'}, 'npadvmod': {'attention'}, 'amod': {'relevant'}, 'acl': {'found'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
3279 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We grant that findings on the effectiveness of visuals on comprehension have been mixed (Guo et al., 2020 ) 19 8 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'grant'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'findings'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'effectiveness', 'visuals', 'comprehension'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ccomp': {'mixed'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Guo', '.', 'al', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2020'}} Medium High Low
3280 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Yet, in multimodal studies employing eye-tracking technology with quite short texts containing carefully positionedvisuals, there were those clusters of students who attended only superficially to the visual content (Mason et al., 2013a ,2013b ) 34 12 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'quite', 'only', 'Yet', 'superficially'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'carefully', 'multimodal', 'short', 'visual', 'tracking'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'content', 'students', 'texts'}, 'acl': {'containing', 'employing'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'eye', 'et', '2013b', '2013a'}, 'dobj': {'technology', 'positionedvisuals'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'attr': {'clusters'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'attended'}, 'appos': {'Mason'}} Long High Low
3281 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Therefore, in the present study that includes multiple visuals embedded within an extended text for the reading task, we predict that the visual-only questions will be less correctly answered than the text-only or text-visual questions 35 19 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'correctly', 'less', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'than', 'for', 'within', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'only', 'present', 'visual', 'multiple', 'extended'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'questions', 'study', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'relcl': {'includes'}, 'dobj': {'visuals'}, 'acl': {'embedded'}, 'compound': {'reading'}, 'ROOT': {'predict'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'questions'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'answered'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'visual'}} Long High Medium
3282 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration What effect does medium have on undergraduates ’overall comprehension when processing multimodal texts and on their performance for questions differing in specificity (e.g., main idea or details) and by source (e.g., text-only or visual-only) 34 16 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 3} [DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT] {'det': {'What'}, 'dobj': {'texts', 'comprehension', 'effect', 'medium', 'idea'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'undergraduates'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'amod': {'main', 'overall', 'multimodal'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'only', 'when'}, 'advcl': {'processing'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'by', 'on', 'details', 'visual'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'questions', 'source', 'specificity'}, 'acl': {'differing'}, 'parataxis': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}} Long High Medium
3283 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Based on prior medium studies (e.g., Alexander & Singer, 2017 ; Singer Trakhman et al., 2018 ), we hypothesize that students ’overall comprehension performance for both multimodal texts would be significantly better in the print condition than in the digital condition 41 12 {'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 2} [VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'for', 'Based', 'in', 'than'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'overall', 'prior', 'multimodal'}, 'compound': {'comprehension', 'et', 'medium', 'Singer', 'print'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'condition', 'Alexander', 'texts'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'significantly'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Singer'}, 'npadvmod': {'Trakhman', '2017'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'al', '.'}, 'nsubj': {'performance', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'hypothesize'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'better'}} Long High Medium
3284 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This predicted outcome is based on the consistent strength of print over digital processing for longer and com- plex expository texts 21 8 {'DET': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'predicted', 'longer', 'consistent'}, 'nsubjpass': {'outcome'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'based'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'print', 'strength', 'texts'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'plex', 'com-'}, 'compound': {'expository'}} Long High Low
3285 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Thus, given the added dimension of multimodality, there is reason to assume that the increased complexity of the visual elements would only strengthen the advantagefor the print over digital medium 30 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'only'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'given', 'advantagefor', 'of', 'over'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'added', 'increased', 'digital', 'visual'}, 'pobj': {'elements', 'medium', 'multimodality', 'print', 'dimension'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'reason'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'assume'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'complexity'}, 'ccomp': {'strengthen'}, 'dobj': {'the'}} Long High Medium
3286 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Further, when it comes to questions differing by specificity, we would expect the advantage for print to hold for the detail but not the main questions, as has been the pattern in prior studies (Singer Trakhman et al., 2019 ) 40 20 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 4, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'when', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'comes', 'been'}, 'prep': {'by', 'for', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'detail', 'questions', 'specificity', 'print'}, 'acl': {'differing'}, 'aux': {'would', 'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'expect'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'advantage'}, 'relcl': {'hold'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'amod': {'main', 'prior'}, 'conj': {'.', 'questions'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'attr': {'pattern'}, 'compound': {'Singer', 'et'}, 'appos': {'Trakhman', '2019', 'al'}} Long High High
3287 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For questions differing by source, however, there is insufficient history to forward any prediction as to medium effects 18 9 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'by', 'as', 'For', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'effects', 'questions', 'source'}, 'acl': {'differing'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'however'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'insufficient', 'medium'}, 'attr': {'prediction', 'history'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'forward'}, 'det': {'any'}} Medium High Low
3288 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration To what extent does the medium of delivery influence the accuracy of students ’comprehen- sion judgments when processing multimodal texts?604L.M 20 8 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADV] {'prep': {'To', 'of'}, 'det': {'what', 'the'}, 'pcomp': {'extent'}, 'ROOT': {'does'}, 'nsubj': {'medium', 'judgments'}, 'compound': {'delivery', 'comprehen-', 'sion'}, 'pobj': {'influence', 'students'}, 'appos': {'accuracy'}, 'punct': {'’', 'texts?604L.M'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'processing'}, 'dobj': {'multimodal'}} Long High Medium
3289 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Finally, we would predict that students ’calibration ability when it pertains to comprehen- sion performance would be more discrepant for the multimodal texts read digitally than in print 28 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'digitally', 'when', 'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'predict'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'compound': {'calibration', 'comprehen-', 'sion'}, 'dobj': {'ability'}, 'advcl': {'pertains'}, 'prep': {'than', 'for', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'print', 'texts'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'amod': {'multimodal', 'more'}, 'attr': {'discrepant'}, 'acl': {'read'}} Long High High
3290 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For one, the issue of faster reading times recorded for digital versus printed texts reported in prior studies would likely hold in the present study 25 9 {'ADP': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'versus', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'texts', 'digital', 'times', 'one', 'study'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'amod': {'printed', 'faster', 'prior', 'present'}, 'compound': {'reading'}, 'acl': {'recorded', 'reported'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'advmod': {'likely'}, 'ROOT': {'hold'}} Long High Low
3291 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This more rapid processing would mean less time for students to monitor their understanding 14 7 {'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'det': {'This'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'amod': {'less', 'rapid'}, 'nsubj': {'processing', 'students'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'mean'}, 'dobj': {'time', 'understanding'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'advcl': {'monitor'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Medium High Medium
3292 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In addition, without intentional placement of visuals in these text, readers ’toggling between the visual and textual content in the digital condition, which is important for building a coherent mental model of the information, could well be hampered 38 19 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'without', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'In', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'content', 'placement', 'visuals', 'information', 'addition', 'text'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'amod': {'coherent', 'digital', 'mental', 'intentional', 'visual'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'readers', 'which'}, 'csubjpass': {'toggling'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'textual'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'pcomp': {'building'}, 'dobj': {'model'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'hampered'}} Long High Low
3293 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Method Participants Participants for this study were 54 undergraduate students enrolled in human development and educational psychology courses at a large mid-Atlantic university 23 7 {'PROPN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Method', 'psychology', 'Participants'}, 'nsubj': {'Participants'}, 'prep': {'for', 'at', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'university', 'study', 'development'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'nummod': {'54'}, 'amod': {'mid', '-', 'undergraduate', 'human', 'educational', 'Atlantic', 'large'}, 'attr': {'students'}, 'acl': {'enrolled'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'courses'}} Long High Low
3294 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The students were predomin- antly female (77.8%) with a mean age of 20.78 ( SD¼1.32) years 16 5 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'ADP': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'predomin-'}, 'advmod': {'antly'}, 'oprd': {'female'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'77.8'}, 'appos': {'%'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'mean'}, 'pobj': {'age', '20.78'}, 'parataxis': {'SD¼1.32'}, 'npadvmod': {'years'}} Medium High Low
3295 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The self-reported races for stu- dents were White (50.0%), Asian/Pacific Islander (24.1%), Hispanic (7.4%), African American (7.4%), and Other/Multiracial (11.1%) 20 5 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 15, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 5, 'SYM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, SYM, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'The'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', '/'}, 'amod': {'reported'}, 'nsubj': {'races'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'compound': {'stu-', 'Pacific', 'African'}, 'pobj': {'dents'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'White'}, 'nummod': {'7.4', '50.0', '11.1', '24.1'}, 'appos': {'%', 'Islander'}, 'nmod': {'Other', 'Asian'}, 'conj': {'Hispanic', 'Multiracial', 'American'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
3296 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration These data on gender and race were comparable to the overall demographics of the university in which the study was conducted 21 12 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'data'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'demographics', 'university', 'gender'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'race'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'comparable'}, 'amod': {'overall'}, 'nsubjpass': {'study'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'relcl': {'conducted'}} Long High Low
3297 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In addition, the under- graduates in this study represented a variety of majors, mainly in the natural (66.7%) and social (31.5%) sciences, and years in school (3.7% freshmen, 9.3% sophomore, 31.5% junior, 53.7% senior, and 1.9% graduate students) 38 12 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 19, 'PUNCT': 13, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 7, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'%', 'school', 'students', 'addition', 'majors', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'social', 'under-', 'natural'}, 'nsubj': {'graduates'}, 'ROOT': {'represented'}, 'dobj': {'variety'}, 'advmod': {'mainly'}, 'nummod': {'3.7', '53.7', '66.7', '1.9', '9.3', '31.5'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'%'}, 'nmod': {'sciences'}, 'conj': {'sophomore', 'years', 'junior', 'senior', 'freshmen'}, 'compound': {'%', 'graduate'}, 'npadvmod': {'%'}} Long High Low
3298 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Experimental Texts For this study, each participant read two multimodal texts: one in print and one digitally 17 8 {'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, ADV] {'amod': {'Experimental', 'multimodal'}, 'npadvmod': {'Texts'}, 'prep': {'For', 'in'}, 'det': {'each', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'print', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'participant'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'appos': {'one'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'one'}, 'advmod': {'digitally'}} Medium High Low
3299 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The two texts were chapter excerpts from National Geographic Learning (Pipkin et al., 2014 ), a col- lege textbook for an introductory geology course 24 7 {'DET': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'an', 'The'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubj': {'texts'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'compound': {'Geographic', 'col-', 'National', 'geology', 'lege', 'chapter'}, 'attr': {'excerpts'}, 'prep': {'for', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'Learning'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2014', 'textbook', 'Pipkin'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}, 'conj': {'.'}, 'amod': {'introductory'}} Long High Low
3300 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In a pilot study, weather was rated as a more familiar topic than soil by undergraduate students 17 8 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'by', 'than', 'as', 'In'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'pilot'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'topic', 'study', 'soil'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'weather'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'rated'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'familiar'}} Medium High Low
3301 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The texts were comparable on a number of dimensions: three pages in length; similar word counts (1602 for weather and 1658 for soil), and readability level (grade 14; Fry Readability: Fry, 1968 ) 33 11 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NUM': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'texts'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'comparable'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'dimensions', 'length', 'number', 'weather', 'soil'}, 'punct': {':', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nummod': {'three', '14'}, 'appos': {'Fry', 'grade', '1602', 'Readability', '1968', 'pages'}, 'amod': {'similar'}, 'compound': {'Fry', 'word', 'readability'}, 'conj': {'counts', 'level', '1658'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
3302 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In terms of the visuals, both text excerpts contained one graph, one diagram, and two pictures 16 8 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'terms'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'nsubj': {'excerpts'}, 'ROOT': {'contained'}, 'nummod': {'two', 'one'}, 'dobj': {'graph', 'pictures'}, 'appos': {'diagram'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
3303 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For the weather text, the graphic showed the global distribution of precipitation and the diagram depicted how the flow of air currents over a mountain range created rainfall on the ascending side and dry conditions on the descending side 39 19 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 8, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'of', 'over'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'weather', 'air', 'mountain'}, 'pobj': {'precipitation', 'side', 'range', 'conditions', 'currents', 'text'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'graphic', 'diagram', 'flow'}, 'ROOT': {'showed'}, 'amod': {'ascending', 'global', 'descending'}, 'dobj': {'distribution', 'rainfall'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'depicted', 'dry'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'ccomp': {'created'}, 'nmod': {'side'}} Long High Medium
3304 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The pictures were a montage of extreme weather events and their effects in the northeast US and in Texas 19 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PROPN, CCONJ, ADP, PROPN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'pictures'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'montage'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'extreme', 'northeast'}, 'compound': {'weather'}, 'pobj': {'Texas', 'US', 'events'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'effects', 'in'}} Medium High Low
3305 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The two pictures included one of a geologist standing by a rock formation, while the second showed a layer of rich volcanic ash 23 11 {'DET': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'nsubj': {'second', 'pictures'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'dobj': {'layer', 'one'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'ash', 'geologist', 'formation'}, 'acl': {'standing'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'rock'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'showed'}, 'amod': {'rich', 'volcanic'}} Long High Medium
3306 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For the soil text, the graphic was a map showing loess-cov- ered regions of the earth, while the diagram showed an idealized soil layer profile and explained how it was formed 31 14 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'layer', 'loess', 'soil'}, 'pobj': {'earth', 'text'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'graphic', 'diagram'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'map'}, 'acl': {'showing'}, 'nmod': {'cov-'}, 'amod': {'idealized', 'ered'}, 'dobj': {'profile', 'regions'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'showed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'explained'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ccomp': {'formed'}} Long High High
3307 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Pre-reading Measures and Variables Demographic Survey Prior to beginning the study, students completed a demographic survey 16 4 {'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'Pre', '-', 'reading', 'demographic'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'Measures'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'Demographic', 'Variables'}, 'conj': {'Survey'}, 'advmod': {'Prior'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pcomp': {'beginning'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'study', 'survey'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'completed'}} Medium High Low
3308 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The survey collected information on the participants ’age, gender, ethnicity, mother language, grade point average, major, and year in college (e.g., freshman or sophomore).THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 605 29 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NUM] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'survey'}, 'ROOT': {'collected'}, 'dobj': {'information'}, 'prep': {'on', 'OF', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'EDUCATION', 'college', 'participants'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'age', 'freshman'}, 'conj': {'ethnicity', 'language', 'major', 'gender', 'average', 'year', 'JOURNAL'}, 'compound': {'grade', 'point', 'mother', 'sophomore).THE', 'EXPERIMENTAL'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'nummod': {'605'}} Long High Low
3309 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Self-reported Topic Knowledge To ascertain the relative novelty of the reading topics, participants were asked to rate their level of knowledge of the weather and soil topics 27 11 {'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'Self'}, 'punct': {',', '-', 'topics'}, 'amod': {'relative', 'reading', 'reported'}, 'compound': {'Topic', 'soil'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Knowledge', 'participants'}, 'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'ascertain'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'level', 'novelty'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'weather', 'knowledge', 'topics'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'xcomp': {'rate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
3310 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration These ratings were made on a 100 mm scale that ranged from 0 (no knowledge) to 100 (expert) 18 9 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 4} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'no', 'These'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ratings'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'from'}, 'nummod': {'100'}, 'compound': {'mm'}, 'pobj': {'0', 'scale', 'expert'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'ranged'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}} Medium High Low
3311 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For example, if a student responding to the ques- tion “Rate your knowledge on the subject of weather ”placed her mark at the 25 mm point, her self-reported topic knowledge score for weather would be recorded as 25 38 17 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM] {'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'of', 'at', 'For', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'tion', 'example', 'weather', '25', 'point', 'subject'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'student'}, 'acl': {'responding'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'topic', 'ques-', 'mm'}, 'advcl': {'Rate'}, 'poss': {'her', 'your'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'mark'}, 'ccomp': {'placed'}, 'nummod': {'25'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'amod': {'reported'}, 'nsubjpass': {'score'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'recorded'}} Long High Medium
3312 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Demonstrated Topic Knowledge Pretests To see how much knowledge students had about the two geology topics prior to reading, they also completed a knowledge measure for each topic 28 14 {'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Demonstrated', 'see'}, 'compound': {'Knowledge', 'knowledge', 'Topic', 'geology'}, 'dobj': {'measure', 'Pretests', 'much'}, 'aux': {'To'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'prior', 'how'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'had'}, 'prep': {'for', 'about', 'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'topic', 'topics'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'completed'}} Long High Medium
3313 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This demonstrated topic knowledge measures consisted of three terms key to each reading that students were asked to define, along with threemultiple-choice questions, one of which had two correct answers 30 15 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 3} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, PRON, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'one', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrated'}, 'compound': {'choice', 'knowledge', 'topic'}, 'dobj': {'answers', 'measures'}, 'acl': {'consisted'}, 'prep': {'with', 'along', 'to', 'of'}, 'nummod': {'two', 'three'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'reading', 'questions', 'terms'}, 'amod': {'correct', 'threemultiple', 'key'}, 'det': {'each'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ccomp': {'asked'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'define'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'relcl': {'had'}} Long High Medium
3314 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Both the short-answer and the multiple-choice questions were scored as correct (1) or incorrect (0), except for the “select all that apply ”multiple-choice question, which was scored as fully correct (2), one correct answer selected (1), or incorrect (0) 39 17 {'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 9, 'PUNCT': 19, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1} [CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'preconj': {'Both'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'correct', 'short', 'incorrect'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which', 'answer'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'choice'}, 'conj': {'0', 'questions', 'incorrect'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'ROOT': {'scored'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'except'}, 'npadvmod': {'all', '0', '1', '2'}, 'pobj': {'select'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'scored', 'apply'}, 'dobj': {'question'}, 'advmod': {'fully'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'appos': {'answer'}, 'acl': {'selected'}} Long High Medium
3315 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The definitions were scored independently by the first author and a research assistant resulting in ahigh rate of interrater agreement (.94) 21 9 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'definitions'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'scored'}, 'advmod': {'independently'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'first', 'ahigh'}, 'pobj': {'author', 'agreement', 'rate'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'interrater', 'research'}, 'conj': {'assistant'}, 'acl': {'resulting'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'.94'}} Long High Low
3316 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Topic Knowledge Calibration To examine how well students ’self-ratings of their topic knowledge aligned with their demon- strated knowledge on the topic pretests, we created a topic knowledge calibration variable 30 11 {'NOUN': 13, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 2} [NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'Topic', 'Knowledge', 'topic', 'knowledge', 'calibration', 'self'}, 'npadvmod': {'Calibration'}, 'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'examine'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'how'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ','}, 'dobj': {'variable', 'ratings'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'pretests', 'knowledge'}, 'acl': {'aligned'}, 'amod': {'demon-', 'strated'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'created'}} Long High Medium
3317 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We first converted the topic knowledge test scores and the self-reported knowledge ratings into percen- tages, so the two variables were on the same scale 25 13 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We', 'variables'}, 'advmod': {'first', 'so'}, 'ROOT': {'converted'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'topic', 'test'}, 'dobj': {'scores'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'percen-', 'same', 'reported'}, 'conj': {'ratings', 'were'}, 'prep': {'into', 'on'}, 'pobj': {'scale', 'tages'}, 'nummod': {'two'}} Long High Low
3318 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Next, we took the absolute value of the differ- ence between the percentage scores of the self-reported and demonstrated topic knowledge to represent the accuracy of topic knowledge calibration 29 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Next'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'took'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'absolute', 'differ-'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'value', 'accuracy'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'ence', 'scores', 'calibration', 'reported'}, 'compound': {'percentage', 'knowledge', 'topic'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'demonstrated'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'represent'}} Long High Low
3319 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For this variable, lower scores indicated higher calibration accuracy for topic knowledge 12 3 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'For'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'variable'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'higher', 'lower'}, 'nsubj': {'scores'}, 'ROOT': {'indicated'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'calibration'}, 'dobj': {'accuracy'}} Medium High Low
3320 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Post-Reading Measures and Variables Reading Comprehension Posttests (RCT) We were interested in examining the effects of medium (i.e., print and digital) on students ’com- prehension overall and by level of specificity (main idea or details) and information source (text- only, visual-only, text-visual) 42 15 {'ADJ': 10, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 14, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 2} [ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT] {'amod': {'main', 'Post', '-', 'Reading', 'visual'}, 'ROOT': {'Measures', 'were'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'Variables', 'Comprehension', 'information', 'Reading', 'com-'}, 'conj': {'digital', 'details', 'source', 'visual', 'Posttests'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'text-', 'RCT', 'idea'}, 'nsubj': {'We'}, 'acomp': {'interested'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'examining'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'effects'}, 'nmod': {'students', 'medium'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'i.e.', 'overall'}, 'pobj': {'specificity', 'print', 'prehension', 'level'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}} Long High Low
3321 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Immediately after reading and with no text available, studentsresponded to five short-answer questions for each topic presented in the same medium as the reading 24 13 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Immediately'}, 'prep': {'after', 'to', 'in', 'for', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'with'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'each'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'topic', 'questions', 'medium', 'text'}, 'amod': {'available', 'short', 'same'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'studentsresponded'}, 'nummod': {'five'}, 'compound': {'answer'}, 'acl': {'presented'}} Long High Low
3322 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The first question asked them to summarize the main idea of the excerpt 13 7 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'first', 'main'}, 'nsubj': {'question'}, 'ROOT': {'asked'}, 'dobj': {'idea', 'them'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'summarize'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'excerpt'}} Medium High Low
3323 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The remaining four questions relied on multiple pieces of information found only in the written text (1), only in the visuals (1), or in both (2), for a maximum score of 17 per topic 34 17 {'DET': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'NUM': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, VERB, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'both', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'maximum', 'written', 'multiple', 'remaining'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'nsubj': {'questions'}, 'ROOT': {'relied'}, 'prep': {'per', 'on', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'pieces', '2', 'topic', 'score', 'information', 'text', '17'}, 'advcl': {'found'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'in'}} Long High Low
3324 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The comprehension posttests and the specific points assigned each question appear in the Appendix 14 6 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'each'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'nsubj': {'posttests'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'specific'}, 'conj': {'points'}, 'ROOT': {'assigned'}, 'dobj': {'question'}, 'dep': {'appear'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'Appendix'}} Medium High Low
3325 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration To establish interrater agreement, the first author and a research assistant scored all responses independently and their scores were compared 20 9 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'establish'}, 'compound': {'interrater', 'research'}, 'dobj': {'responses', 'agreement'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'the'}, 'amod': {'first'}, 'nsubj': {'author'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'compared', 'assistant'}, 'ROOT': {'scored'}, 'advmod': {'independently'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubjpass': {'scores'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}} Long High Low
3326 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Judgment of Performance (JOP) In order to assess students ’overall calibration for this multimodal, multiple mediums task, we first had them judge their performance on the reading comprehension measure immediately after reading the printed text and again after reading the digital text or vice versa 45 19 {'PROPN': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV] {'ROOT': {'Judgment', 'had'}, 'prep': {'after', 'on', 'of', 'for', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'multimodal', 'task', 'measure', 'Performance'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '’'}, 'appos': {'JOP'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'assess'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'performance', 'calibration', 'text'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'digital', 'overall', 'printed'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'vice', 'reading', 'mediums', 'comprehension'}, 'nsubj': {'them', 'we'}, 'advmod': {'first', 'immediately', 'again', 'versa'}, 'ccomp': {'judge'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}} Long High Low
3327 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration reading of the weather (or soil) text and completing the comprehension measure in the print (or digital) condition, students answered the following question presented on paper (or online): Please rate your performance on the reading comprehension test you just completed in print (or digitally) on a scale of 0 (recalled nothing) to 100 (recalled everything) 55 25 {'NOUN': 17, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 6, 'PUNCT': 13, 'CCONJ': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'INTJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, INTJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'reading', 'recalled', 'rate'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'weather', '0', 'paper', '100', 'print', 'scale', 'test'}, 'punct': {'(', '):', ',', ')'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'nmod': {'soil'}, 'conj': {'condition', 'completing', 'text', 'online', 'digitally'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'comprehension'}, 'dobj': {'question', 'nothing', 'everything', 'measure', 'performance'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'following'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'you'}, 'ROOT': {'answered'}, 'acl': {'recalled', 'presented'}, 'intj': {'Please'}, 'poss': {'your'}, 'advmod': {'just'}, 'relcl': {'completed'}} Long High Low
3328 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Comprehension Calibration We examined the students ’comprehension calibration —the relation between judgment of per- formance (JOP) and demonstrated performance on the comprehension measure (RCT) —both descriptively and quantitatively 28 10 {'NOUN': 10, 'PROPN': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2} [NOUN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, CCONJ, ADV] {'compound': {'Comprehension', 'comprehension'}, 'npadvmod': {'Calibration'}, 'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dative': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', '—'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'calibration'}, 'appos': {'JOP', 'relation', 'RCT'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'formance', 'measure', 'judgment'}, 'amod': {'per-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'quantitatively', 'demonstrated'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'advmod': {'descriptively'}} Long High Low
3329 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For these analyses, it was first necessary to convert JOP ratingsand RCT scores to a similar metric 17 8 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'metric', 'analyses'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'first'}, 'acomp': {'necessary'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'convert'}, 'compound': {'JOP', 'ratingsand', 'RCT'}, 'dobj': {'scores'}, 'amod': {'similar'}} Medium High Low
3330 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Therefore, we transformed the JOP rating and the RCT score into percentages 12 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Therefore'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'transformed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'JOP', 'RCT'}, 'dobj': {'rating'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'score'}, 'prep': {'into'}, 'pobj': {'percentages'}} Medium High Low
3331 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Descriptively, we wanted to determine how many students accurately judged their performance (i.e., self-ratings within 3 percentage points of comprehension score) and howmany underestimated (i.e., self-ratings more than 3 percentage points below comprehensionscore) or overestimated (i.e., self-ratings more than 3 percentage points above comprehensionscore) how well they comprehended in the print and digital conditions 54 21 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 13, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 20, 'X': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'accurately', 'well', 'i.e.', 'Descriptively', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'we', 'howmany'}, 'ROOT': {'comprehended', 'wanted'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'determine'}, 'amod': {'many', 'digital', 'more'}, 'ccomp': {'judged'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'conditions'}, 'compound': {'percentage', 'self', 'comprehension'}, 'appos': {'ratings'}, 'prep': {'within', 'below', 'in', 'above', 'of'}, 'nummod': {'3'}, 'pobj': {'print', 'points', 'score', 'comprehensionscore'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'underestimated', 'overestimated'}, 'dep': {'ratings'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'npadvmod': {'points'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High High
3332 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We created a comprehension calibration score for each participant for each medium that cor- responded to the definition of calibration as the difference between predicted and actual perform-ance (Alexander, 2013 ; Fischhoff et al., 1977 ; Glenberg et al., 1987 ) 41 14 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 3} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'cor-', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'created'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'each'}, 'compound': {'perform', 'calibration', 'Glenberg', 'comprehension'}, 'dobj': {'score'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'for', 'as', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'ance', 'definition', 'participant', 'medium', 'difference', 'calibration'}, 'relcl': {'responded'}, 'amod': {'predicted'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'actual'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', 'et', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', '2013', '1987', '1977', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'Fischhoff', 'et'}} Long High Low
3333 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration To produce that score, we took the absolute value of the difference in percentages between the JOP rating and RCT scorefor each condition 23 11 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'produce'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'each'}, 'dobj': {'score', 'value'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'took'}, 'amod': {'absolute'}, 'prep': {'between', 'scorefor', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'rating', 'difference', 'percentages', 'condition'}, 'compound': {'JOP'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'RCT'}} Long High Low
3334 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Because calibration represents the correspondence between predicted andactual performance, a lower calibration score indicated of better calibrated readers 18 5 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'mark': {'Because'}, 'nsubj': {'calibration'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'score', 'correspondence'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'amod': {'predicted', 'lower', 'andactual', 'better', 'calibrated'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'performance'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'calibration'}, 'acl': {'indicated'}} Medium High Medium
3335 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Procedure The study was conducted outside of class in a designated area 12 5 {'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3} [PROPN, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'Procedure'}, 'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubjpass': {'study'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'conducted'}, 'prep': {'outside', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'class', 'area'}, 'amod': {'designated'}} Medium High Low
3336 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Students completed the demo- graphics survey, the self-reported topic knowledge measure, and demonstrated topic knowledgepretests digitally 16 3 {'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'ROOT': {'completed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'demo-', 'knowledge', 'topic', 'graphics'}, 'dobj': {'knowledgepretests', 'measure', 'survey'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'amod': {'reported'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'demonstrated'}, 'advmod': {'digitally'}} Medium High Low
3337 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Each participant read two texts: one text from each medium (i.e., print and digital) concerning weather and soil 18 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'Each', 'each'}, 'nsubj': {'participant'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'nummod': {'two', 'one'}, 'dobj': {'weather', 'texts'}, 'punct': {'(', ':', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'print', 'text'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pobj': {'medium'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'digital', 'soil'}, 'acl': {'concerning'}} Medium High Low
3338 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Prior to receiving the first text (i.e., weather orsoil) in either print or digital form, students were instructed as follows: You are going to be given a passage to read and asked questions after 34 16 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 2} [ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP] {'advmod': {'Prior', 'i.e.'}, 'prep': {'after', 'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'receiving'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'either'}, 'amod': {'first', 'digital'}, 'dobj': {'passage', 'questions', 'text'}, 'punct': {'(', ':', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'weather'}, 'appos': {'orsoil'}, 'pobj': {'print'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'asked', 'form'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'were'}, 'ccomp': {'instructed'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'follows'}, 'nsubj': {'You'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'going'}, 'xcomp': {'given'}, 'relcl': {'read'}} Long High Medium
3339 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration You may take as much time as you need with the text but will not be able to access the text while you answer the questions 26 18 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, PART, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'You', 'you'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to', 'will'}, 'ROOT': {'take'}, 'advmod': {'as'}, 'amod': {'much'}, 'dobj': {'time', 'questions', 'text'}, 'mark': {'as', 'while'}, 'advcl': {'answer', 'need'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'text'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'access'}} Long High High
3340 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As soon as they began reading, a research assistant started a timer to begin logging processing time 17 6 {'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1} [ADV, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'As', 'soon'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'assistant'}, 'advcl': {'began'}, 'xcomp': {'reading', 'begin', 'logging'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'research'}, 'ROOT': {'started'}, 'dobj': {'time', 'timer'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Medium High Medium
3341 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration When students indicated they had completed the reading, the research assistant stopped thetimer and presented them with the comprehension test in the same medium 24 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'assistant'}, 'advcl': {'indicated'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'ccomp': {'completed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'reading', 'thetimer', 'them'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'research', 'comprehension'}, 'ROOT': {'stopped'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'presented'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'medium', 'test'}, 'amod': {'same'}} Long High Medium
3342 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The students wereallowed to record their responses using bullet points or in connected discourse and were givenunlimited time to complete the test 22 10 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'wereallowed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'record'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'responses', 'points', 'test'}, 'advcl': {'using'}, 'compound': {'bullet'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'were', 'in'}, 'amod': {'givenunlimited', 'connected'}, 'pobj': {'discourse'}, 'attr': {'time'}, 'relcl': {'complete'}} Long High Low
3343 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Once the comprehension test was completed, students judgedtheir performance in that medium 12 5 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'Once'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'nsubjpass': {'test'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'completed'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'judgedtheir'}, 'dobj': {'performance'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'medium'}} Medium High Medium
3344 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Equipment Participants completed the digital portion of the study using a 15 ”LCD monitor at a resolution of 1280 /C21024 pixels 21 8 {'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, VERB] {'compound': {'LCD', 'Equipment'}, 'nsubj': {'Participants'}, 'ROOT': {'pixels', 'completed'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'digital'}, 'dobj': {'monitor', 'portion'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'resolution', 'study', '1280'}, 'acl': {'using'}, 'nummod': {'15'}, 'punct': {'”', '/C21024'}} Long High Low
3345 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We assumed that these computers would be familiar to participants as they are the computers that students currently and routinely used at the university 24 15 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'We', 'computers'}, 'ROOT': {'assumed'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'familiar'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'university', 'participants'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'attr': {'computers'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'currently', 'routinely'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'relcl': {'used'}} Long High High
3346 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This assumption was confirmed by asking students about their familiarity with the equipment prior to initiating the study 18 9 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'assumption'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'confirmed'}, 'prep': {'by', 'about', 'to', 'with'}, 'pcomp': {'initiating', 'asking'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'study'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'familiarity', 'equipment'}, 'advmod': {'prior'}} Medium High Low
3347 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The texts presented digitally were presented as PDF-files, read using Adobe Reader forWindows 13 4 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubjpass': {'texts'}, 'acl': {'presented'}, 'advmod': {'digitally'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'presented'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'compound': {'Reader', 'PDF', 'Adobe'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'files'}, 'conj': {'read'}, 'xcomp': {'using'}, 'dobj': {'forWindows'}} Medium High Low
3348 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The designated passage was book-marked, and only relevant sections were visible to the reader.THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 607 19 9 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NUM] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'THE'}, 'amod': {'designated', 'relevant'}, 'nsubj': {'sections', 'passage'}, 'ROOT': {'was', 'JOURNAL'}, 'npadvmod': {'book'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.'}, 'acomp': {'marked', 'visible'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'conj': {'were'}, 'prep': {'OF', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'EDUCATION', 'reader'}, 'compound': {'EXPERIMENTAL'}, 'nummod': {'607'}} Medium High Low
3349 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Data Analysis We used a within-subject design with each student reading one text in print and one digitally on either the topic of weather or soil in each condition (orders counterbalanced) 31 17 {'PROPN': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, ADV, ADP, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Data'}, 'npadvmod': {'Analysis'}, 'nsubj': {'We', 'orders', 'student'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'nmod': {'within'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'topic', 'weather', 'subject', 'print'}, 'dobj': {'design', 'text'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'one', 'soil'}, 'advmod': {'digitally'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'parataxis': {'counterbalanced'}} Long High Low
3350 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As our researchquestions mainly involved examining the within-subject differences by topic, by medium, or by information sources, we mainly used paired-sample t-tests when the independent variable had two levels (i.e., topic: weather vs 33 14 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'X': 1, 'INTJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADV, VERB, VERB, DET, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, INTJ] {'mark': {'As'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubj': {'variable', 'we', 'researchquestions'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'when', 'mainly'}, 'advcl': {'involved', 'had'}, 'xcomp': {'examining'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'within'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ':', '('}, 'pobj': {'subject', 'topic', 'sources', 'medium'}, 'dobj': {'tests', 'levels', 'differences'}, 'prep': {'by'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'by'}, 'compound': {'sample', 't', 'information'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'amod': {'independent', 'paired'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'appos': {'weather', 'topic'}, 'intj': {'vs'}} Long High High
3351 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration print) and applied repeated measuresanalysis of variance when the independent variable involved more than two levels (i.e., source ofinformation: visual-only, text-only, and text-visual) 23 10 {'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'print'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', ','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'only', 'applied', 'visual'}, 'amod': {'independent', 'repeated', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'measuresanalysis', 'levels'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'variance'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'i.e.', 'when'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'variable'}, 'advcl': {'involved'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'compound': {'source'}, 'appos': {'ofinformation', 'visual'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}} Long High Medium
3352 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Before we conducted the analyses for themain research questions, we first did initial analyses of the descriptive statistics and the correla-tions among variables 23 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'Before'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'advcl': {'conducted'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'analyses'}, 'prep': {'for', 'among', 'of'}, 'compound': {'themain', 'research', 'correla'}, 'pobj': {'statistics', 'questions', 'variables'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'first'}, 'ROOT': {'did'}, 'amod': {'descriptive', 'initial'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'tions'}} Long High Medium
3353 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We particularly inspected the relations between the prereading topic meas-ures (self-reported and demonstrated topic knowledge), reading time, and outcome variables oncomprehension and comprehension calibration to identify potential covariates (self-reported and demonstrated topic knowledge or reading time) that should be adjusted for in analyses addressing the core research questions 48 16 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 11, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 21, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'advmod': {'particularly'}, 'ROOT': {'inspected'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'covariates', 'relations', 'questions', 'knowledge', 'calibration', 'time'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in', 'between'}, 'amod': {'potential', 'prereading'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'analyses'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'meas', 'core', 'research'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'ures'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'advcl': {'reading', 'identify', 'reported'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'outcome', 'reading', 'demonstrated', 'comprehension'}, 'nmod': {'oncomprehension', 'variables'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'acl': {'addressing', 'reported'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'adjusted'}} Long High Low
3354 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In cases where significant correlations were found between a poten-tial covariate and the outcome, in addition to the paired-sample t-test, we also conducted analyses controlling for potential influences of the covariates using linear mixed-effects models (on thecondition that model assumptions were met) 42 19 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 16, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'In', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'covariates', 'covariate', 'thecondition', 'addition', 'cases', 'influences', 'test'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'where'}, 'amod': {'tial', 'mixed', 'poten', 'linear', 'significant', 'potential', 'paired'}, 'nsubjpass': {'assumptions', 'correlations'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'found'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'outcome'}, 'compound': {'effects', 'sample', 'model', 't'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'conducted'}, 'dobj': {'models', 'analyses'}, 'acl': {'using', 'met', 'controlling'}, 'mark': {'that'}} Long High High
3355 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Mixed-effects models allow examination of thefixed effects of the within-subject condition (e.g., medium) and continuous predictors (e.g., topicknowledge) of interest, while taking between-subject variabilities into account (random effects).This approach can account for the dependence in outcomes (e.g., reading comprehension) and covariates (e.g., topic knowledge) across the within-subject conditions (mediums or topics) in our study 54 20 {'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 20, 'NOUN': 24, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 11, 'DET': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'amod': {'Mixed', 'continuous', 'thefixed'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'effects', 'topic'}, 'nsubj': {'models', 'approach'}, 'ROOT': {'allow'}, 'dobj': {'examination', 'variabilities', 'comprehension'}, 'prep': {'in', 'into', 'of', 'for', 'across'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'interest', 'effects', 'conditions', 'outcomes', 'account', 'subject', 'study', 'dependence'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'within', 'between'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'random'}, 'parataxis': {'medium'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'mediums', 'covariates', 'topics', 'predictors'}, 'appos': {'topicknowledge'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'taking', 'reading'}, 'poss': {'our', 'effects).This'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'account'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'knowledge'}} Long High Medium
3356 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Based on a priori power analyses using GPower, a sample size of 54 is adequate for a paired- sample t-test (e.g., differences by medium) with a moderate effect size (Cohen ’sd¼.50) at a .05 significance level and for repeated measures ANOVA for one group with three measurements (aswe would use for analysis by source of information) with a moderate effect size (Cohen ’sf¼ .25) 64 25 {'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 13, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 22, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 13, 'NUM': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, X, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'at', 'Based', 'by', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'repeated', 'priori', 'moderate', 'paired-'}, 'compound': {'significance', 'effect', 'power', 'sample', 't'}, 'pobj': {'measures', 'group', 'measurements', 'analyses', 'analysis', 'information', 'medium', 'size', '54', 'source', 'level', 'test'}, 'acl': {'using'}, 'dobj': {'GPower'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'.25', 'ANOVA', 'size', 'sf¼', 'Cohen', 'sd¼.50'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'adequate'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'dep': {'differences'}, 'nmod': {'Cohen'}, 'nummod': {'one', '.05', 'three'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'for'}, 'nsubj': {'aswe'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'parataxis': {'use'}} Long High Low
3357 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, it should be noted that there is a possibility that we may not be able to detect sig- nificance if the observed effect size is small 27 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'aux': {'should', 'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'noted'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'possibility'}, 'nsubj': {'size', 'we'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'able', 'small'}, 'xcomp': {'detect'}, 'compound': {'effect', 'sig-'}, 'dobj': {'nificance'}, 'amod': {'observed'}, 'advcl': {'is'}} Long High High
3358 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Results and Discussion Descriptive Statistics and Preliminary Analyses Before addressing the research questions pertaining to the interplay of multimodality and medium, we examined the correlations and descriptive statistics, and we explored the results pre-liminarily by topic to ensure that data met the assumptions for subsequent analyses 46 19 {'NOUN': 13, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'data', 'we', 'Results'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'Discussion', 'Preliminary', 'Descriptive', 'research'}, 'conj': {'Analyses', 'explored', 'medium', 'statistics', 'Statistics'}, 'prep': {'to', 'by', 'of', 'Before', 'for'}, 'pcomp': {'addressing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'results', 'questions', 'assumptions', 'correlations'}, 'acl': {'pertaining'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'interplay', 'analyses', 'multimodality'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'amod': {'descriptive', 'subsequent'}, 'ccomp': {'pre', 'met'}, 'advcl': {'ensure', '-'}, 'advmod': {'liminarily'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'mark': {'that'}} Long High Medium
3359 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Reading Times by Medium and by Topic Upon inspection, the one variable that required scrutiny for several reasons was reading time 21 10 {'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PROPN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Reading'}, 'dobj': {'Times', 'time'}, 'prep': {'by', 'Upon', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'reasons', 'Topic', 'Medium', 'inspection'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'by'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'nsubj': {'scrutiny', 'variable', 'that'}, 'amod': {'required', 'several'}, 'aux': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
3360 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Specifically, the reading time data for four students could not be retained due to procedural prob-lems that occurred 18 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'prob', 'time'}, 'nsubjpass': {'data'}, 'prep': {'for', 'due'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'lems'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'retained'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'amod': {'procedural'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'occurred'}} Medium High Low
3361 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration There were also three students whose processing times in either or bothmediums deviated significantly from their peers (2.7 to 3.8 SDsabove the means of the respective conditions), unduly affecting the average for each medium 34 17 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, NUM, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PART, NUM, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'unduly', 'also', 'significantly'}, 'nummod': {'3.8', 'three'}, 'attr': {'students'}, 'poss': {'whose', 'their'}, 'compound': {'processing'}, 'npadvmod': {'times'}, 'prep': {'for', 'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'either', 'bothmediums', 'peers', 'conditions', 'medium'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'acl': {'deviated'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'quantmod': {'2.7', 'to'}, 'appos': {'SDsabove'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'dobj': {'average', 'means'}, 'amod': {'respective'}, 'advcl': {'affecting'}} Long High Low
3362 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Therefore, it was decided that thetime data for these seven students should be removed, resulting in a sample of 47 students forthe analysis of reading times by medium 28 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Therefore'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'it', 'data'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'was'}, 'ROOT': {'decided'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'thetime'}, 'prep': {'forthe', 'in', 'by', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'seven', '47'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'medium', 'sample', 'analysis'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ccomp': {'removed'}, 'advcl': {'resulting'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'times'}} Long High Medium
3363 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration With outliers removed, result of a paired-sample t-test indicated a significant difference in reading time as measured in seconds across mediums [ t(46)¼2.84, p¼.007], with students spending more time in the digital medium [print, M¼420.81, SD¼141.56; digital, M¼471.70, SD¼151.14] 39 12 {'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 7, 'X': 3} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, X, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, X, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, X] {'mark': {'as', 'With'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'outliers'}, 'advcl': {'removed', 'measured'}, 'punct': {'-', ']', ',', ';', '['}, 'dep': {'result'}, 'prep': {'with', 'across', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'paired', 'more', 'significant'}, 'compound': {'sample', 't'}, 'pobj': {'medium', 'mediums', 'test', 'seconds'}, 'ROOT': {'indicated', 'print'}, 'dobj': {'difference', 'time'}, 'pcomp': {'spending', 'reading'}, 'appos': {'M¼420.81', 'SD¼151.14', 'digital', 'SD¼141.56', 'p¼.007', 't(46)¼2.84'}, 'conj': {'M¼471.70'}} Long High High
3364 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This finding was unexpected, as it is the reverse of what previous medium-only608L.M 13 8 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'what', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'finding', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'unexpected'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'reverse'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'medium', 'previous'}, 'pcomp': {'only608L.M'}} Medium High Medium
3365 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration studies have found about processing time, where students spent more time reading in print than digitally (Singer & Alexander, 2017a ,2017b ) 22 6 {'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'studies', 'students'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'prep': {'than', 'about', 'in'}, 'compound': {'processing'}, 'pobj': {'print', 'time'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'relcl': {'spent'}, 'amod': {'more'}, 'dobj': {'time'}, 'xcomp': {'reading'}, 'pcomp': {'digitally'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017b', '2017a', 'Singer'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Alexander'}} Long High Medium
3366 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As reading time was not correlated with any of the comprehension measures or calibration for overall comprehension ( rs<.15,ps>.05), we deter- mined that reading time would not be included in further analyses when addressing the core research questions 38 18 {'SCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reading', 'time'}, 'dobj': {'time', 'questions'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'addressing', 'correlated'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'any', 'measures', 'analyses', 'comprehension'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'core', 'research', 'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'calibration'}, 'amod': {'further', 'overall'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'rs<.15,ps>.05'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'parataxis': {'deter-'}, 'ROOT': {'mined'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'included'}, 'advmod': {'when'}} Long High High
3367 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Additionally, we did not find any significant difference in reading time between text topics, t(46)¼1.12, p¼.268 16 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Additionally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'find'}, 'det': {'any'}, 'amod': {'significant'}, 'dobj': {'difference', 'time'}, 'prep': {'between', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'pobj': {'topics'}, 'appos': {'t(46)¼1.12', 'p¼.268'}} Medium High Low
3368 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As there were no missing data for the other variables and reading time was not entered as a covariate, the full data set ( n¼54) was used for subse- quent analyses 31 17 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'were'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the'}, 'amod': {'other', 'missing', 'full', 'subse-'}, 'attr': {'data'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'covariate', 'analyses', 'variables'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'quent', 'reading'}, 'conj': {'set', 'time', 'used'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'entered'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'data'}, 'intj': {'n¼54'}} Long High Medium
3369 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Topic Differences for Comprehension Outcomes We also conducted an initial analysis of topic differences in students ’comprehension perform- ance by total score, by specificity level (main idea or details), and by information source (text, visual, or both) without regard to medium 41 15 {'PROPN': 3, 'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 18, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 3} [PROPN, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PROPN, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'Topic', 'topic', 'Comprehension', 'information', 'specificity', 'perform-'}, 'nsubj': {'Differences', 'We'}, 'prep': {'without', 'to', 'in', 'by', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'differences', 'students', 'score', 'Outcomes', 'medium', 'source', 'regard', 'level'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'conducted'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'main', 'initial', 'total'}, 'dobj': {'ance', 'analysis'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'nmod': {'comprehension'}, 'appos': {'idea', 'text'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'by', 'both', 'details', 'visual'}} Long High Low
3370 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We found no significant differences between the texttopics for total comprehension, or for the main idea or detail questions 19 9 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'amod': {'main', 'significant', 'total'}, 'dobj': {'differences'}, 'prep': {'for', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'idea', 'comprehension', 'texttopics'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'detail', 'for', 'questions'}} Medium High Low
3371 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Nor did we find any sig- nificant topic effect for questions that tested comprehension of information referenced in text only, visuals only, or text-visual 24 11 {'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3} [CCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, DET, X, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ] {'cc': {'or', 'Nor'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'find'}, 'det': {'any'}, 'nmod': {'sig-'}, 'amod': {'nificant'}, 'compound': {'topic'}, 'dobj': {'visuals', 'effect', 'comprehension'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'questions', 'text', 'information'}, 'relcl': {'tested'}, 'acl': {'referenced'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'conj': {'visual'}} Long High Low
3372 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Therefore, we collapsed the two topics when addressing the core research ques- tions regarding comprehension and comprehension calibration in ensuring analyses 21 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NUM, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'collapsed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'dobj': {'analyses', 'tions', 'calibration', 'topics'}, 'advcl': {'addressing'}, 'amod': {'core'}, 'compound': {'ques-', 'research'}, 'acl': {'regarding'}, 'nmod': {'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'comprehension'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pcomp': {'ensuring'}} Long High Medium
3373 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Correlations between Self-Reported and Demonstrated Topic Knowledge and Comprehension Finally, we explored the interrelations among the pre-reading variables of self-reported topic knowledge, demonstrated topic knowledge, and post-reading comprehension, and calibration scores 31 10 {'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 6} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'we', 'Correlations'}, 'prep': {'of', 'among', 'between'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'Self'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'Reported', 'variables'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'comprehension', 'scores', 'Comprehension', 'demonstrated', 'Demonstrated'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'calibration', 'Topic'}, 'dobj': {'Knowledge', 'knowledge', 'interrelations'}, 'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'ROOT': {'explored'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'reading', 'pre', '-', 'post', 'reported'}} Long High Low
3374 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As shown in Table 1 , self-reported topic knowledge and demonstrated topic knowledge had a moderate positive correlation, r¼.36,p<.001 19 5 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'shown'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'Table'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'moderate', 'reported'}, 'compound': {'topic'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'demonstrated'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'correlation'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'appos': {'r¼.36,p<.001'}} Medium High Medium
3375 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, neither of these topic know- ledge measures were significantly correlated with total comprehension score or calibration accuracy 18 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'significantly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'neither'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'pobj': {'topic', 'measures', 'score'}, 'case': {'know-'}, 'compound': {'ledge', 'calibration', 'comprehension'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'correlated'}, 'amod': {'total'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'accuracy'}} Medium High Low
3376 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Students who self-reported higher topic knowledge tended to have higher ratings of their comprehension performance ( r¼.29,p¼.002), but topic knowledge calibration accuracy was not correlated with the comprehension scores or comprehension calibration accuracy 33 11 {'NOUN': 17, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students', 'who'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'relcl': {'reported'}, 'amod': {'higher'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'topic', 'calibration', 'comprehension'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'ratings'}, 'ROOT': {'tended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'have'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'scores'}, 'appos': {'r¼.29,p¼.002'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'nsubjpass': {'accuracy'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'correlated', 'accuracy'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Low
3377 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As a result of these findings, the overall comprehension and comprehension calibration scoresrequired no adjustments for either self-reported or demonstrated topic knowledge for subse- quent analyses 26 11 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'As', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'findings', 'analyses', 'result'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'overall'}, 'nmod': {'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'demonstrated', 'comprehension'}, 'nsubj': {'calibration'}, 'ROOT': {'scoresrequired'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'adjustments'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'pcomp': {'reported'}, 'compound': {'quent', 'topic', 'subse-'}} Long High Low
3378 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For comprehension at different levels of specificity, neither self-reported nor demonstrated topic knowledge was correlated with comprehension of text details 20 8 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'at', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'details', 'levels', 'specificity', 'comprehension'}, 'amod': {'different'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'preconj': {'neither'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'cc': {'nor'}, 'conj': {'correlated', 'demonstrated'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'text'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}} Long High Low
3379 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, main idea compre- hension was significantly correlated with demonstrated topic knowledge ( r¼.20,p¼.035), butTable 1 16 3 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NUM] {'advmod': {'However', 'significantly'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'main', 'demonstrated'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'idea', 'compre-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'hension'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'correlated'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'appos': {'r¼.20,p¼.035'}, 'npadvmod': {'butTable'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Medium High Low
3380 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Measure 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 13 0 {'NOUN': 1, 'NUM': 12} [NOUN, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Measure'}, 'nummod': {'1', '2', '6', '11', '3', '4', '9', '7'}, 'npadvmod': {'5', '10'}, 'appos': {'8'}, 'compound': {'12'}} Medium Low Low
3381 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Self-reported TKa.36/C3/C3/C0.33/C3/C3 .15 .14 .14 .21 /C3/C0.05 .20 /C3 .29/C3/C3/C0.15 .05 2 12 0 {'NOUN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 14, 'SYM': 10, 'NUM': 4} [NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, SYM, PROPN, NUM, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, NUM, NUM] {'npadvmod': {'C0.15', 'Self'}, 'punct': {'/C3', '-', '/'}, 'amod': {'reported'}, 'nmod': {'TKa.36', 'C3', '.21', 'C0.33'}, 'appos': {'C3'}, 'nummod': {'.14', '.05', '.20', '2', '.15', '.29'}, 'ROOT': {'C0.05'}} Medium Low Low
3382 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Demonstrated TK – .74/C3/C3 .19 .20 /C3 .17 .24 /C3 .02 .13 .16 /C0.10 /C0.06 3 16 0 {'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 6, 'SYM': 4, 'PROPN': 5} [VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, SYM, PROPN, NUM, SYM, PROPN, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Demonstrated', '.02', '3'}, 'dobj': {'C3', 'TK'}, 'punct': {'–', '.24', '/C3', '/', '/C0.10', '/C0.06'}, 'npadvmod': {'.16', '.19', '.74'}, 'appos': {'C3'}, 'nummod': {'.17', '.13', '.20'}} Medium Low Low
3383 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration TK calibration – .07 .08 .07 .09 .04 /C0.03 /C0.08 .03 /C0.03 4 13 0 {'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 7, 'X': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, X, NUM] {'compound': {'TK'}, 'ROOT': {'calibration', '.03'}, 'punct': {'–', '/C0.08', '/C0.03'}, 'nummod': {'.07', '.08'}, 'appos': {'.09', '4', '.04'}} Medium Low Low
3384 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Main idea item – .31/C3/C3 .27/C3/C3/C0.03 .36 /C3/C3 .24/C3 .10 .06 6 12 0 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 6, 'SYM': 6, 'PROPN': 8} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, SYM, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, NUM, NUM] {'amod': {'Main'}, 'compound': {'idea'}, 'ROOT': {'item'}, 'punct': {'–', '.24', '/C3', '.27', '/'}, 'appos': {'.06', 'C3', 'C0.03', '.31'}, 'nmod': {'C3'}, 'nummod': {'6', '.36'}, 'npadvmod': {'.10'}} Medium Low Low
3385 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Total detail items – .70/C3/C3 .13 .88 /C3/C3 .19/C3 .42/C3/C3 .04 7 12 0 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 6, 'SYM': 6, 'PROPN': 7} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, SYM, PROPN, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, NUM, SYM, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, NUM, NUM] {'amod': {'Total'}, 'compound': {'detail'}, 'ROOT': {'items'}, 'punct': {'–', '/C3', '/'}, 'appos': {'.70', '.88', 'C3', '.13', '.04'}, 'npadvmod': {'.42', '.19'}, 'nummod': {'7'}} Medium Low Low
3386 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration To rule out the potential influence of topic knowledge on students ’ability to grasp main ideas when reading in different mediums, we controlled for demonstrated topic knowledge in the subsequent analysis of main idea questions by medium 37 14 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'reading', 'rule'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'main', 'subsequent', 'demonstrated', 'different', 'potential'}, 'dobj': {'influence', 'ideas', 'ability'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'by', 'of', 'for'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'idea'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'analysis', 'questions', 'knowledge', 'medium', 'mediums'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'acl': {'grasp'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'controlled'}} Long High Medium
3387 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Comprehension performance on visual-only questions was significantly positively correlated withself-reported topic knowledge ( r¼.21,p¼.026) and demonstrated topic knowledge ( r¼.24,p ¼.013) 21 4 {'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, PUNCT] {'compound': {'topic', 'Comprehension', 'r¼.24,p'}, 'nsubjpass': {'performance'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'amod': {'reported', 'visual'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'positively', 'significantly'}, 'pobj': {'questions'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'correlated'}, 'npadvmod': {'withself'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'appos': {'r¼.21,p¼.026', '¼.013'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'demonstrated'}} Long High Low
3388 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Text-visual question performance was also positively correlated with self-reported topic knowledge ( r¼.20,p¼.035) 13 3 {'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Text', 'reported', 'visual'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'question'}, 'nsubjpass': {'performance'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'positively'}, 'ROOT': {'correlated'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge'}, 'appos': {'r¼.20,p¼.035'}} Medium High Low
3389 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration But no significant correlations were found between text-only items and self-reported or demonstrated topic knowledge 15 7 {'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 2} [CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'cc': {'and', 'But', 'or'}, 'det': {'no'}, 'amod': {'only', 'significant'}, 'nsubjpass': {'correlations'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'text'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'items'}, 'conj': {'demonstrated', 'reported'}, 'compound': {'topic'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}} Medium High Low
3390 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Topic knowledge calibration was not corre- lated with comprehension by any type of information source 15 6 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'Topic'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'information'}, 'nsubj': {'calibration'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'corre-', 'lated'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'source', 'type', 'comprehension'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'any'}} Medium High Low
3391 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As a result of these findings, we adjusted for self-reported or demonstrated topic knowledge for visual-only questions and self- reported topic knowledge for text-visual items in subsequent analysis 28 12 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 6} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'As', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'analysis', 'questions', 'items', 'findings', 'knowledge', 'result'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'adjusted'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'text'}, 'amod': {'visual', 'subsequent', 'reported'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'self-', 'demonstrated'}, 'compound': {'topic'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'advmod': {'only'}} Long High Low
3392 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Research Question 1: Differences between Self-Reported and Demonstrated Topic Knowledge We first analyzed the accuracy of the undergraduates ’self-reported topic knowledge compared to their demonstrated topic knowledge (see Table 2 ) 31 10 {'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'topic', 'Topic', 'Research'}, 'ROOT': {'analyzed', 'Question'}, 'nummod': {'1', '2'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ':', ')', '('}, 'appos': {'Differences'}, 'prep': {'to', 'compared', 'of', 'between'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'Self'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'Reported'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Demonstrated'}, 'dobj': {'Knowledge', 'accuracy', 'Table'}, 'nsubj': {'We'}, 'advmod': {'first'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'undergraduates'}, 'amod': {'demonstrated', 'reported'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}} Long High Low
3393 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As displayed in Figure 1 , the scores for students ’ self-reported knowledge with the two geology topics, although low, were significantly higher for weather than for soil,a spr ed ict ed , t(53)¼5.75, p<.001, Cohen ’sd¼.78 37 13 {'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'mark': {'As', 'although'}, 'advcl': {'displayed', 'low'}, 'prep': {'than', 'for', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Figure', 'students', 'weather', 'soil', 'topics'}, 'nummod': {'two', '1'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'scores'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'sd¼.78', 't(53)¼5.75'}, 'amod': {'spr', 'reported'}, 'appos': {'knowledge', 'p<.001', 'ed'}, 'compound': {'ict', 'geology'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'significantly'}, 'acomp': {'higher'}, 'nmod': {'Cohen', 'ed'}} Long High High
3394 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This was consistent with the findings of the pilot study and confirmed that students perceived one of the two topics as significantly better known than the other 27 16 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'ADV': 3} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NUM, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'students', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'consistent'}, 'prep': {'than', 'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'other', 'findings', 'topics', 'study'}, 'compound': {'pilot'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'confirmed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'perceived'}, 'dobj': {'one'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'better', 'significantly'}, 'acl': {'known'}} Long High Medium
3395 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration MSD Range MSD Range Self-reported topic knowledge 100 20.15 18.14 0 –80 9.39 9.58 0 –35 Demonstrated topic knowledge 7 3.06 1.28 1 –6 3.39 0.98 2 –6 Topic knowledge calibration 100 32.01 17.98 2.67 –80 47.09 15.69 20 –80 Raw discrepancy 100 /C030.78 20.06 /C080–20 /C047.09 15.69 /C080–(/C020) Figure 1 51 0 {'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 31, 'ADJ': 2, 'SYM': 2} [PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, SYM, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NUM, SYM, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM] {'compound': {'1.28', 'Range', 'MSD', 'topic', 'knowledge'}, 'npadvmod': {'20.15', '15.69', 'Self'}, 'punct': {'–', '-', '/C030.78', '/C047.09', ')', '/C080–(/C020'}, 'amod': {'Demonstrated', 'Topic', 'Raw', 'reported'}, 'ROOT': {'Figure', 'knowledge', '15.69'}, 'nummod': {'9.39', '1', '47.09', '3.06', '6', '20', '35', '20.06', '3.39', '17.98', '0', '100', '9.58', '80', '18.14', '0.98'}, 'appos': {'discrepancy', '2', '6', '2.67', 'knowledge', 'calibration', '/C080–20', '80', '32.01', '7'}} Long Low Low
3396 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration showed no statistically significant differences in students ’demonstrated knowledge for these soil topics, t(53)¼1.77, p¼.083 15 4 {'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3} [VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'showed'}, 'det': {'no', 'these'}, 'advmod': {'statistically'}, 'amod': {'significant'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'differences'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'topics'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'conj': {'demonstrated'}, 'compound': {'soil'}, 'npadvmod': {'t(53)¼1.77'}, 'appos': {'p¼.083'}} Medium High Low
3397 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We found that while students tended to underestimate their knowledge for both topics, they were more likely to do so when they judged the topic as less well-known 28 19 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB] {'nsubj': {'students', 'We', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that', 'while'}, 'advcl': {'tended', 'judged'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'underestimate', 'do'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'topic'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'topics'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'so', 'well', 'less', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'likely', 'known'}} Long High High
3398 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The topic knowledge cali-bration score, which was the absolute value difference between students ’self-reported and demon- strated topic knowledge, was higher for the soil topic than for the weather topic [ t(53)¼5.02, p< .001, Cohen ’sd¼.68], indicating lower calibration accuracy for the topic of soil 45 15 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 19, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, X, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'bration', 'topic', 'value', 'cali', 'knowledge', 'weather', 'calibration', 'soil'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ']', ',', '.001', '['}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'score'}, 'relcl': {'was'}, 'amod': {'absolute', 'lower', 'strated', 'reported'}, 'attr': {'difference'}, 'prep': {'than', 'for', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'topic', 'soil'}, 'npadvmod': {'sd¼.68', 'self'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'demon-'}, 'appos': {'knowledge', 't(53)¼5.02'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'higher'}, 'dep': {'p', '<'}, 'nmod': {'Cohen'}, 'advcl': {'indicating'}, 'dobj': {'accuracy'}} Long High Low
3399 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Research Question 2: Comprehension Performance by Source of Information Next, we examined students ’comprehension of information conveyed in the text only, the visuals only, or in both 27 13 {'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, PRON] {'compound': {'Comprehension', 'Research'}, 'ROOT': {'examined', 'Question'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'punct': {',', ':', '’'}, 'appos': {'visuals', 'Performance'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'information', 'both', 'Source', 'text', 'Information'}, 'npadvmod': {'Next'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'comprehension'}, 'acl': {'conveyed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'in'}} Long High Low
3400 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As the maximum scores for text-only, visual-only, and text-visual questions var-ied, we converted these scores into percentages for the purpose of analysis 22 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'only', 'maximum', 'visual'}, 'pobj': {'scores', 'analysis', 'percentages', 'purpose'}, 'prep': {'into', 'for', 'of'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'var', 'questions'}, 'advcl': {'ied'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'converted'}, 'dobj': {'scores'}} Long High Medium
3401 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In that way, we couldcompare comprehension performance for information from different sources on the same metric.A repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to compare the performance on the three informa- tion sources 31 15 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'for', 'In', 'from'}, 'det': {'A', 'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'metric', 'way', 'information'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'measures', 'couldcompare'}, 'compound': {'informa-', 'tion', 'comprehension'}, 'dobj': {'performance'}, 'amod': {'different', 'repeated', 'same'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ANOVA'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'relcl': {'conducted'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'compare'}, 'nummod': {'three'}} Long High Low
3402 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The assumption of sphericity was violated, as shown by Mauchly ’s test,v 2(2)¼ 19.56, p<.001, so a Huynh-Feldt adjustment was used 21 10 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubjpass': {'assumption', 'adjustment'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'sphericity', 'test'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ccomp': {'violated'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'shown'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'Mauchly'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'dep': {'v'}, 'npadvmod': {'2(2)¼', 'p<.001', '19.56', 'Huynh'}, 'advmod': {'so'}, 'amod': {'Feldt'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}} Long High High
3403 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The result showed significantly different comprehension outcomes for the three sources, F(1.74, 185.83) ¼6.31, p¼.004, partial g2¼.06 17 4 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'result'}, 'ROOT': {'showed'}, 'advmod': {'significantly'}, 'amod': {'different', 'partial'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'dobj': {'outcomes'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'pobj': {'sources'}, 'punct': {',', 'g2¼.06', ')'}, 'appos': {'F(1.74', '¼6.31'}, 'nmod': {'185.83'}, 'conj': {'p¼.004'}} Medium High Low
3404 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Post hoc pair-wise comparisons with Bonferroni correction of level of significance for multiple comparisons (corrected a¼.017) showed that performance on text-only questions ( M¼.82,SD¼.24) was significantly higher than performance on text-visual questions ( M¼.71,SD¼.20), t(107)¼3.82, p<.001, Cohen ’s d¼.37 39 11 {'VERB': 3, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 13, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [VERB, X, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PART, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'performance', 'Post'}, 'advmod': {'hoc', 'significantly'}, 'amod': {'only', 'pair', 'wise', 'visual', 'multiple'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', 't(107)¼3.82', '(', ',', 'a¼.017'}, 'dobj': {'comparisons'}, 'prep': {'than', 'on', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'compound': {'Bonferroni'}, 'pobj': {'significance', 'correction', 'questions', 'performance', 'level', 'comparisons'}, 'acl': {'corrected'}, 'ROOT': {'showed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'appos': {'M¼.71,SD¼.20', 'p<.001', 'M¼.82,SD¼.24'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'higher'}, 'poss': {'Cohen'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'dep': {'d¼.37'}} Long High Medium
3405 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration No statistically significant differences were found between performance on visual-only (M¼.77,SD¼.30) and text-only questions [ t(107)¼/C0 1.36, p¼.177] or between visual-only and text-visual questions [ t(107)¼2.26, p¼.026] 27 11 {'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 12, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'det': {'No'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'statistically'}, 'amod': {'only', 'significant', 'visual'}, 'nsubjpass': {'differences'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'prep': {'on', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'t(107)¼2.26', 'performance', 'questions', 'M¼.77,SD¼.30'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ']', ',', '['}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'npadvmod': {'p¼.026', 'text'}, 'conj': {'p¼.177', 'questions', 'between'}, 'appos': {'t(107)¼/C0'}, 'nummod': {'1.36'}} Long High Low
3406 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration It should be noted that our analysis could be underpowered for detecting a significant difference with a small effect size, as we observed in thecase of visual-only and text-visual questions (Cohen ’sd¼.22) 32 17 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'analysis', 'It'}, 'aux': {'should', 'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'noted'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'ccomp': {'underpowered'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'with', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'detecting'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'visual', 'significant', 'small'}, 'dobj': {'difference'}, 'compound': {'effect'}, 'pobj': {'thecase', 'size', 'questions'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'advcl': {'observed'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'nmod': {'Cohen'}, 'appos': {'sd¼.22'}} Long High High
3407 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Nonetheless, these results deviated from our expectations that higher comprehension scores would result for the text-visual questionsand lower scores would likely occur for the visual-only questions 26 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'likely', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'scores', 'results'}, 'acl': {'deviated'}, 'prep': {'for', 'from'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'questions', 'expectations'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'only', 'higher', 'lower', 'visual'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'relcl': {'result'}, 'npadvmod': {'questionsand', 'text'}, 'ROOT': {'occur'}} Long High Medium
3408 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Research Question 3: Comprehension Performance by Medium The third research question guiding this investigation focused on the effects of medium on the undergraduate students ’comprehension performance for multimodal texts on the topics of wea- ther and soil 37 14 {'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Comprehension', 'comprehension', 'research', 'Research'}, 'ROOT': {'Question', 'focused'}, 'nummod': {'3'}, 'punct': {'’', ':'}, 'appos': {'Performance'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'texts', 'effects', 'medium', 'Medium', 'performance', 'ther', 'topics'}, 'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'multimodal', 'third', 'wea-'}, 'nsubj': {'question'}, 'acl': {'guiding'}, 'dobj': {'investigation'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'soil'}} Long High Low
3409 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We first analyzed students ’overall comprehension performance by medium (see Table 3 ) 13 4 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'advmod': {'first'}, 'ROOT': {'analyzed'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'overall'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'Table'}, 'prep': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'medium'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'nummod': {'3'}} Medium High Low
3410 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration When total comprehension score was the outcome measure, students performed signifi- cantly better when they read in print ( M¼13.93, SD¼2.54) than digitally ( M¼12.07, SD¼3.03), t(53)¼3.49, p<.001, Cohen ’sd¼.48 30 7 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 11, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN] {'advmod': {'when', 'When', 'cantly', 'better', 'digitally'}, 'amod': {'total'}, 'compound': {'outcome', 'comprehension'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'score', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'was', 'read'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'measure'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', 'SD¼2.54', ','}, 'ROOT': {'performed'}, 'dobj': {'signifi-'}, 'prep': {'than', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'print', 'M¼12.07'}, 'npadvmod': {'M¼13.93', 'SD¼3.03'}, 'nmod': {'t(53)¼3.49', 'Cohen'}, 'appos': {'p<.001'}, 'dep': {'sd¼.48'}} Long High High
3411 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This result parallels the outcomes from prior investigations (Delgado & Salmer /C19on,2021 ; Mangen et al., 2013 ; Singer Trakhman et al., 2019 ) 24 3 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 11, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'result'}, 'ROOT': {'parallels', 'Mangen'}, 'dobj': {'outcomes'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'pobj': {'investigations'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ',', ';', '/C19on,2021'}, 'appos': {'Trakhman', 'al', '.', 'Delgado'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Salmer', '.'}, 'npadvmod': {'2013', '2019', 'et'}, 'compound': {'Singer', 'et'}} Long Low Low
3412 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Next, we examined medium differences for performance on comprehending the main ideas asopposed to more specific content in the multimodal texts 21 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Next', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'amod': {'medium', 'multimodal', 'specific', 'main'}, 'dobj': {'ideas', 'differences'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'texts', 'content'}, 'pcomp': {'comprehending'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'asopposed'}} Long High Low
3413 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As in our prior studies (Singer &Alexander, 2017a ,2017b ), medium had no effect on students ’ability to identify the main ideas of each text, t(53)¼.26,p¼.799 26 10 {'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADP, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN] {'prep': {'on', 'As', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'main', 'prior'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'students', 'text'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '’'}, 'appos': {'2017b', 't(53)¼.26,p¼.799', 'Singer'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017a'}, 'nsubj': {'medium'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'each'}, 'dobj': {'ideas', 'effect', 'ability'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'identify'}} Long High Low
3414 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This result held consistent even when we controlled for demon- strated topic knowledge, which was significantly correlated with main idea comprehension, byusing a mixed-effects model with medium as the fixed-effect factor, demonstrated topic know-ledge as a covariate, and participant ID as a random effect, F(1, 52) ¼.04,p¼.843 47 17 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 15, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'result', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'held'}, 'dobj': {'ledge', 'model', 'consistent'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'even', 'significantly'}, 'advcl': {'byusing', 'controlled'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'with'}, 'amod': {'main', 'demon-', 'mixed', 'random', 'participant', 'covariate', 'strated', 'fixed'}, 'compound': {'know', 'topic', 'effect', 'effects', 'idea'}, 'pobj': {'ID', 'comprehension', 'effect', 'knowledge', 'medium', 'factor'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'relcl': {'correlated'}, 'conj': {'demonstrated', '¼.04,p¼.843'}, 'nmod': {'topic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'F(1', '52'}} Long High Medium
3415 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In contrast, medium proved influential when students answered the four short-answer questions addressing more detailed content 16 5 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NUM, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'In'}, 'pobj': {'contrast'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'medium', 'short', 'detailed'}, 'ROOT': {'proved'}, 'oprd': {'influential'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'advcl': {'answered'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'compound': {'answer'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'questions'}, 'acl': {'addressing'}} Medium High Medium
3416 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For those detail questions their performance was significantly better in the print ( M¼12.15, SD¼2.33) than in the digital condition ( M¼10.31, SD¼2.90), t(53)¼3.63,p <.001, Cohen ’sd¼.49 27 9 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 6, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, X, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'than', 'For', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'compound': {'detail'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'print', 'questions'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'performance'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'significantly'}, 'acomp': {'better'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', '.001'}, 'appos': {'SD¼2.90', 'M¼10.31', 'SD¼2.33', 't(53)¼3.63,p', 'M¼12.15'}, 'amod': {'digital'}, 'dep': {'sd¼.49', '<'}, 'nmod': {'Cohen'}} Long High Low
3417 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This superiority of comprehension when reading in the print comparedTHE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 611 15 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NUM] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'superiority'}, 'prep': {'OF', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'EDUCATION', 'print', 'comprehension'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}, 'appos': {'comparedTHE', 'JOURNAL'}, 'compound': {'EXPERIMENTAL'}, 'nummod': {'611'}} Medium High Medium
3418 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration to the digital medium for understanding of particulars in the reading again echoes findings in previous studies (Singer Trakhman et al., 2018 ) 23 8 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'previous'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'reading', 'understanding', 'medium', 'particulars'}, 'advmod': {'again'}, 'ROOT': {'echoes'}, 'dobj': {'findings'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'Singer', 'et'}, 'appos': {'Trakhman', '2018', 'al'}, 'conj': {'.'}} Long High Low
3419 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Finally, we investigated whether students ’performance for items based on information in the text only, the visuals only, or referenced in both would differ by medium 26 14 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'investigated'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'visuals'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'information', 'items', 'medium', 'both', 'text'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'csubj': {'referenced'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'conj': {'differ'}} Long High Medium
3420 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The results showed that students per- formed better in the print than the digital condition when responding to questions that relied oninformation conveyed in visuals only [ t(53)¼3.70, p<.001, Cohen ’sd¼.50] or in both the text and the visuals [ t(53)¼3.13, p¼.003, Cohen ’sd¼.43] 44 17 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, X, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'results', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'showed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'appos': {'per-', 'p¼.003', 't(53)¼3.13', 'sd¼.43', 'sd¼.50'}, 'ccomp': {'formed'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'when', 'better'}, 'prep': {'than', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'visuals', 'questions', 'text', 'print'}, 'amod': {'digital'}, 'advcl': {'responding'}, 'relcl': {'relied'}, 'dobj': {'oninformation'}, 'acl': {'conveyed'}, 'punct': {',', '[', ']', '’'}, 'nmod': {'p<.001', 'Cohen', 't(53)¼3.70'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'visuals', 'in'}, 'preconj': {'both'}} Long High High
3421 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, when information was found only in the text, the comprehension performance between mediums was not significantly different,t(53)¼1.87, p¼.067 19 10 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'when', 'However', 'significantly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'information'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'found'}, 'prep': {'between', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'mediums', 'text'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'nsubj': {'performance'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'amod': {'different'}, 'attr': {'t(53)¼1.87'}, 'appos': {'p¼.067'}} Medium High Medium
3422 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration It should be noted that the mean score for text-only questions was higher in the print ( M¼3.44, SD¼.89) than in the digital condition ( M¼3.07, SD¼.1.03; see Table 3 ), but our relatively small sample size may have limited the statistical power to detect a significant differencew it hasm al le ref f ec ts iz e( Co hen ’sd¼.25) 61 22 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PROPN': 11, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'It'}, 'aux': {'should', 'may', 'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'noted', 'ref'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'only', 'statistical', 'digital', 'significant', 'mean', 'small'}, 'nsubj': {'M¼3.07', 'score', 'le', 'ec', 'it', 'size'}, 'prep': {'than', 'for', 'iz', 'in'}, 'npadvmod': {'SD¼.1.03', 'text'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'e', 'questions', 'print', 'sd¼.25'}, 'ccomp': {'ts', 'was'}, 'acomp': {'higher'}, 'appos': {'M¼3.44', 'SD¼.89'}, 'acl': {'detect', 'see'}, 'dobj': {'differencew', 'power', 'Table'}, 'nummod': {'3'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'advmod': {'relatively'}, 'compound': {'sample', 'al', 'f'}, 'conj': {'limited'}, 'relcl': {'hasm'}, 'nmod': {'Co', 'hen'}} Long High Medium
3423 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Nevertheless, the results of these analyses showed that the advantage in comprehension for reading in print (versus digitally) was more pronounced when questions involved content conveyed in the visuals 29 14 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, X, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'Nevertheless', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'results', 'questions', 'advantage'}, 'prep': {'for', 'versus', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'print', 'analyses', 'visuals', 'comprehension'}, 'ROOT': {'showed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'pcomp': {'reading', 'digitally'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'pronounced'}, 'acl': {'involved'}, 'dobj': {'content'}, 'advcl': {'conveyed'}} Long High High
3424 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As noted, we found significant correlations between topic measures (self-reported and demon- strated topic knowledge) and visual-only items 18 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'noted'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'amod': {'visual', 'only', 'significant', 'reported'}, 'dobj': {'correlations'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'compound': {'topic'}, 'pobj': {'measures'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'items', 'demon-', 'strated'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}} Medium High Medium
3425 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration To rule out the potential influence of prior know-ledge in this instance, we created two separate mixed-effects models to control for demonstratedand self-reported topic knowledge respectively 26 10 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NUM, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV] {'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'rule'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'mixed', 'separate', 'potential', 'prior', 'reported'}, 'dobj': {'influence', 'knowledge', 'models'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'effects', 'topic', 'know'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'ledge', 'instance', 'demonstratedand'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'created'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'relcl': {'control'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'advmod': {'respectively'}} Long High Low
3426 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In both models, medium was entered as the fixed-effect factor, visual-only question response as the dependent variable, and participant ID enteredas a random-effect factor 24 10 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PROPN, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'In'}, 'det': {'a', 'both', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'models', 'variable', 'factor'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'medium'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'entered'}, 'amod': {'only', 'random', 'participant', 'dependent', 'visual', 'fixed'}, 'compound': {'effect', 'question'}, 'appos': {'response'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'ID'}, 'conj': {'enteredas'}, 'dobj': {'factor'}} Long High Low
3427 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Demonstrated topic knowledge was entered as a covariate in the firstmodel and self-reported topic knowledge in the second 18 8 {'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ] {'nsubjpass': {'Demonstrated'}, 'compound': {'topic'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'entered'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'covariate', 'second'}, 'amod': {'firstmodel'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'conj': {'reported'}} Medium High Low
3428 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The results showed that when demon-strated topic knowledge was controlled, the medium difference remained significant, F(1, 52) ¼ 13.37, p¼.001, partialg 2¼.21, with better performance in the print condition on visual-only items 32 10 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'difference', 'results'}, 'ROOT': {'showed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'npadvmod': {'¼', 'demon'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')'}, 'amod': {'only', 'strated', 'medium', 'better', 'visual'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'print', 'partialg'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advcl': {'controlled'}, 'ccomp': {'remained'}, 'acomp': {'significant'}, 'prep': {'on', 'F(1', 'with', 'in'}, 'appos': {'52'}, 'nummod': {'13.37'}, 'conj': {'p¼.001', '2¼.21'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'performance', 'items'}} Long High High
3429 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This advantage of reading in print remained significant when self-reported topic knowledgewas controlled, F(1, 52) ¼9.43, p¼.003, partialg 2¼.15 19 4 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 4} [DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN] {'det': {'This'}, 'nsubj': {'advantage'}, 'prep': {'F(1', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'pobj': {'print'}, 'ROOT': {'remained'}, 'acomp': {'significant'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', '¼9.43'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')'}, 'amod': {'reported'}, 'nsubjpass': {'topic'}, 'auxpass': {'knowledgewas'}, 'advcl': {'controlled'}, 'appos': {'2¼.15', '52', 'p¼.003', 'partialg'}} Medium High Medium
3430 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Finally, we examined medium effect on text-visual questions with adjustment of self-reported topic knowledge 14 4 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'amod': {'reported', 'medium', 'visual'}, 'dobj': {'effect'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'text'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'questions', 'adjustment'}, 'compound': {'topic'}} Medium High Low
3431 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We similarly tested a mixed-effects model, with medium as the fixed-effect variable, text-visual question response as the dependent variable, participant ID as a random-effect factor, and self-reported topic know-ledge as a covariate 32 12 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'advmod': {'similarly'}, 'ROOT': {'tested'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'mixed', 'random', 'participant', 'variable', 'dependent', 'visual', 'fixed', 'reported'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'know', 'effects', 'effect', 'question'}, 'dobj': {'model'}, 'prep': {'with', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'ID', 'response', 'covariate', 'medium', 'factor'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'text'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'topic'}, 'conj': {'ledge'}} Long High Low
3432 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The superiority of print over digital condition in comprehending informationdelivered through both text and visual modalities remained significant, F(1, 52) ¼6.21, p¼.016, partialg 2¼.11 24 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'PROPN': 3} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM] {'det': {'both', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'superiority'}, 'prep': {'in', 'through', 'of', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'print', 'comprehending', 'text'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'visual'}, 'acl': {'informationdelivered'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'modalities'}, 'ROOT': {'remained'}, 'acomp': {'significant'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'dep': {'F(1'}, 'nummod': {'52', '2¼.11'}, 'attr': {'¼6.21'}, 'appos': {'p¼.016', 'partialg'}} Long High Low
3433 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Research Question 4: Medium Differences for Calibration for Overall Comprehension The final research question addressed the effect of medium on students ’calibration of their read- ing performance 27 8 {'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'Overall', 'research', 'Medium', 'Research'}, 'ROOT': {'Question', 'addressed'}, 'nummod': {'4'}, 'punct': {'’', ':'}, 'appos': {'Differences'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'Comprehension', 'Calibration', 'medium', 'performance'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'ing', 'final'}, 'nsubj': {'question'}, 'dobj': {'calibration', 'effect'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nmod': {'read-'}} Long High Low
3434 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration To investigate this question, we ran a paired-sample t-test to compareTable 3 12 5 {'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NUM] {'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'investigate', 'compareTable'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'test', 'question', '3'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'ran'}, 'amod': {'paired'}, 'compound': {'sample', 't'}} Medium High Low
3435 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration MSD Range MSD Range Total comprehension 17 13.93 2.54 8 –17 12.07 3.03 5 –17 Main idea 2 1.78 0.42 1 –2 1.76 0.43 1 –2 Details 15 12.15 2.33 7 –15 10.31 2.90 4 –15 Text-only 4 3.44 0.88 1 –4 3.07 1.03 0 –4 Visual-only 4 3.43 1.06 0 –4 2.70 1.25 0 –4 TextþVisual 7 5.37 1.14 3 –7 4.54 1.51 1 –7 Comprehension calibration 100 31.11 20.99 1.18 –80.00 21.57 18.96 0.71 –74.12 Judgment of performance 100 52.56 21.96 6 –100 55.96 22.42 2 –100612L.M 89 3 {'PROPN': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 3, 'NUM': 72, 'PUNCT': 17, 'SYM': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, SYM, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, NUM, NUM, ...] {'compound': {'Range', 'MSD', 'Comprehension', '22.42', '0.88'}, 'nmod': {'Text', 'Range'}, 'amod': {'Total', 'Main'}, 'ROOT': {'comprehension'}, 'nummod': {'4.54', '1', '2.33', '1.18', '0.71', '31.11', '2', '74.12', '2.70', '2.90', '12.15', '3.03', '15', '17', '12.07', '3', '4', '21.57', '1.76', '100', '1.51', '55.96', '3.43', '1.06', '5.37', '21.96', '52.56', '0', '3.44', '7'}, 'appos': {'1.14', '100612L.M', '4', '13.93', 'idea', '8', '3.07', 'calibration', 'Visual', 'Judgment', '5', '10.31', 'TextþVisual', '17', '1.03', '100', 'Details'}, 'prep': {'2', '2.54', '0.42', 'of', '15'}, 'punct': {'–', '-', '7'}, 'npadvmod': {'0.43', '20.99', '80.00', '18.96', '1.78', '6', '1.25', '7'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'pobj': {'performance'}} Long Low Low
3436 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For this analysis, lower scores were indi- cative of less discrepancy between predicted and actual performance and thus better calibration.Thus, when it came to overall comprehension, results revealed that students were significantlybetter calibrated when they read digitally ( M¼21.57, SD¼18.96) than when they read in print (M¼31.11, SD¼20.99), t(53)¼2.97, p¼.004, Cohen ’sd¼.41 52 21 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 14, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'than', 'For', 'between'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'discrepancy', 'comprehension', 'analysis', 'performance', 'print'}, 'punct': {'’', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'amod': {'predicted', 'lower', 'indi-', 'overall', 'less', 'better'}, 'nsubj': {'results', 'they', 'students', 'scores', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'revealed', 'were'}, 'attr': {'cative'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'t(53)¼2.97', 'calibration', 'p¼.004', 'actual'}, 'advmod': {'Thus', 'digitally', 'when', 'thus'}, 'advcl': {'read', 'came'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'npadvmod': {'SD¼20.99', 'significantlybetter', 'SD¼18.96'}, 'ccomp': {'calibrated'}, 'nmod': {'M¼21.57', 'Cohen'}, 'pcomp': {'read'}, 'appos': {'M¼31.11'}, 'dobj': {'sd¼.41'}} Long High High
3437 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This outcome did not conform to our hypothesis that students would be better calibrated when reading multimodal texts in printthan digitally 21 10 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, ADV] {'det': {'This'}, 'nsubj': {'outcome'}, 'aux': {'did', 'would'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'conform'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'printthan', 'hypothesis'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'digitally', 'when', 'better'}, 'acl': {'calibrated'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}, 'amod': {'multimodal'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}} Long High High
3438 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In interpreting this result, we turned to students ’judgment of performance (JOP) and their actual comprehension performance (RCT) scores, both denoted in percentages (see Table 2 ) 27 10 {'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'interpreting'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'dobj': {'judgment', 'result', 'Table'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'turned'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'performance', 'percentages'}, 'appos': {'JOP', 'scores', 'both'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'actual'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'conj': {'performance'}, 'nmod': {'RCT'}, 'acl': {'denoted'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'nummod': {'2'}} Long High Low
3439 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration By comparing their JOP and RCT scores, we found that while students generally tended to underesti-mate their performance across mediums, their prediction of their comprehension performance was slightly lower when they read the texts in print (M JOP¼52.56, SD¼21.96) than digitally (MJOP¼55.96, SD¼22.42), although this difference was not statistically significant [ t(53)¼1.32, p¼.194] 53 22 {'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 6, 'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 13, 'SCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, VERB, PRON, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'By', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'than', 'across'}, 'pcomp': {'digitally', 'comparing'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nmod': {'JOP'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'RCT'}, 'dobj': {'scores', 'performance', 'texts'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ']', ',', '['}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'students', 'difference', 'prediction', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'although', 'that', 'while'}, 'advmod': {'slightly', 'when', 'generally', 'statistically'}, 'advcl': {'tended', 'read', 'was'}, 'npadvmod': {'MJOP¼55.96', 'underesti', 'p¼.194'}, 'ccomp': {'was', 'mate'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'print', 'mediums'}, 'compound': {'M', 'comprehension'}, 'acomp': {'lower'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'appos': {'JOP¼52.56', 'SD¼22.42', 'SD¼21.96'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'amod': {'significant'}, 'attr': {'t(53)¼1.32'}} Long High High
3440 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In contrast, their actual comprehension performance for the print condition ( MRCT¼ 81.92, SD¼14.94) was significantly higher than for the digital condition ( MRCT¼71.02, SD¼17.84), t(53)¼3.49, p<.001 27 8 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'than', 'for', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'contrast'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'actual'}, 'compound': {'print', 'comprehension'}, 'nsubj': {'performance'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'MRCT¼71.02', 'MRCT¼', 'SD¼14.94', 't(53)¼3.49'}, 'nummod': {'81.92'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'significantly'}, 'acomp': {'higher'}, 'npadvmod': {'SD¼17.84', 'p<.001'}} Long High Low
3441 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration As a result, the discrepancy between predicted (JOP) and observed (RCT) values of compre- hension performance was higher and thus the calibration accuracy was poorer in the print condi- tion, as compared to the digital condition, which was not expected 40 19 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB] {'prep': {'As', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'between'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'tion', 'predicted', 'performance', 'result'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'discrepancy', 'accuracy'}, 'appos': {'JOP'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'observed', 'was'}, 'nmod': {'RCT'}, 'dobj': {'values'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'compre-'}, 'compound': {'print', 'calibration', 'hension', 'condi-'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'higher', 'poorer'}, 'advmod': {'thus'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'compared'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'expected'}} Long High Medium
3442 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Based on ratings, it appears that students were generally more conservative judges of their performance when reading multi-modal texts in print than digitally than has been the case 28 14 {'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'DET': 1} [VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADV, SCONJ, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'Based', 'in', 'of', 'than'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'print', 'ratings'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'appears'}, 'mark': {'than', 'that'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'generally', 'more'}, 'amod': {'modal', '-', 'multi', 'conservative'}, 'attr': {'case', 'judges'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'pcomp': {'digitally'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'conj': {'been'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High High
3443 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This pattern relates to yet anotherunexpected outcome; the better comprehenders in this study were less well calibrated.Comprehension calibration accuracy was significantly positively correlated with overall compre-hension ( r¼.42,p<.001) and comprehension of text details ( r¼.42,p<.001) 35 13 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'det': {'this', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'comprehenders', 'pattern'}, 'ROOT': {'correlated', 'relates'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'advmod': {'significantly', 'yet', 'well', 'less', 'positively'}, 'amod': {'anotherunexpected', 'overall', 'better'}, 'dobj': {'outcome'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', '.', ')'}, 'pobj': {'compre', '-', 'details', 'hension', 'study'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'calibrated'}, 'compound': {'Comprehension', 'calibration', 'text'}, 'nsubjpass': {'accuracy'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'appos': {'r¼.42,p<.001'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'comprehension'}} Long High Low
3444 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration When exam- ined by source of information, comprehension calibration was associated with responses tovisual-only items ( r¼.30,p¼.002) and text-visual items ( r¼.42,p<.001), but not with text- only items ( r¼.13,p¼.188) 30 11 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 11, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'advcl': {'exam-'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'ined'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'items', 'source', 'information'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'nsubjpass': {'calibration'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'associated'}, 'nmod': {'responses'}, 'amod': {'only', 'tovisual', 'visual'}, 'appos': {'r¼.42,p<.001', 'r¼.13,p¼.188', 'r¼.30,p¼.002'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'conj': {'items', 'with'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'dep': {'text-'}} Long High Medium
3445 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration [It should be remembered that the higher the calibration score the less accurate the accuracy.] To further analyze the role of medium in students ’calibration, we categorized their self-ratings of comprehension performance into three categories: underestimation (i.e., self-judgment morethan 3 percentage points below actual performance), accurate (i.e., self-judgment within 3 per-centage points of actual performance), and overestimation (i.e., self-judgment more than 3 per-centage points above actual performance) 67 28 {'X': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 30, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 22, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 11, 'NUM': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [X, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, DET, ADV, ADJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NUM, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'dep': {'['}, 'nsubjpass': {'It'}, 'aux': {'should', 'To'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'remembered', 'categorized'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'further', 'i.e.', 'less', 'the'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'more', 'accurate', 'actual'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'comprehension', 'percentage', 'calibration', 'self', 'judgment'}, 'ccomp': {'score'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'ratings', 'accuracy'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', '.', ':', ')', '(', ']', ','}, 'advcl': {'analyze'}, 'prep': {'within', 'below', 'in', 'into', 'above', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'points', 'medium', 'calibration', 'performance', 'categories', 'centage'}, 'nmod': {'students', 'per'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nummod': {'three', '3'}, 'appos': {'underestimation', 'judgment', 'morethan', 'points'}, 'npadvmod': {'points'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'overestimation'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}} Long High Medium
3446 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Specifically, only 7.4% ( n¼4) of the students were classi- fied as accurately calibrating their performance in the print condition and 9.3% ( n¼5) in the digital condition 28 11 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, VERB, ADP, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'accurately', 'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nummod': {'7.4', '9.3'}, 'nsubj': {'%'}, 'appos': {'n¼5', 'n¼4'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'condition'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'classi-'}, 'ROOT': {'fied'}, 'pcomp': {'calibrating'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'performance'}, 'compound': {'print'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'%'}, 'amod': {'digital'}} Long High Low
3447 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration There were appreciably more students who underestimated their performancewhen reading in print (83.3%, n¼45) than when reading digitally (64.8%, n¼35) 20 8 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, SCONJ, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'digitally', 'when', 'appreciably'}, 'amod': {'performancewhen', 'more'}, 'attr': {'students'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'underestimated'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'reading'}, 'prep': {'than', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'print'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nummod': {'64.8', '83.3'}, 'appos': {'%', 'n¼35', 'n¼45'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'npadvmod': {'%'}} Long High Medium
3448 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Conversely, more students overestimated their performance in the digital (25.9%, n¼14) than in the print (9.3%, n¼5) condition 18 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Conversely'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'more'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'overestimated'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'performance'}, 'prep': {'than', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'digital', 'print'}, 'nummod': {'9.3', '25.9'}, 'npadvmod': {'%'}, 'appos': {'condition', 'n¼5', 'n¼14'}, 'nmod': {'%'}} Medium High Low
3449 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Conclusions and Implications For this investigation, our goals were to broaden our program of research into the effects of medium on comprehension to explore whether processing multimodal texts changed outcomesthat have consistently shown print to be preferable to digital texts 40 18 {'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'dep': {'Conclusions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Implications'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'into', 'of', 'For'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'texts', 'comprehension', 'investigation', 'effects', 'medium', 'research'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubj': {'goals', 'outcomesthat'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'broaden'}, 'dobj': {'program', 'print', 'texts'}, 'advcl': {'explore', 'shown'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'pcomp': {'processing'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'multimodal'}, 'ccomp': {'changed'}, 'advmod': {'consistently'}, 'acomp': {'preferable'}} Long High Medium
3450 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We also wanted to expand ourexploration of students ’calibration accuracy, which has been tied to self-regulatory behaviors and performance outcomes (Bol et al., 2005 ) 25 9 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'wanted'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'expand'}, 'dobj': {'ourexploration'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'compound': {'performance', 'calibration'}, 'pobj': {'behaviors', 'accuracy'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'tied'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'al', '.', 'et'}, 'amod': {'regulatory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'outcomes'}, 'appos': {'Bol', '2005'}} Long High Low
3451 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Specifically, we gauged the accuracy of undergraduates ’ judgments of topic knowledge about weather and soil against the level of topic knowledge theydemonstrated on the pre-reading assessment 27 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'gauged'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'accuracy', 'judgments'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'of', 'against'}, 'pobj': {'undergraduates', 'weather', 'knowledge', 'assessment', 'level'}, 'compound': {'topic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'soil'}, 'acl': {'theydemonstrated'}, 'amod': {'reading', 'pre', '-'}} Long High Low
3452 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In addition, we assessed the accuracy of students ’ judgments about how well they performed on the post-reading comprehension measures for theTHE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 613 27 12 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, ADV, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NUM] {'prep': {'OF', 'on', 'for', 'of', 'about', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'measures', 'students', 'addition', 'EDUCATION', 'JOURNAL'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'assessed'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'accuracy', 'judgments'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'how'}, 'pcomp': {'performed'}, 'amod': {'reading', '-', 'post'}, 'compound': {'EXPERIMENTAL', 'theTHE', 'comprehension'}, 'nummod': {'613'}} Long High Medium
3453 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration multimodal weather and soil texts read in print and digitally against their actual performance on those measures 17 7 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'amod': {'multimodal', 'actual'}, 'nsubj': {'weather'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'soil'}, 'conj': {'texts'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'prep': {'on', 'against', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'print', 'measures'}, 'advmod': {'digitally'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'det': {'those'}} Medium High Low
3454 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Before we consider the implications that arose from this investigation, we want to acknowledge certain delimitations and limitations 18 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Before'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'consider'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'implications', 'delimitations'}, 'relcl': {'arose'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pobj': {'investigation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'acknowledge'}, 'amod': {'certain'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'limitations'}} Medium High Medium
3455 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Delimitations and Limitations The most evident delimitation of the current study rests on our decision to use naturally-occur- ring excerpts from an introductory geology textbook without any manipulations 28 12 {'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'X': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, X, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Delimitations'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Limitations'}, 'det': {'any', 'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'naturally', 'most'}, 'amod': {'introductory', 'evident', 'current'}, 'appos': {'delimitation'}, 'prep': {'on', 'without', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'textbook', 'manipulations', 'decision', 'study'}, 'ROOT': {'rests'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'use'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'dep': {'occur-'}, 'compound': {'ring', 'geology'}, 'dobj': {'excerpts'}} Long High Low
3456 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration There are evi- dent costs that derive from this decision, most notably the lack of strict controls with regard to the precise characteristics of the visuals and their positioning relative to any associated textualcontent that typifies the multimodal literature 39 19 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'compound': {'evi-', 'dent'}, 'attr': {'costs'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'derive', 'typifies'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'any', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'decision', 'characteristics', 'controls', 'regard', 'textualcontent'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'most', 'notably'}, 'appos': {'lack'}, 'amod': {'associated', 'precise', 'multimodal', 'relative', 'strict'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'positioning'}, 'dobj': {'literature'}} Long High Low
3457 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, it was our contention that the benefitsof exploring college students ’processing of texts that are more realistic than the very short pas- sages with carefully drawn and positioned visuals common in the multimodal literature was worth the costs 39 19 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'very', 'carefully', 'However', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'processing', 'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'attr': {'contention'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'benefitsof'}, 'acl': {'exploring'}, 'compound': {'college'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'prep': {'with', 'than', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'sages', 'literature', 'visuals', 'texts'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'realistic', 'worth'}, 'amod': {'drawn', 'multimodal', 'short', 'pas-', 'common'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'positioned'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'npadvmod': {'costs'}} Long High Medium
3458 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration What we also acknowledge as a cost of this more naturalistic approach is our inability to monitor students ’movements within the excerpts within the text and visuals and between these multimodal components 32 19 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'dobj': {'students', 'What', 'movements'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'more'}, 'csubj': {'acknowledge'}, 'prep': {'as', 'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'components', 'excerpts', 'approach', 'text', 'cost'}, 'amod': {'naturalistic', 'multimodal'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'attr': {'inability'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'monitor'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'visuals', 'between'}} Long High Low
3459 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Finally, we recognize that our decision to continue toinvestigate comprehension of multimodal and multiple medium texts among college students as delimitation 21 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'recognize'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'dobj': {'decision', 'comprehension'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'continue'}, 'compound': {'toinvestigate', 'college'}, 'prep': {'as', 'among', 'of'}, 'amod': {'medium', 'multimodal'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'multiple'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'texts', 'delimitation'}} Long High Medium
3460 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Yet, we wanted to explore the nature of comprehension and calibration with these demanding multimodal texts read on paper and on screen for mature, capable readers beforeturning to younger, less experienced, and potentially less skilled text processers 37 16 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'potentially', 'less', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'wanted'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'explore'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'nature', 'processers'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'screen', 'texts', 'comprehension', 'paper', 'readers'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'on', 'calibration', 'read'}, 'amod': {'capable', 'skilled', 'multimodal', 'younger', 'demanding', 'mature'}, 'acl': {'beforeturning'}, 'advcl': {'experienced'}, 'compound': {'text'}} Long High Low
3461 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration One limitation of this investigation that we had not anticipated was the small sample size that restricted our ability to appropriately judge comprehension of information delivered through textonly across the two mediums and difference between performance on visual-only and text-visualquestions 40 22 {'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nummod': {'two', 'One'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'limitation', 'we'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'of', 'across', 'between'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'investigation', 'information', 'visual', 'performance', 'mediums'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'ability', 'comprehension'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'restricted', 'anticipated'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'amod': {'small'}, 'compound': {'sample', 'text'}, 'attr': {'size'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'advmod': {'appropriately', 'only', 'textonly'}, 'acl': {'delivered', 'judge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'difference'}, 'punct': {'visualquestions', '-'}} Long High Medium
3462 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Although the number of participants was not large, we had determined via power ana- lysis that these numbers would be sufficient for the within-subjects analyses we had planned 28 17 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'number', 'numbers', 'we'}, 'prep': {'via', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'analyses', 'participants'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'large', 'sufficient'}, 'punct': {',', '-', 'ana-'}, 'aux': {'would', 'had'}, 'ROOT': {'determined', 'lysis'}, 'compound': {'subjects', 'within', 'power'}, 'relcl': {'planned', 'be'}} Long High Medium
3463 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, our power analysis was based on expected effects of moderate sizes (Cohen ’sd¼.50) 14 5 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'power'}, 'nsubjpass': {'analysis'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'based'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'amod': {'moderate', 'expected'}, 'pobj': {'effects', 'sizes'}, 'nmod': {'Cohen'}, 'appos': {'sd¼.50'}} Medium High Low
3464 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration When the observed effect size was small, as in the cases of text-only items across mediums(Cohen ’sd¼.25) and between visual-only and text-visual items (Cohen ’sd¼.22), we may not have been able to detect statistical significance due to low power 39 21 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 4, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'only'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'only', 'statistical', 'low', 'visual', 'observed'}, 'compound': {'effect'}, 'nsubj': {'size', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'able', 'small'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'as', 'across', 'due'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'items', 'sd¼.25', 'power'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'nmod': {'mediums(Cohen', 'Cohen'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'between'}, 'appos': {'sd¼.22'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'xcomp': {'detect'}, 'dobj': {'significance'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}} Long High Medium
3465 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Thus, the findings for these analyses on information sources must be interpreted with caution 14 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'findings'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'analyses', 'caution'}, 'compound': {'information'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'interpreted'}} Medium High Low
3466 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Key Outcomes What emerged as perhaps the most salient outcome of this multimodal, multiple mediums inves- tigation had to do with the continued primacy of reading in print versus reading digitally withregard to what students understood and recalled from naturally-occurring expository texts 42 18 {'PROPN': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 8, 'ADV': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADV, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'expository', 'Key'}, 'npadvmod': {'Outcomes'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'What', 'tigation'}, 'relcl': {'emerged'}, 'prep': {'versus', 'from', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'advmod': {'naturally', 'digitally', 'perhaps', 'most'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'continued', 'salient', 'multiple', 'occurring'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'texts', 'primacy', 'multimodal', 'print', 'outcome'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nmod': {'mediums'}, 'case': {'inves-'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'do'}, 'pcomp': {'reading', 'understood'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'withregard'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'recalled'}} Long High Low
3467 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration It was not just the fact that processing multimodal texts in print was statistically more advantageous than processing those same texts digitally 22 12 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2} [PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'digitally', 'statistically', 'more'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'attr': {'fact'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'processing'}, 'amod': {'same', 'multimodal'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'prep': {'than', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'print'}, 'acl': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'advantageous'}, 'pcomp': {'processing'}} Long High Medium
3468 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Rather, what we determined was that the contributorsof the print over digital advantage in this study were not entirely as expected either in terms ofstudents ’comprehension performance or their calibration accuracy 31 17 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'entirely', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'what'}, 'nsubj': {'print', 'contributorsof', 'we'}, 'csubj': {'determined'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'prep': {'in', 'over'}, 'amod': {'digital'}, 'pobj': {'study', 'advantage', 'terms'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'expected'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'nmod': {'ofstudents'}, 'compound': {'calibration', 'comprehension'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'accuracy'}} Long High High
3469 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For the comprehension ques- tions that differed by information source, for example, it was not the text-only items that pro- duced the effect for medium as we anticipated 28 15 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB] {'prep': {'for', 'For'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'information', 'ques-', 'comprehension'}, 'pobj': {'medium', 'tions', 'source', 'example'}, 'nsubj': {'items', 'it', 'that', 'we'}, 'relcl': {'differed', 'pro-'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'amod': {'only'}, 'ccomp': {'duced'}, 'dobj': {'effect'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'anticipated'}} Long High Medium
3470 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The advantage for reading in print over digitallyemerged with content found only in the visuals or in the visuals and the text 22 13 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'advantage'}, 'prep': {'over', 'for', 'with', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'print', 'visuals'}, 'acl': {'digitallyemerged'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'in'}, 'dobj': {'text'}} Long High Low
3471 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Whether a mediumeffect for text-only questions would have emerged with a larger sample size remains unresolved 16 8 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ] {'mark': {'Whether'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'nsubj': {'mediumeffect'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'only', 'larger'}, 'pobj': {'size', 'questions'}, 'aux': {'would', 'have'}, 'csubj': {'emerged'}, 'compound': {'sample'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'acomp': {'unresolved'}} Medium High Medium
3472 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration There were also unexpected results when it came to the two measures of calibration in this study —topic knowledge and comprehension calibration 22 12 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'also'}, 'amod': {'unexpected'}, 'attr': {'results'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'advcl': {'came'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pobj': {'measures', 'calibration', 'study'}, 'punct': {'—'}, 'compound': {'topic'}, 'appos': {'knowledge', 'calibration'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'comprehension'}} Long High Medium
3473 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration First, in both instances, students were far more likely to underestimate either what they knew about the topics or how well they answeredthe comprehension questions than we had observed in prior investigations 32 19 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'SCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADV, PRON, DET, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'either', 'well', 'far', 'First', 'more', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'about', 'in'}, 'det': {'answeredthe', 'both', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'investigations', 'topics', 'instances'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'underestimate'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'ccomp': {'knew'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'conj': {'questions'}, 'mark': {'than'}, 'advcl': {'observed'}, 'amod': {'prior'}} Long High High
3474 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Second, although we continue to find that students are not very effective judges of their existing knowledge nor their comprehension performance, they turned out to be more accurate in their judgments about614L.M 32 18 {'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'very', 'Second', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'although', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'continue'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'find'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'effective'}, 'attr': {'judges'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'judgments'}, 'cc': {'nor'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'conj': {'performance'}, 'ROOT': {'turned'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'acomp': {'accurate'}, 'appos': {'about614L.M'}} Long High High
3475 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This finding is antithetical to what we have reported in prior investigations (Singer & Alexander, 2017a ; Singer Trakhman et al., 2019 ) 23 7 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'This'}, 'nsubj': {'finding', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'antithetical'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'pcomp': {'reported'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'pobj': {'investigations'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2017a', 'al', '.', 'Singer'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Alexander'}, 'compound': {'Singer', 'et'}, 'dep': {'Trakhman'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}} Long High Low
3476 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Third, while calibration accuracy for topic knowledge was unrelated to comprehen- sion performance, the same was not true for calibration accuracy for comprehension perform- ance 25 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, AUX, PART, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Third'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'compound': {'comprehension', 'topic', 'comprehen-', 'sion', 'calibration', 'perform-'}, 'nsubj': {'same', 'accuracy'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'performance', 'ance', 'accuracy'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'true', 'unrelated'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Medium
3477 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Yet, what was counterintuitive about the significant correlation for comprehension calibration and comprehension performance was that the better comprehenders were more poorlycalibrated —not what would be expected from the literature on calibration (Dunlosky & Thiede, 2013 ; Gutierrez & Schraw, 2015 ; Nietfeld & Schraw, 2002 ) 47 19 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PART, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Yet', 'more'}, 'punct': {'—', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'what'}, 'csubj': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'counterintuitive'}, 'prep': {'for', 'about', 'on', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'better'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'calibration', 'correlation', 'literature'}, 'compound': {'comprehension'}, 'nmod': {'calibration'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Nietfeld', 'Thiede', 'Schraw', 'comprehension'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'comprehenders', 'what'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'were'}, 'ccomp': {'poorlycalibrated'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'parataxis': {'expected'}, 'appos': {'2013', '2015', 'Gutierrez', 'Dunlosky'}, 'npadvmod': {'2002'}} Long High Medium
3478 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In reflecting on these unexpected outcomes, we can forward several plausible explanations for their occurrence pertaining to underestimations of prior knowledge, awareness of text-processingdemands, text-visual contiguity issues, increased digital reading times, scrolling requirements, andconservative self-judgments 35 11 {'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 16, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'for', 'In'}, 'pcomp': {'pertaining', 'reflecting'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'unexpected', 'plausible', 'forward', 'visual', 'several', 'prior', 'scrolling'}, 'pobj': {'processingdemands', 'knowledge', 'underestimations', 'outcomes'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'requirements', 'occurrence', 'we'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'dobj': {'times', 'explanations', 'judgments'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'awareness', 'increased'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'self', 'contiguity', 'text'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'appos': {'issues'}, 'ROOT': {'andconservative'}} Long High Low
3479 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration From the outset of this study, when these undergraduates were askedto rate their knowledge of the study topics, it was evident that they felt they knew very little about weather and even less about soil 35 21 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'From', 'about', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'outset', 'weather', 'study', 'soil', 'topics'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'when', 'very', 'little', 'less', 'even'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'undergraduates', 'it'}, 'advcl': {'were'}, 'amod': {'askedto'}, 'attr': {'knowledge', 'rate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'study'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'felt', 'knew'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High High
3480 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, it is likely that their perceptions of low knowledge may have low-ered these undergraduates ’efficacy judgments about this reading task, which manifested in their judgments of performance underestimations 29 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'low'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'perceptions', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'ered', 'low'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'knowledge', 'underestimations', 'judgments'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'det': {'these', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'undergraduates', 'judgments'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'performance', 'efficacy'}, 'relcl': {'manifested'}} Long High Medium
3481 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration These initial concerns about the task were likely exacerbated when students began to read the excerpts, which were moderately long, somewhat technical, punctuated with terminology, and consisting of informative visuals 30 12 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'amod': {'initial', 'informative'}, 'nsubjpass': {'concerns'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'visuals', 'terminology'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'moderately', 'likely', 'somewhat', 'when'}, 'ROOT': {'exacerbated'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'which'}, 'advcl': {'began'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'dobj': {'excerpts'}, 'punct': {','}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'technical', 'long'}, 'acl': {'punctuated'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'consisting'}} Long High Medium
3482 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration What also helps to understand the current pattern of results that deviated from prior investigation was the way in which the text and related visuals were displayed particularly in the digital condition.W he nst udent sre a dth epr in te dd ocu ment ,t he ywer eabl et ose eth eent ir ep ag eo ft hes el a rg es iz ete xt - books 67 22 {'PRON': 8, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 14, 'X': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, PROPN, PRON, VERB, PROPN, PRON, NOUN, X, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'What', 'he', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'particularly'}, 'csubj': {'helps'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'understand'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'ocu'}, 'amod': {'related', 'digital', 'current', 'prior', 'dth', 'udent'}, 'dobj': {'eabl', 'pattern'}, 'prep': {'from', 'iz', 'in', 'nst', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'condition', 'results', 'investigation', 'sre', 'books', 'te'}, 'relcl': {'deviated', 'displayed'}, 'ROOT': {'s', 'eo', 'was', 't'}, 'attr': {'el', 'a', 'way'}, 'nsubjpass': {'text'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'visuals', 'ment'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.', 'ag'}, 'compound': {'eth', 'ete', 'ywer', 'ir', 'et', 'ep', 'W', 'ose', 'dd', 'xt'}, 'ccomp': {'he'}, 'appos': {'epr', 'ft', 'eent'}, 'nmod': {'rg'}, 'dep': {'es'}} Long High Low
3483 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Even when visuals were not placed in close proximity to the related text (Mayer, 2002;M a ye r& Fiorella, 2014), they typically appeared somewhere on the page or the facing page 31 14 {'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'somewhere', 'when', 'typically', 'Even'}, 'nsubjpass': {'visuals'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'placed'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in'}, 'amod': {'close', 'facing', 'related'}, 'pobj': {'page', 'proximity', 'text'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Mayer', '2014', '2002;M'}, 'compound': {'ye'}, 'npadvmod': {'page', 'r'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Fiorella'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'appeared'}} Long High Medium
3484 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The students in the digital condition, by contrast, could view only a portion of any page at a time 19 11 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'any'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'prep': {'by', 'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'digital'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'page', 'time', 'contrast'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ROOT': {'view'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'dobj': {'portion'}} Medium High Low
3485 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Therefore, this meant stu- dents often could not see a visual and related text on the same screen and were required to scroll back and forth between the two 29 19 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, NUM] {'advmod': {'often', 'Therefore', 'back'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'dents', 'this'}, 'amod': {'meant', 'same', 'visual'}, 'compound': {'stu-'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'required', 'related', 'forth'}, 'dobj': {'text'}, 'prep': {'on', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'two', 'screen'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'xcomp': {'scroll'}} Long High Low
3486 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Researchers have reported the detrimental effects of scrolling on comprehen-sion in the digital medium in general (Mangen et al., 2013;St øl ee tal 24 7 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'Researchers'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'general', 'detrimental'}, 'dobj': {'effects'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'scrolling'}, 'compound': {'øl', 'ee', 'comprehen'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ','}, 'pobj': {'medium', 'sion'}, 'appos': {'Mangen'}, 'npadvmod': {'tal', 'et'}, 'conj': {'al', '.'}, 'nummod': {'2013;St'}} Long High Low
3487 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Yet, in this instance, with the importance of text-visual integration heightened, the need for scrolling would likely be of more con-cern to students, leading to increased processing demands when reading digitally as well as increased interference in comprehension when visual content was the focus 44 22 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 9, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADV, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'Yet', 'likely', 'well', 'as', 'digitally'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'demands', 'instance', 'comprehension', 'students', 'cern', 'importance', 'scrolling'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'amod': {'increased', 'more', 'visual'}, 'nsubj': {'content', 'integration', 'need'}, 'relcl': {'heightened'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'con'}, 'advcl': {'reading', 'leading', 'was'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'conj': {'interference'}, 'attr': {'focus'}} Long High High
3488 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Support for the contentions of greater processing demands in the digital condition and con- comitant decrement in comprehension due to the lack of text-visual contiguity can be found intask performance data and students ’observed behaviors 35 14 {'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, X, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Support'}, 'prep': {'for', 'due', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'demands', 'contiguity', 'lack', 'comprehension', 'contentions'}, 'amod': {'intask', 'digital', 'decrement', 'greater', 'visual', 'observed'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'performance', 'con-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'students', 'comitant'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'punct': {'’', '-'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'oprd': {'behaviors', 'data'}} Long High Low
3489 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For instance, the surprising fact that reading times were longer in the digital condition than in the print condition in this investiga- tion—which has never occurred in our prior studies —seems evidence of increased task demands 36 18 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'than', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'studies', 'instance', 'tion', 'task'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'increased', 'surprising', 'investiga-', 'digital', 'prior'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'fact'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'evidence', 'times'}, 'acl': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'longer'}, 'compound': {'print'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'neg': {'never'}, 'relcl': {'occurred'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'ROOT': {'seems'}, 'ccomp': {'demands'}} Long High Medium
3490 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration There were also student behaviors that we observed during task performance that speak to thisoutcome 15 8 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'compound': {'task', 'student'}, 'attr': {'behaviors'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'relcl': {'observed', 'speak'}, 'prep': {'during', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'thisoutcome'}} Medium High Low
3491 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration For example, we witnessed students ’apparent frustration when required to scroll back and forth in the digital condition between text and visuals 22 10 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'between', 'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'example', 'text'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'witnessed'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'frustration'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'apparent'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'back'}, 'advcl': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'scroll'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'visuals', 'forth'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Medium
3492 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Not only did some students comment on this situation, but a few also requested permission to zoom out on the digital display so thatthey could view much more of each page 31 20 {'PART': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [PART, ADV, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'preconj': {'Not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'much'}, 'aux': {'did', 'could', 'to'}, 'det': {'this', 'some', 'a', 'each', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'few', 'thatthey'}, 'ROOT': {'comment'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'situation', 'page', 'display'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'requested'}, 'dobj': {'more', 'permission'}, 'acl': {'zoom'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'amod': {'digital'}, 'mark': {'so'}, 'advcl': {'view'}} Long High Medium
3493 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Despite the longer time students took when processingdigital texts in this study, their more conservative judgments of performance, and their apparentefforts to integrate textual and visual content, these mature readers still performed better in the print condition overall and for questions that referred to visual content 46 19 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 13, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'of', 'to', 'Despite', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'amod': {'longer', 'conservative', 'visual', 'textual', 'processingdigital', 'mature'}, 'pobj': {'condition', 'content', 'questions', 'performance', 'time', 'study'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that', 'readers'}, 'advcl': {'took', 'texts'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'overall', 'better', 'still', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'judgments'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'for', 'apparentefforts', 'visual'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'integrate'}, 'ROOT': {'performed'}, 'compound': {'print'}, 'relcl': {'referred'}} Long High High
3494 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We consider the implica- tions of this key finding for future research and for instructional practices 16 7 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'future', 'implica-', 'instructional', 'key'}, 'dobj': {'tions'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'finding', 'practices', 'research'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'for'}} Medium High Low
3495 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The overall text processing demands in this investigation may also have played a role in what we referred to as the counterintuitive finding for calibration accuracy 26 14 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'overall'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'counterintuitive', 'calibration', 'text'}, 'nsubj': {'demands', 'we'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'accuracy', 'finding', 'investigation', 'what'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'played'}, 'dobj': {'role'}, 'pcomp': {'referred'}} Long High Low
3496 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration The fact that the better comprehenders exhibited worse calibration accuracy was initially quite perplexing 14 5 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2} [DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'comprehenders', 'fact'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'worse', 'better'}, 'acl': {'exhibited'}, 'compound': {'calibration'}, 'dobj': {'accuracy'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'initially'}, 'acomp': {'perplexing'}} Medium High Medium
3497 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Nonetheless, we came to reconcile this outcome when we delved into the literature on variability in self-judg-ment and self-assessment accuracy (Le /C19on et al., 2021 ; Tirso et al., 2019 ; Urban & Urban, 2021 ).THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 615 41 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 14, 'NUM': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NUM] {'advmod': {'when', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';', '.THE'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'JOURNAL', 'came'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'reconcile', 'delved'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'.', 'outcome'}, 'prep': {'into', 'on', 'OF', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'EDUCATION', 'literature', 'variability', 'ment'}, 'compound': {'judg', 'Le', 'et', 'assessment', '/C19on', 'self', 'EXPERIMENTAL'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Urban', 'accuracy'}, 'npadvmod': {'Tirso', 'al'}, 'appos': {'2021', '2019', '.', 'et'}, 'nummod': {'615'}} Long High Medium
3498 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration What this literature rather consistently demonstrates is that higher ability students exhibit the tendency to underestimate their capabilities or performance relative to given task, whereas lowerability students are more prone to overestimation when asked to self-judge or self-assess capabil-ities or performance 41 18 {'PRON': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 4} [PRON, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'dobj': {'task', 'tendency', 'capabilities', 'What', 'ities'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'literature'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'consistently', 'rather', 'relative', 'more'}, 'csubj': {'demonstrates'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'whereas', 'that'}, 'amod': {'higher'}, 'compound': {'capabil', 'self', 'ability', 'lowerability'}, 'ccomp': {'exhibit'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'underestimate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'assess'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pcomp': {'given'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advcl': {'asked', 'are'}, 'acomp': {'prone'}, 'pobj': {'overestimation', 'judge'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}} Long High High
3499 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Whether in this study the miscalibration arose from the students ’height- ened awareness of task complexity (Tirso et al., 2019 ), concern over their existing topic knowledge (McCarthy & McNamara, 2021 ), a diminished self-confidence given task unfamiliarity or lack of clear performance criteria (Hattie, 2013 ), or even the specific measurement scale we used (Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2014 ) remains an open question 64 18 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 19, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 17, 'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Whether'}, 'prep': {'over', 'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'complexity', 'criteria', 'knowledge', 'study'}, 'nsubj': {'confidence', 'miscalibration', 'we', 'concern'}, 'advcl': {'arose'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'amod': {'clear', 'existing', 'specific', 'ened', 'height-', 'diminished', 'open'}, 'dobj': {'unfamiliarity', 'awareness', 'Hartwig'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'topic', 'task', 'measurement', 'self'}, 'appos': {'2014', '2021', '2019', 'McCarthy', 'Hattie', 'Tirso'}, 'npadvmod': {'2013', 'al', 'et'}, 'conj': {'.', 'lack', 'Dunlosky', 'McNamara', 'scale'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'acl': {'given'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'relcl': {'used'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'attr': {'question'}} Long High Medium
3500 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Implications for Future Research and Instructional Practice There are several implications that have emerged from this investigation that pertain to subse- quent empirical studies needed to address unresolved or newly exposed issues, as well as to situa-tions where multimodal texts are part of instruction in tertiary or secondary education classes.For one, in the current study we examined the interplay of multimodal texts with medium underwhat we regard as more naturalistic conditions: rather long excerpts from a college textbook con-taining a variety of visuals 83 39 {'NOUN': 24, 'ADP': 13, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 10, 'ADJ': 12, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 5, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Implications', 'we', 'that', 'texts'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'For', 'as'}, 'compound': {'college', 'Future', 'education', 'Instructional', 'situa'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'Research', 'texts', 'investigation', 'underwhat', 'textbook', 'conditions', 'tions', 'classes', 'one', 'study', 'instruction'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Practice', 'exposed', 'secondary'}, 'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'examined', 'are'}, 'amod': {'tertiary', 'multimodal', 'empirical', 'taining', 'medium', 'unresolved', 'long', 'current', 'naturalistic', 'several', 'more'}, 'attr': {'implications', 'part'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'emerged', 'are', 'pertain', 'regard'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'advcl': {'subse-'}, 'advmod': {'newly', 'where', 'rather', 'quent', 'well', 'as'}, 'dobj': {'studies', 'interplay', 'issues'}, 'acl': {'needed'}, 'xcomp': {'address'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.', ':'}, 'appos': {'variety', 'excerpts'}, 'npadvmod': {'con'}} Long High Medium
3501 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration It was also the case that the alignment of visuals with relevant writtencontent in these naturally-occurring texts did not seem to follow any of the multimedia principlesthat Mayer ( 2002 ) contends improves comprehension and diminishes cognitive load for readers 40 19 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'alignment', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'naturally', 'also'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'attr': {'case'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'multimedia', 'texts', 'Mayer', 'writtencontent', 'readers'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'cognitive', 'occurring'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'aux': {'did', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acl': {'seem'}, 'xcomp': {'follow'}, 'dobj': {'any', 'load', 'comprehension'}, 'dep': {'principlesthat'}, 'appos': {'2002'}, 'conj': {'diminishes', 'contends'}, 'ccomp': {'improves'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Medium
3502 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration We certainly witness the effects of non-contiguity between text and visual firsthand in the digital condition where increased scrolling and frustration could be observed 24 11 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'advmod': {'certainly', 'where', 'firsthand'}, 'ROOT': {'witness'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'effects'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'condition', '-', 'contiguity', 'text', 'non'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'frustration', 'visual'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'increased'}, 'nsubjpass': {'scrolling'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'observed'}} Long High Medium
3503 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Given our experiences in this study, we would suggest that in the future, studies on print and digital mediums consider testing the effects of text-visual placement but within otherwise unmodi-fied, longer text excerpts similar to what high-school or college students use in their coursework 44 20 {'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'Given'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'pobj': {'placement', 'fied', 'excerpts', 'future', 'experiences', 'print', 'coursework', 'study'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'students', 'we'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'suggest'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'amod': {'similar', 'digital', 'longer', 'high', 'visual'}, 'conj': {'mediums', 'college'}, 'ccomp': {'consider'}, 'xcomp': {'testing'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'what'}, 'npadvmod': {'unmodi', 'text'}, 'advmod': {'otherwise'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'nmod': {'school'}, 'pcomp': {'use'}} Long High Medium
3504 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Wewould also call on those engaged in multimodal research to expressly consider the medium of textdelivery on student comprehension and learning outcomes 22 10 {'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Wewould'}, 'advmod': {'expressly', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'call'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'textdelivery', 'research', 'those', 'comprehension'}, 'acl': {'engaged'}, 'amod': {'multimodal'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'medium'}, 'compound': {'student'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'learning'}, 'punct': {'outcomes'}} Long High Low
3505 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Those who have looked intensely atmedium have rather consistently demonstrated the added challenges that come with reading on screen rather than on paper 23 12 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 4} [PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Those', 'that', 'who'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'looked', 'come'}, 'advmod': {'intensely', 'rather', 'consistently'}, 'dobj': {'challenges', 'atmedium'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrated'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'added'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'paper', 'screen'}, 'cc': {'than'}} Long High Low
3506 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration What this means for the generalizability of multimedia principles remains to be seen 13 7 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'nsubj': {'this'}, 'csubj': {'means'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'generalizability', 'principles'}, 'compound': {'multimedia'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'seen'}} Medium High Low
3507 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Beyond what we observed when visual and related text were not both visible onthe screen, what are the effects on comprehension and learning when multimedia principles areinstantiated on paper versus on screen 32 16 {'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, CCONJ, ADJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'Beyond'}, 'dobj': {'screen', 'what'}, 'nsubj': {'effects', 'we', 'principles', 'text'}, 'pcomp': {'observed'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'versus'}, 'amod': {'visual'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'related'}, 'advcl': {'areinstantiated', 'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'dep': {'both'}, 'acomp': {'visible'}, 'det': {'onthe', 'the'}, 'punct': {','}, 'attr': {'what'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'pobj': {'screen', 'paper', 'comprehension'}, 'compound': {'multimedia'}} Long High High
3508 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration In addition to future investigations in which we experimentally test the placement of visuals in otherwise naturally occurring texts, valuable data could be acquired through the use of eye-track-ing procedures such as those employed by Mason et al 38 18 {'ADP': 9, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 3} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'prep': {'through', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'investigations', 'which', 'visuals', 'Mason', 'texts', 'those', 'use', 'addition', 'procedures'}, 'amod': {'valuable', 'future', 'ing', 'such', 'occurring'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'advmod': {'naturally', 'experimentally', 'otherwise'}, 'relcl': {'test'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'placement'}, 'punct': {',', '-', 'al'}, 'nsubjpass': {'data'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'acquired'}, 'nmod': {'eye'}, 'compound': {'track'}, 'acl': {'employed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
3509 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration ( 2013a ) to corroborate the integration of visual and written content in more ecologically valid expository texts 18 6 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'corroborate', '2013a'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'integration'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'valid', 'visual'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'written'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'texts'}, 'advmod': {'ecologically', 'more'}, 'compound': {'expository'}} Medium High Low
3510 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Mixed-method studies that combine think-aloud or interview data with comprehension, time processing, and calibrationinformation would afford an even broader and deeper portrait of students ’navigation of multi- modal texts in print and digital mediums 34 12 {'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 16, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'multi-', 'broader', 'digital', 'modal', 'Mixed'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'compound': {'method', 'time'}, 'ROOT': {'studies'}, 'nsubj': {'calibrationinformation', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'combine'}, 'npadvmod': {'think'}, 'nmod': {'aloud'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'afford', 'interview', 'deeper', 'mediums'}, 'dobj': {'portrait', 'data', 'navigation'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'print', 'texts', 'comprehension'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'advmod': {'even'}} Long High Low
3511 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration What might account for the underestimation of back-ground knowledge by college students for topics like weather and soil 18 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'What'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'ROOT': {'account'}, 'prep': {'by', 'for', 'like', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'underestimation', 'students', 'knowledge', 'weather', 'topics'}, 'amod': {'back'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'compound': {'ground', 'college'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'soil'}} Medium High Low
3512 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Finally, what stands out to us from this investigation was the absence of any clear rationale for the number, form, and placement of visuals in the commercially-produced materials that students are required to read in college courses 37 20 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'commercially', 'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'what'}, 'csubj': {'stands'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'visuals', 'courses', 'investigation', 'number', 'materials', 'rationale', 'us'}, 'det': {'any', 'the', 'this'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'absence'}, 'amod': {'produced', 'clear'}, 'conj': {'placement', 'form'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'compound': {'college'}} Long High Medium
3513 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration This raises the question as to how aware authors and pub-lishers are of guidelines or principles pertaining to optimizing student learning 21 10 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'authors', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'raises'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'question'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'amod': {'aware'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'student', 'pub'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'conj': {'principles', 'lishers'}, 'pcomp': {'optimizing', 'are'}, 'pobj': {'guidelines'}, 'advcl': {'pertaining'}} Long High Medium
3514 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Moreover, atmany institutions, including our own, course instructors are urged to adopt textbooks that areproduced in digital forms 18 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'digital', 'own', 'atmany'}, 'nsubjpass': {'institutions'}, 'prep': {'including', 'in'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'course'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'instructors'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'urged'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'adopt'}, 'dobj': {'textbooks'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'areproduced'}} Medium High Low
3515 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration However, the added challenges of processing these course materials onscreen seem to garner little if any attention 17 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'any', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'added', 'little'}, 'nsubj': {'challenges'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pcomp': {'processing'}, 'compound': {'course', 'materials'}, 'dobj': {'onscreen', 'attention'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'garner'}, 'mark': {'if'}} Medium High Medium
3516 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration Thus, we urge the development of guidelines for theeffective use of multimodal texts read digitally for students and instructors alike 20 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'alike', 'digitally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'urge'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'development'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'guidelines', 'use', 'students', 'texts'}, 'amod': {'multimodal', 'theeffective'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'instructors'}} Long High Low
3517 The Effects of Processing Multimodal Texts in Print and Digitally on Comprehension and Calibration While some ofthat critical work is currently underway, much more such inquiry is needed (Firetto & VanMeter, 2018 ; Van Meter et al., 2017 ) 25 7 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'While'}, 'det': {'some'}, 'amod': {'such', 'critical', 'more', 'ofthat'}, 'nsubj': {'work'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'currently', 'much'}, 'acomp': {'underway'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'inquiry'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'needed'}, 'npadvmod': {'Firetto'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'.', 'VanMeter'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'al', '2017'}, 'compound': {'Van', 'Meter', 'et'}} Long High Medium
3518 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance relevance, be introduced to many of its forms and manifestations, recognize how it is linked to diverse literatures and where it is situated within varying theoretical orientations 27 15 {'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2} [NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'it', 'relevance'}, 'punct': {','}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'ROOT': {'introduced'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'many', 'forms', 'orientations', 'literatures'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'situated', 'manifestations', 'recognize'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'how'}, 'ccomp': {'linked'}, 'amod': {'varying', 'theoretical', 'diverse'}} Long High High
3519 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Readers of this issue will alsobe informed about novel and alternative procedures for the statistical analysis of relevance data 19 8 {'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Readers'}, 'prep': {'for', 'about', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'novel', 'analysis', 'issue', 'data'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'alsobe'}, 'advcl': {'informed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'alternative', 'statistical'}, 'conj': {'procedures'}, 'compound': {'relevance'}} Medium High Low
3520 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance However, does this wealth of psychological content achieve the dual goals of greater clarity and enhanced understanding sought by the editors 21 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'wealth'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'dual', 'enhanced', 'greater', 'psychological'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'clarity', 'editors'}, 'ROOT': {'achieve'}, 'dobj': {'goals'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'understanding'}, 'acl': {'sought'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
3521 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Or —as often happens when an idea that has long pop- ulated educational, psychological, and philosophical literatures, as well as everyday discourse, is castinto the limelight —does the effort create even more ambiguity or give rise to even more questions 40 22 {'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADV': 7, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'ADP': 2} [CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'and', 'Or', 'as', 'or'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'often', 'well', 'long', 'as', 'even'}, 'advcl': {'happens', 'is'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'idea', 'that', 'effort'}, 'aux': {'has', 'does'}, 'relcl': {'pop-'}, 'amod': {'ulated', 'everyday', 'educational', 'more'}, 'conj': {'philosophical', 'discourse', 'give', 'psychological'}, 'dobj': {'limelight', 'ambiguity', 'rise', 'literatures'}, 'xcomp': {'castinto'}, 'ROOT': {'create'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'questions'}} Long High Medium
3522 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance As someone privileged to critically re flect on the thought-provoking articles included in this issue, I expe- rienced both reactions 20 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, PART, ADV, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'someone', 'I'}, 'advcl': {'privileged'}, 'aux': {'to', 're'}, 'advmod': {'critically', 'expe-'}, 'xcomp': {'flect'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'det': {'both', 'the', 'this'}, 'npadvmod': {'thought'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'provoking'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'issue'}, 'acl': {'included'}, 'ROOT': {'rienced'}, 'dobj': {'reactions'}} Long High Medium
3523 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance On the one hand, there were undoubtedly moments of clarity about relevance, especially in terms of its place within motivation theory and social psychology research 25 12 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'On', 'in', 'of', 'about'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'clarity', 'terms', 'theory', 'hand', 'place', 'relevance'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'undoubtedly', 'especially'}, 'attr': {'moments'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'compound': {'psychology', 'motivation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'social'}, 'conj': {'research'}} Long High Low
3524 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance I garnereddeeper and richer understandings about how respected motivation and social psychology researchersdefined and modeled relevance and how they set out to change or measure it 26 13 {'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1} [PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON] {'nsubj': {'I', 'motivation', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'garnereddeeper'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'amod': {'social', 'respected', 'richer'}, 'conj': {'set', 'modeled', 'psychology', 'measure', 'understandings'}, 'prep': {'about'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'pcomp': {'researchersdefined'}, 'dobj': {'it', 'relevance'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'change'}} Long High High
3525 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance On the other hand, I came away with the sense that certain assumptions upon which this work was predicated meritedreconsideration and that critical pieces to the relevance puzzle still needed to be put in place 35 20 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'On', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'upon'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'other', 'certain', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'puzzle', 'sense', 'hand', 'place'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'pieces', 'assumptions'}, 'ROOT': {'came'}, 'advmod': {'away', 'still'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'work'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'was'}, 'relcl': {'predicated'}, 'dobj': {'meritedreconsideration'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'relevance'}, 'conj': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'put'}} Long High High
3526 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Thus, Iwill use this commentary as an opportunity for critical re flection on areas of agreement about relevance that emerge across the diverse perspectives represented in this issue 28 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'Iwill'}, 'ROOT': {'use'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'commentary', 'flection'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'across', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'agreement', 'areas', 'opportunity', 'issue', 'relevance'}, 'amod': {'diverse', 're', 'critical'}, 'relcl': {'emerge'}, 'acl': {'represented'}} Long High Low
3527 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance I will then share certain confusions that remained for me about the nature and nurturing of relevance and the role it plays in educational practice 25 14 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'it', 'that'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'ROOT': {'share'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'educational'}, 'dobj': {'confusions'}, 'relcl': {'plays', 'remained'}, 'prep': {'about', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'practice', 'nature', 'me', 'relevance'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'role', 'nurturing'}} Long High Low
3528 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In effect, I will use the platform of this commentary to consider the relevance ofrelevance for the learning and performance 20 11 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'commentary', 'effect'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'ROOT': {'use'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'ofrelevance', 'platform'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'compound': {'relevance'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance'}} Long High Low
3529 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Consilience In devising this special issue, Albrecht and Karabenick ( this issue ) were intentional in their efforts to assemble researchers who hold to varied theoretical orientations toward learning and motivation in general and, consequently, toward relevance in particular 39 16 {'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ] {'npadvmod': {'Consilience'}, 'prep': {'to', 'toward', 'In', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'devising'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'varied', 'special', 'particular', 'general'}, 'dobj': {'researchers', 'issue'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Albrecht', 'who'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'motivation', 'Karabenick'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'intentional'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'orientations', 'efforts', 'relevance', 'learning'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'assemble'}, 'relcl': {'hold'}, 'advmod': {'consequently'}} Long High Low
3530 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Thus, Acee, Weinstein, Hoang, and Flaggs (this issue ) draw on a history of research in learning strategies and self-regulation to frame their article on value reappraisal that entails prompting learners to rethink their perspectives on tasks with the endgoal of improved academic outcomes 44 18 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 7, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nmod': {'Acee'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'Weinstein'}, 'appos': {'Hoang', 'issue'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'Flaggs'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'ROOT': {'draw'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'history', 'endgoal', 'reappraisal', 'tasks', 'outcomes', 'research'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'learners', 'perspectives', 'article', 'strategies'}, 'compound': {'self', 'value'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'frame'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'relcl': {'entails'}, 'xcomp': {'prompting', 'rethink'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'improved'}} Long High Low
3531 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Priniski, Hecht, and Harackiewicz ( this issue ), whose research is nested within social and personality psychology, craft a model of personal relevance that progresses ona continuum from personal association to personal usefulness and, ultimately, to identi fication 38 13 {'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Priniski', 'that'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Hecht', 'personality', 'Harackiewicz'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'nsubjpass': {'research'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'nested', 'progresses'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'amod': {'social', 'personal'}, 'pobj': {'psychology', 'usefulness', 'relevance', 'association'}, 'ROOT': {'craft'}, 'dobj': {'fication', 'model', 'continuum'}, 'compound': {'ona', 'personal'}, 'advmod': {'ultimately'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'identi'}} Long High Low
3532 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ( this issue ) understand- ably view relevance through the lens of autonomously motivated learning and consider self-relevance from the viewpoint of learners ’volition 24 8 {'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, X, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ')', '’'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'appos': {'volition', 'understand-'}, 'advmod': {'autonomously', 'ably'}, 'ROOT': {'view'}, 'dobj': {'relevance'}, 'prep': {'through', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'learners', 'lens', 'viewpoint'}, 'amod': {'motivated'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'consider'}, 'compound': {'self'}} Long High Low
3533 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For Walkington and Bernacki (this issue), with combined expertise in mathematics and intelligent tutoring systems, the focus is on context personalization orthe use of adaptive systems that allow for curricular modi fications meant to forge connections between a student and mathematics problem solving 43 16 {'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1} [ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'For', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'systems', 'problem', 'mathematics', 'Walkington', 'expertise', 'personalization', 'fications'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'systems', 'Bernacki', 'with', 'mathematics'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'orthe', 'the', 'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'amod': {'curricular', 'combined', 'intelligent'}, 'compound': {'adaptive', 'tutoring', 'context', 'modi'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'focus'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'use'}, 'relcl': {'allow'}, 'ccomp': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'forge'}, 'dobj': {'connections'}, 'nmod': {'student'}, 'acl': {'solving'}} Long High Low
3534 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance (this issue ) offer a procedure for considering students ’compliance or noncompliance with a given intervention as a mechanism for judging the effects of that intervention 26 12 {'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')', '’'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'effects', 'compliance', 'procedure'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of', 'with'}, 'pcomp': {'considering', 'judging'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'noncompliance'}, 'amod': {'given'}, 'pobj': {'intervention', 'mechanism'}} Long High Low
3535 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance The compliers average causaleffects (CACE) and noncompliers average causal effects (NCACE) procedures afford a metric for considering fidelity of treatment at the individual level and for assessing the effects of that treatment when participants ’compliance or noncompliance is taken into account 41 16 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'that'}, 'nmod': {'compliers'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'causal', 'average'}, 'nsubj': {'causaleffects'}, 'punct': {'(', ')', '’'}, 'appos': {'CACE', 'procedures', 'effects', 'NCACE'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'noncompliers', 'for', 'compliance', 'noncompliance'}, 'ROOT': {'afford'}, 'dobj': {'fidelity', 'effects', 'metric'}, 'prep': {'into', 'for', 'at', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'considering', 'assessing'}, 'pobj': {'treatment', 'level', 'account'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'nsubjpass': {'participants'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'taken'}} Long High Medium
3536 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For this issue, this technique was applied to data from a large-scale relevance intervention (Gaspard, Dicke, et al., 2015) 19 7 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'intervention', 'data', 'issue'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'technique'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'applied'}, 'amod': {'large'}, 'compound': {'scale', 'relevance'}, 'appos': {'2015', 'Gaspard'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'Dicke', 'et'}} Medium High Low
3537 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance As with Nagengast and colleagues ( this issue ), Hartwell and Kaplan ( this issue ) apply a more novel data-analytic technique to relevance-speci fic data 26 9 {'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [ADP, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'As', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'data', 'Nagengast'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Kaplan', 'colleagues'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'advcl': {'issue'}, 'nsubj': {'Hartwell'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'apply'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'amod': {'novel', 'analytic'}, 'npadvmod': {'data', 'relevance'}, 'dobj': {'technique'}, 'compound': {'fic', 'speci'}} Long High Low
3538 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Also, in a rather unique way, Hartwell and Kaplan started from a more phenomenological orientation 15 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'Also', 'rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'from', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'unique', 'phenomenological'}, 'pobj': {'orientation', 'way'}, 'nsubj': {'Hartwell'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Kaplan'}, 'ROOT': {'started'}} Medium High Low
3539 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Speci fically, these authors first sought to unearth students ’perceptions of relevance, as revealed in the ninth-graders ’responses to prompts about any associations they could envision between a given task and their life experiences 34 15 {'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB] {'nsubj': {'authors', 'they', 'Speci'}, 'advmod': {'fically', 'first'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'det': {'any', 'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'unearth'}, 'nmod': {'students', 'graders'}, 'dobj': {'perceptions'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'prompts', 'task', 'responses', 'associations', 'relevance'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'revealed'}, 'amod': {'ninth', 'given'}, 'relcl': {'envision'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'life'}, 'conj': {'experiences'}} Long High Medium
3540 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance The MDS resulted in a two-dimen- sional mapping with the first dimension, relevance degree, being interpreted as the extent of perceived self-relevance, and the second dimension, cognitive-value, distinguishing between value-related andcognitive aspects of relevance conceptions.THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 125 40 16 {'DET': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 7, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NUM] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'THE'}, 'nsubj': {'MDS'}, 'ROOT': {'resulted', 'JOURNAL'}, 'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'OF', 'between'}, 'nummod': {'two', '125'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.'}, 'nmod': {'dimen-'}, 'amod': {'related', 'sional', 'second', 'perceived', 'first', 'andcognitive', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'aspects', 'mapping', 'conceptions', 'extent', 'EDUCATION', 'dimension', 'relevance'}, 'compound': {'self', 'EXPERIMENTAL', 'relevance'}, 'nsubjpass': {'degree'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'advcl': {'interpreted'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'dimension', 'value'}, 'acl': {'distinguishing'}, 'npadvmod': {'value'}} Long High Low
3541 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Given this conceptual range and the contrasting perspectives, is consilience possible for these con- tributing authors when it comes to relevance 21 9 {'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'for', 'Given'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'amod': {'contrasting', 'conceptual', 'possible'}, 'pobj': {'range'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'perspectives'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'tributing'}, 'attr': {'consilience'}, 'dep': {'con-'}, 'dobj': {'authors'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'advcl': {'comes', 'relevance'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Medium
3542 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Consilience is a term introduced by Whewell ( 1840 ) and used by Wilson ( 1998 ) to describe unity of knowledge across varied disciplines 25 9 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Consilience'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'term'}, 'acl': {'introduced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'Whewell', 'Wilson', 'disciplines'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'1840', '1998'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'used'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'describe'}, 'dobj': {'unity'}, 'prep': {'across', 'of'}, 'amod': {'varied'}} Long High Low
3543 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance I began this commen- tary by asking whether there was any unity of knowledge surrounding relevance that could be extractedfrom these six contributions 23 13 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'began'}, 'det': {'any', 'these', 'this'}, 'amod': {'commen-', 'surrounding'}, 'dobj': {'tary'}, 'prep': {'by', 'extractedfrom', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'asking'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'attr': {'unity'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'contributions'}, 'appos': {'relevance'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'relcl': {'be'}, 'nummod': {'six'}} Long High Medium
3544 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In re flecting on these articles, I found that there was indeed common ground to be mapped 17 11 {'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'In', 're'}, 'pcomp': {'flecting'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'pobj': {'articles'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'indeed'}, 'amod': {'common'}, 'attr': {'ground'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'mapped'}} Medium High Medium
3545 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In several cases, that common ground was expressly identi fied by authors, whereas in other cases that common ground came in the form of tacit assumptions guiding the collec-tive work 30 13 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, NOUN, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'by', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'collec', 'other', 'tacit', 'several', 'common'}, 'pobj': {'cases', 'authors', 'form', 'assumptions'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'whereas', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'ground'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'expressly', 'that'}, 'compound': {'identi', 'tive'}, 'attr': {'fied'}, 'advcl': {'came'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'guiding'}, 'dobj': {'work'}} Long High High
3546 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Speci fically, the explicit common ground shared by these authors ’views the construct of relevance as person centered, complex or multifaceted, signi ficant, and modi fiable 26 8 {'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'ground', 'Speci', 'person'}, 'advmod': {'fiable', 'fically'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'explicit', 'common'}, 'acl': {'shared'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'authors', 'relevance'}, 'ROOT': {'views'}, 'dobj': {'construct'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'centered'}, 'conj': {'multifaceted', 'ficant', 'complex', 'modi'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'compound': {'signi'}} Long High Medium
3547 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Perhaps even more intriguing to me, as someone engag ed in critical analysis of this special issue, were the largely unvoiced assumptions about relevance as it is presumed to function within the context oflearning and performance 36 20 {'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Perhaps', 'even', 'more', 'largely'}, 'advcl': {'presumed', 'intriguing'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'someone', 'analysis', 'oflearning', 'me', 'relevance'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'engag', 'unvoiced', 'special', 'critical'}, 'appos': {'ed'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'assumptions'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'function'}, 'compound': {'context'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'performance'}} Long High Medium
3548 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance I refer to these assumptions as largely unvoiced because they were often located“between the cracks ”of the discourse, marked as much by what was not mentioned by authors as what they explicitly stated 33 21 {'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADV': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB] {'nsubj': {'I', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'refer'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'discourse', 'authors', 'assumptions'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly', 'as', 'often', 'largely'}, 'advcl': {'marked', 'unvoiced', 'located“between'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what', 'they'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'dobj': {'much', 'cracks', 'what'}, 'punct': {',', '”'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'pcomp': {'mentioned', 'stated'}} Long High Medium
3549 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance It was this tacit area of consilience that fueled certain puzzlements about the natureand nurturing of relevance and its place within educational practice 23 11 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'tacit', 'educational', 'certain'}, 'attr': {'area'}, 'prep': {'about', 'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'consilience', 'nurturing', 'relevance', 'practice'}, 'relcl': {'fueled'}, 'dobj': {'puzzlements'}, 'compound': {'natureand'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'conj': {'place'}} Long High Low
3550 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For now, let me return to the common ground shared by contributors to this issue 15 8 {'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3} [ADP, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'to'}, 'pcomp': {'now'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'let'}, 'nsubj': {'me'}, 'ccomp': {'return'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'common'}, 'pobj': {'contributors', 'ground', 'issue'}, 'acl': {'shared'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Medium High Low
3551 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Relevance as person centered In their introductory article, Albrecht and Karabenick ( this issue ) use the enticing claim posed by phi- losopher Israel Schef fler (1969 ) to capture a central theme of this special issue: “Nothing is either rele- vant or irrelevant in and of itself 48 19 {'NOUN': 10, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, PRON] {'advcl': {'Relevance', 'centered'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'Nothing', 'Albrecht', 'person'}, 'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'central', 'enticing', 'introductory', 'special', 'losopher'}, 'pobj': {'fler', 'itself', 'article', 'issue'}, 'punct': {':', ')', '(', ',', 'rele-', '“'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'irrelevant', 'of', 'Karabenick'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'parataxis': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'use'}, 'dobj': {'claim', 'theme'}, 'acl': {'posed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'phi-', 'Schef', 'Israel'}, 'appos': {'1969'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'capture'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'acomp': {'vant'}} Long High Medium
3552 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance To Schef fler’s three interrogatives, I would add another of importance to the ensuing treatises, “Who 16 10 {'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON] {'prep': {'To', 'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'Schef'}, 'nmod': {'fler'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'pobj': {'interrogatives', 'importance', 'treatises'}, 'punct': {',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'add'}, 'dobj': {'another'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'ensuing'}, 'dep': {'Who'}} Medium High Low
3553 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ” For the contributors to this issue of the Journal of Experimental Education , there appears to be an unwavering emphasis on the individual and on relevance as seen through the eyes of the “one.” Although there is mention of others within the pages of this issue, including teachers, the commonground among these works is that they remain fixed on the individual student —the self —in the perspectives they hold and the models they propose 75 45 {'PUNCT': 9, 'ADP': 14, 'DET': 15, 'NOUN': 17, 'PROPN': 3, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1} [PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'punct': {'.', '—', '”', ',', '“'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'within', 'including', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'among', 'For'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'issue', 'teachers', 'contributors', 'works', 'others', 'individual', 'eyes', 'student', 'Education', 'one', 'pages', 'relevance', 'Journal'}, 'compound': {'Experimental'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'appears'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'amod': {'unwavering', 'individual'}, 'attr': {'mention', 'emphasis'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'models', 'on'}, 'mark': {'as', 'Although', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'seen', 'is'}, 'nsubj': {'commonground', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'remain'}, 'acomp': {'fixed'}, 'appos': {'self'}, 'relcl': {'hold', 'propose'}} Long High High
3554 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ( this issue ) cast value reappraisal as a general strategy that could be applied broadly to academic content or tasks to stimulate reassessments of domain or task value or utility.These reappraisals seek relevance adjustments that are speci fic to individual students 42 16 {'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 15, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PRON, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '.', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'These', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'reappraisals', 'issue', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'seek', 'cast'}, 'compound': {'task', 'value', 'relevance'}, 'dobj': {'adjustments', 'reappraisal', 'reassessments'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'academic', 'general'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'content', 'strategy', 'students'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'are', 'applied'}, 'advmod': {'broadly'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'tasks', 'value', 'utility'}, 'advcl': {'stimulate'}, 'attr': {'speci'}, 'acomp': {'fic'}} Long High Low
3555 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance (this volume) conceptualizes the movement from personalassociation to identi fication as a uniquely individual experience 15 6 {'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'volume'}, 'ROOT': {'conceptualizes'}, 'dobj': {'movement', 'fication'}, 'prep': {'as', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'experience', 'personalassociation'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'identi'}, 'advmod': {'uniquely'}, 'amod': {'individual'}} Medium High Low
3556 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In articulating their identity-based model of relevance, Hartwell and Kaplan ( this issue ) are very evidently focused on the one in that they “intentionally foreground the role of the self and self-related exploration in relevance construction 37 18 {'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'articulating'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'identity'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', '“'}, 'amod': {'based', 'related'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'model'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'construction', 'relevance', 'exploration'}, 'appos': {'Hartwell'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Kaplan'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'parataxis': {'issue'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'very', 'intentionally', 'evidently'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'mark': {'that', 'in'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'advcl': {'foreground'}, 'nmod': {'self'}, 'compound': {'relevance'}} Long High Medium
3557 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ” Relatedly, the plethora of terms that populate this co llection of articles have a distinctively person-spe- cificf oc us 21 8 {'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2} [PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON] {'punct': {',', '-', '”'}, 'advmod': {'distinctively', 'Relatedly'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'plethora', 'that'}, 'prep': {'oc', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'us', 'terms'}, 'relcl': {'populate'}, 'compound': {'spe-', 'co', 'person'}, 'dobj': {'llection', 'cificf'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}} Long High Low
3558 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Self-relevance , for example, is discussed both by Hartwell and Kaplan ( this issue ) and by Van- steenkiste et al 21 8 {'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN] {'compound': {'Van-', 'Self'}, 'punct': {'-', 'al', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubjpass': {'relevance'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'Hartwell', 'steenkiste', 'example'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'discussed'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'by', 'Kaplan'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
3559 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Speci fically, Hartwell and Kaplan (this issue ) conceptualize self-relevance in terms of “meaningful personal connections ”that a student may seek to forge with academic content 26 9 {'PROPN': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Speci', 'student'}, 'advmod': {'fically'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'Hartwell'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Kaplan'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'parataxis': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'conceptualize'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'dobj': {'relevance'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'connections', 'terms'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'personal', 'academic'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'seek'}, 'xcomp': {'forge'}} Long High Medium
3560 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ( this issue) likewise speak of self-relevance as the personal meaning a student brings to a learning task 18 7 {'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'dep': {'issue'}, 'advmod': {'likewise'}, 'ROOT': {'speak'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'relevance', 'meaning'}, 'amod': {'learning', 'personal'}, 'nsubj': {'student'}, 'relcl': {'brings'}} Medium High Low
3561 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ’s(this issue ) conceptualization carries the same conno- tation of a “personally meaningful connection ”(p 15 4 {'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'punct': {'’', ')', '(', '”', '“'}, 'compound': {'s(this'}, 'nmod': {'issue'}, 'nsubj': {'conceptualization'}, 'ROOT': {'carries'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'same'}, 'dep': {'conno-'}, 'dobj': {'tation'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'advmod': {'personally'}, 'pobj': {'connection'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Medium High Low
3562 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Despite the absence of “self”or “personal ”as an identi fier, Walkington and Bernacki (this issue) offer an explicit de fi nition of relevance pertinent to personalized learning or PL that also connotes a student-centered emphasis 35 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'of', 'as', 'to', 'Despite'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'pertinent', 'learning', 'fier', 'absence'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'personalized', 'self”or', 'centered', 'explicit'}, 'compound': {'identi', 'relevance', 'fi'}, 'conj': {'Bernacki', 'Walkington', 'PL'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'nmod': {'de'}, 'dobj': {'nition', 'emphasis'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'relcl': {'connotes'}, 'npadvmod': {'student'}} Long High Medium
3563 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance What varies isthat these authors move away from the idea of meaningfulness to “objects, events, goals, and ideas that a learner finds familiar, likes, or values, combining cogn itive, affective, and motivational components ”(p 34 12 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 11, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 4} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'What', 'authors', 'learner'}, 'ROOT': {'varies'}, 'mark': {'isthat', 'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'ccomp': {'move'}, 'advmod': {'away'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'idea', 'meaningfulness'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '”', '“'}, 'acl': {'objects'}, 'conj': {'goals', 'likes', 'affective', 'motivational', 'values', 'ideas', 'events'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'relcl': {'finds'}, 'acomp': {'familiar'}, 'advcl': {'combining'}, 'amod': {'cogn', 'itive'}, 'dobj': {'components'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long High Medium
3564 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Relevance as complex and multifaceted Yet another area of agreement that emerges from the authors ’varied treatises is the implication that simplistic or unidimensional perspectives of relevance that might suf fice as folk constructs are wholly126P 36 17 {'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PROPN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Relevance', 'that', 'constructs'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'from'}, 'amod': {'varied', 'complex', 'simplistic'}, 'cc': {'and', 'Yet', 'or'}, 'conj': {'unidimensional', 'multifaceted', 'area'}, 'det': {'another', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'agreement', 'authors', 'relevance'}, 'relcl': {'emerges', 'suf'}, 'punct': {'’', 'wholly126P'}, 'appos': {'treatises'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'implication'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'acl': {'perspectives'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'dobj': {'fice'}, 'compound': {'folk'}, 'advcl': {'are'}} Long High High
3565 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance inadequate when the construct moves from everyday discourse to formal theories and models 13 5 {'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'inadequate'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'construct'}, 'advcl': {'moves'}, 'prep': {'to', 'from'}, 'amod': {'everyday', 'formal'}, 'pobj': {'discourse', 'theories'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'models'}} Medium High Medium
3566 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In every instance, these researchers have conveyed a conceptualization of relevance that is complex and multi-faceted or multidimensional in nature 20 11 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'every', 'a', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'nature', 'instance', 'relevance'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'that'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'conveyed'}, 'dobj': {'conceptualization'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'complex'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'-', 'multi', 'faceted', 'multidimensional'}} Long High Low
3567 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In some ways, the Hartwell and Kaplan article ( this issue ) bridges folk and formal conceptions of relevance in that it starts with the language of students andbuilds to a more formal depiction of self-relevance 36 17 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'In'}, 'det': {'a', 'this', 'the', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'language', 'depiction', 'students', 'relevance'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nmod': {'Hartwell', 'issue'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Kaplan', 'conceptions'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'article'}, 'compound': {'self', 'bridges'}, 'appos': {'folk'}, 'amod': {'formal'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ROOT': {'starts'}, 'advcl': {'andbuilds'}, 'advmod': {'more'}} Long High Medium
3568 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance That is, the multidimensional portrayal of self-relevance begins with the responses of ninth graders to open questions that asked them to discuss howcertain biology topics were personally meaningful to them 30 14 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON] {'advmod': {'That', 'is', 'personally'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'ninth', 'multidimensional'}, 'nsubj': {'portrayal', 'that'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'self', 'biology', 'howcertain'}, 'pobj': {'responses', 'graders', 'them', 'relevance'}, 'ROOT': {'begins'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'discuss', 'open'}, 'dobj': {'topics', 'questions', 'them'}, 'relcl': {'asked'}, 'conj': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'meaningful'}} Long High Low
3569 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance By engaging in detailed analysis of thoseresponses via multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis, the authors provide support for their conten- tion that students ’conceptions of self-relevance encompass three key dimensions: the academic con- tent, the student ’s identity, and the connection students build between those two 45 18 {'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 19, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM] {'prep': {'in', 'of', 'via', 'for', 'By', 'between'}, 'pcomp': {'engaging'}, 'amod': {'detailed', 'multidimensional', 'conten-', 'academic', 'key'}, 'pobj': {'tion', 'two', 'analysis', 'encompass', 'thoseresponses'}, 'nmod': {'students', 'MDS', 'scaling'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ':', ')', '(', ','}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'provide'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'conceptions', 'support'}, 'poss': {'their', 'student'}, 'compound': {'self', 'connection', 'con-', 'relevance'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'appos': {'dimensions'}, 'conj': {'tent', 'identity', 'build'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
3570 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ( this issue ) offer a model of ration- ales that should “foster perceived self-relevance and promote the process of internalization ”for students (this issue) 25 10 {'PUNCT': 7, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', '“'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'dobj': {'process', 'model'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'ration-', 'foster', 'perceived'}, 'pobj': {'ales', 'students', 'internalization'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'relcl': {'relevance'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'promote'}, 'appos': {'issue'}} Long High Low
3571 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance From their analysis, the authors conclude that contextual, task-related, andlearner-related factors must be simultaneously considered when trying to formulate a rationale thatwill be seen as self-referential and that is apt to foster internalization 33 15 {'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'From', 'as'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'analysis'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'conclude'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'contextual', 'referential', 'related'}, 'npadvmod': {'task', 'self', 'andlearner'}, 'nsubjpass': {'factors'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'simultaneously', 'when'}, 'ccomp': {'considered'}, 'csubjpass': {'trying'}, 'xcomp': {'seen', 'formulate', 'foster'}, 'compound': {'rationale'}, 'dobj': {'thatwill', 'internalization'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'apt'}} Long High High
3572 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In these components, there is anoticeable relation to the three dimensions described by Hartwell and Kaplan ( this issue ), who also acknowledge the role of context, a dimension central to Vansteenkiste et al 34 16 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'dimensions', 'components', 'Vansteenkiste', 'Hartwell', 'context'}, 'punct': {',', '(', 'al', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'anoticeable', 'central'}, 'attr': {'issue', 'relation'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'acl': {'described'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Kaplan'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'relcl': {'acknowledge'}, 'dobj': {'role'}, 'appos': {'dimension'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
3573 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance do not speci fically write in terms of the multidimensionality of relevance, they provide suf ficient evidence that it is not easy to alter the negative perceptions that students come to hold about speci fic academic domains or tasks 39 17 {'AUX': 2, 'PART': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'aux': {'to', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'it', 'speci', 'they'}, 'advmod': {'fically'}, 'advcl': {'hold', 'write'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'multidimensionality', 'domains', 'relevance', 'terms'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'provide'}, 'compound': {'ficient', 'suf'}, 'dobj': {'perceptions', 'evidence', 'that'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'easy'}, 'xcomp': {'alter'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'negative'}, 'relcl': {'come'}, 'nmod': {'fic', 'speci'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'tasks'}} Long High Medium
3574 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In effect, the process model they have described to evoke reappraisals of task value judgments entails activities to elicit immediate cognitive-affectiveresponses regarding coursework that are regarded as critical to changes in perceptions about therelevance of what is being taught and what is being tasked in academic courses 47 23 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 6, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'as', 'regarding', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'perceptions', 'courses', 'effect', 'judgments', 'therelevance', 'coursework', 'changes', 'affectiveresponses'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'task', 'process', 'value', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'model', 'they'}, 'aux': {'is', 'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'described', 'regarded'}, 'advcl': {'evoke'}, 'dobj': {'reappraisals', 'activities'}, 'ROOT': {'entails'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'elicit', 'critical', 'immediate'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that', 'what'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'being'}, 'pcomp': {'taught'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'tasked'}} Long High Low
3575 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Relevance as important Motivation has been broadly de fined as the physiological processes involved in the direction, vigor, and persistence of behavior (Bergin, Ford, & Hess, 1993 ,p 28 9 {'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'X': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, AUX, AUX, ADV, X, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Relevance'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'physiological', 'important'}, 'pobj': {'direction', 'behavior', 'Motivation', 'processes'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'advmod': {'de', 'broadly'}, 'acomp': {'fined'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'involved'}, 'punct': {',', 'p', '('}, 'conj': {'Ford', 'vigor', 'persistence', 'Hess', 'Bergin'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'1993'}} Long High Low
3576 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For many educational psychologists, con- cern for motivation revolves around academic achievement or the direction, vigor, and persistence ofbehaviors that contribute to students ’success relative to whatever internal or external standards have been set for educational performance (Alexander & Murphy, 1998 ; Alexander & Riconscente, 2005 ) 47 15 {'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 5, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'around', 'For', 'to'}, 'amod': {'internal', 'many', 'educational', 'relative', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'achievement', 'students', 'motivation', 'performance', 'psychologists'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'compound': {'persistence', 'con-'}, 'nsubj': {'cern', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'Alexander', 'revolves'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'det': {'the', 'whatever'}, 'conj': {'direction', 'Murphy', 'external', 'vigor', 'Riconscente', 'ofbehaviors'}, 'relcl': {'contribute'}, 'dobj': {'success'}, 'nsubjpass': {'standards'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'acl': {'set'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998', '2005'}} Long High Low
3577 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Relevance for these researchers is perceived as a mechanism to elicit the vigor or persistence seen as necessary to achieve those standards 22 11 {'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Relevance'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'mechanism', 'researchers'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'perceived'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'elicit'}, 'dobj': {'standards', 'vigor'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'persistence'}, 'acl': {'seen'}, 'amod': {'necessary'}, 'xcomp': {'achieve'}} Long High Low
3578 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For social psychologists, the importance of relevance rests in thedegree to which it moves individuals away from a strong extrinsic motivation for performance inacademic contexts to one that is increasingly more intrinsic in nature 34 16 {'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, PRON, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'For'}, 'amod': {'social', 'extrinsic', 'strong'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'motivation', 'rests', 'thedegree', 'inacademic', 'one', 'nature', 'psychologists'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'importance', 'it', 'that'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'relevance'}, 'relcl': {'is', 'moves'}, 'dobj': {'individuals'}, 'advmod': {'away', 'increasingly', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'contexts'}, 'acomp': {'intrinsic'}} Long High Low
3579 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In this way, relevance enhancesthe likelihood that students ’actions will be driven by their will or volition (Ryan & Deci, 2000 ) 22 9 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In'}, 'det': {'enhancesthe', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'will', 'way'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'ROOT': {'relevance'}, 'dobj': {'likelihood'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'nsubjpass': {'actions'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'acl': {'driven'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'volition', 'Deci'}, 'appos': {'Ryan'}, 'npadvmod': {'2000'}} Long High Medium
3580 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Still for others, relevance carries a personal identi fication with the content or tasks that are far more likely to invigorate students ’engagement or promote persistence (Rosenzweig & Wig field,2016 ) 31 12 {'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'far', 'more', 'Still'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'others'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'relevance'}, 'ROOT': {'carries'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'personal'}, 'compound': {'Wig', 'identi'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'fication', 'persistence'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'promote', 'tasks', 'field,2016'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'invigorate'}, 'advcl': {'engagement'}, 'appos': {'Rosenzweig'}} Long High Low
3581 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance When students identify in some positive manner with a domain of study or regard themselves as “good ”at some academic task, then there is a degree of relevance that that domain or task holds for them 36 21 {'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'advmod': {'When', 'then'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'domain'}, 'advcl': {'identify'}, 'prep': {'at', 'for', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'some'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'good', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'them', 'manner', 'task', 'study', 'domain', 'relevance'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'task', 'regard'}, 'dobj': {'themselves', 'that'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'degree'}, 'relcl': {'holds'}} Long High High
3582 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For all these perspectives, however, relevance serves as a means to a valued end 14 8 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2} [ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'For', 'to'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'means', 'end'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'however'}, 'nsubj': {'relevance'}, 'ROOT': {'serves'}, 'amod': {'valued'}} Medium High Low
3583 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Its importance comes from what it instigates rather than what it inherently represents 13 8 {'PRON': 5, 'NOUN': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB] {'poss': {'Its'}, 'nsubj': {'importance', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'comes'}, 'prep': {'than', 'from'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'instigates'}, 'advmod': {'inherently', 'rather'}, 'ccomp': {'represents'}} Medium High Low
3584 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Moreover, what the attentionto relevance often affords in the studies cited by contributors are documented changes in attitudestoward target content or tasks, more evidence of regulatory behaviors, or higher reports of interest inthe domain 34 14 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'often', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dobj': {'what', 'changes'}, 'det': {'the', 'inthe'}, 'amod': {'regulatory', 'higher', 'more', 'attentionto'}, 'nsubj': {'relevance'}, 'csubjpass': {'affords'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'content', 'contributors', 'interest', 'behaviors'}, 'acl': {'cited'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'documented'}, 'compound': {'target', 'attitudestoward'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'tasks', 'reports'}, 'appos': {'domain', 'evidence'}} Long High Low
3585 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For instance, if a science teacher in high school or a professor of statistics utilizes a value-reappraisal strategy, it may increase student engagement in the academic experiences presented to thestudents 30 13 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'school', 'statistics', 'experiences', 'thestudents'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'reappraisal', 'student', 'value', 'science'}, 'nsubj': {'teacher', 'it'}, 'amod': {'high', 'academic'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'professor'}, 'advcl': {'utilizes'}, 'dobj': {'strategy', 'engagement'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'increase'}, 'acl': {'presented'}} Long High Medium
3586 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Or if students are given some choice in the problems they solve or find the events depicted in a problem to re flect their lives, they may well attend more to the content, identify some solution path suggested by their prior experiences, or simply persist longer 46 24 {'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'DET': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 3} [CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADV] {'cc': {'or', 'Or'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'given', 'flect'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'some'}, 'dobj': {'choice', 'lives', 'path', 'more'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'experiences', 'content', 'problems', 'problem'}, 'nsubj': {'events', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'solve'}, 'conj': {'find', 'persist'}, 'acl': {'depicted', 'suggested'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'intj': {'re'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'well', 'longer'}, 'ROOT': {'attend'}, 'dep': {'identify'}, 'compound': {'solution'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'prior'}} Long High Medium
3587 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Of course, whether any of these steps ultimately translate into signi ficant gains in learning or achievement or endure for any period following the intervention is less well established 29 15 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'course', 'ultimately', 'Of', 'less', 'well'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'any'}, 'prep': {'following', 'in', 'into', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'any', 'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'steps', 'learning', 'period', 'gains', 'intervention'}, 'advcl': {'translate'}, 'compound': {'signi', 'ficant'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'achievement', 'endure'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'established'}} Long High Medium
3588 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance side, Walkington and Bernacki (this issue) discuss how attempts to ground arithmetic or algebra prob- lems in students ’everyday experiences and language have resulted in better problem solving in certain investigations (e.g., Koedinger, Alibali, & Nathan, 2008 ) 38 11 {'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'experiences', 'side'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'conj': {'Alibali', 'language', 'prob-', 'Walkington', 'Nathan', 'algebra', 'Bernacki'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'appos': {'2008', 'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'discuss'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'how'}, 'ccomp': {'resulted', 'attempts'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'acl': {'solving', 'ground'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'everyday', 'arithmetic', 'better'}, 'dobj': {'lems'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'problem', 'investigations'}, 'npadvmod': {'Koedinger'}} Long High Medium
3589 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance However, as they acknowledge, a clear direct causal path between relevance interventions like their personalized learning environments and studentlearning outcomes has yet to be forged in the empirical literature 29 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADV, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'yet', 'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'path', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'acknowledge'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'direct', 'studentlearning', 'clear', 'personalized', 'causal', 'empirical'}, 'prep': {'like', 'in', 'between'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'relevance'}, 'pobj': {'environments', 'literature', 'interventions'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'outcomes'}, 'ROOT': {'has'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'forged'}} Long High Medium
3590 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In fact, as the work of Harackiewiczand colleagues (Canning & Harackiewicz, 2015 ) and others (Rosenzweig & Wig field,2016 ) suggests, relevance interventions are not often globally effective and may even prove detrimental to some stu-dents 36 14 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'colleagues', 'dents', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'nsubj': {'work', 'interventions'}, 'compound': {'Harackiewiczand', 'Wig', 'relevance'}, 'appos': {'Canning', 'Rosenzweig'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'field,2016', 'Harackiewicz', 'prove', 'others'}, 'npadvmod': {'2015'}, 'advcl': {'suggests'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'globally', 'often', 'even'}, 'acomp': {'effective'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'oprd': {'detrimental'}, 'amod': {'stu'}} Long High Medium
3591 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Thus, what becomes important is to understand better when such interventions are warranted, for whom, and under what conditions 19 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'when', 'better'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'what'}, 'csubj': {'becomes'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'understand'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interventions'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'warranted'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'whom'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'under'}, 'det': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'conditions'}} Medium High Medium
3592 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Relevance as modi fiable One of the strongest points of consilience for th ec on tr ibu tor st oth i sis s ue ,e ve ni fi tw a snot expressly stated by some, is the sha red belief that relevance is not fixed for any learner 48 18 {'NOUN': 10, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'X': 2, 'PROPN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NUM, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, X, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, X, VERB, AUX, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, AUX, DET, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'i', 'Relevance', 'relevance'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'modi'}, 'amod': {'fiable', 'red', 'strongest'}, 'npadvmod': {'One'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'tw', 'of'}, 'det': {'th', 'a', 'the', 'any'}, 'pobj': {'oth', 'some', 'points', 'consilience', 'ec', 'snot', 'learner', 'fi'}, 'compound': {'tr', 'tor', 'st', 'ibu'}, 'appos': {'sis'}, 'relcl': {'s'}, 'attr': {'belief', 'ue'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nmod': {'e', 'sha'}, 'ccomp': {'ve'}, 'aux': {'ni'}, 'advmod': {'expressly'}, 'acl': {'is', 'stated'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'fixed'}} Long High High
3593 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Instead, what content or tasks individuals perceive as personally meaningful, of interest, valuable, useful,or that to which they can identify is expected to shift as conditions internal and external tothat individual change 32 14 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PART, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Instead', 'personally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'what', 'tothat'}, 'nmod': {'content'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'external', 'tasks', 'useful', 'expected'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'perceive'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'individual', 'valuable', 'internal'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'conditions', 'interest'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'identify'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'xcomp': {'shift'}, 'dobj': {'change'}} Long High Medium
3594 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For example, in articula ting the process of personalization, Walkington and Bernacki (this issue) describe contextualg rounding and funds of knowledge as two critical features in designing systems for personalized instruction 31 12 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'of', 'for', 'For', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'systems', 'features', 'example', 'personalization', 'articula', 'knowledge', 'instruction'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'ting'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'rounding', 'process'}, 'conj': {'Bernacki', 'Walkington', 'funds', 'describe'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'nsubj': {'contextualg'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'amod': {'personalized', 'designing', 'critical'}} Long High Low
3595 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Contextual grounding, an externaldimension, pertains to everyday situations rele vant to students to which instruction and assess- ment ends should be linked 22 8 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PART, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'amod': {'everyday', 'Contextual', 'assess-'}, 'nsubj': {'grounding'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'an'}, 'appos': {'externaldimension'}, 'csubjpass': {'pertains'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'situations', 'which'}, 'ccomp': {'rele'}, 'advmod': {'vant'}, 'dep': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'instruction'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'ment'}, 'conj': {'ends'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'linked'}} Long High Low
3596 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In contrast, funds of knowledge, which describes the various resources that students have derived from being me mbers of various social/cultural communi- ties, is an internal dimension that must be addressed when orchestrating personalized learningenvironments 35 18 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 5, 'SYM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, AUX, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, SYM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'ties', 'knowledge', 'contrast'}, 'punct': {',', '/'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'funds', 'students'}, 'relcl': {'derived', 'addressed', 'describes'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'personalized', 'cultural', 'internal', 'social', 'various'}, 'dobj': {'learningenvironments', 'resources', 'that'}, 'aux': {'have', 'must'}, 'pcomp': {'being'}, 'attr': {'dimension', 'me', 'mbers'}, 'compound': {'communi-'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'orchestrating'}} Long High High
3597 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance It is also apparent from the number of interventions described or referenced within these articles, that these researchers hold that it is not only possible but also desirable to orchestrate conditions thatpromote positive judgments of meaningfulness, interest, value, or utility of academic content and tasks.In fact, outside the critical analysis by Priniski et al 54 26 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'ADP': 9, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'researchers', 'It', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'outside'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'acomp': {'possible', 'apparent'}, 'prep': {'within', 'from', 'to', 'by', 'of', 'In'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'Priniski', 'interventions', 'analysis', 'et', 'number', 'conditions', 'meaningfulness', 'articles', 'fact'}, 'acl': {'described'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'conj': {'utility', 'interest', 'value', 'desirable', 'tasks', 'referenced'}, 'punct': {',', 'al', '.'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'hold', 'is', 'thatpromote'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'orchestrate', 'academic', 'critical'}, 'dobj': {'judgments'}} Long High High
3598 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ( this issue ) there was little explicit discussion by these researchers that their speci fic orchestrated experiences may prove nonoptimal for particular learners, particular content, or particular contexts 29 10 {'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'INTJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, PROPN, INTJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, X] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')', 'contexts'}, 'det': {'these', 'this'}, 'dep': {'issue'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'amod': {'explicit', 'particular', 'little', 'orchestrated'}, 'attr': {'discussion'}, 'prep': {'by', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'researchers'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nmod': {'fic', 'speci'}, 'nsubj': {'experiences'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'acl': {'prove'}, 'oprd': {'nonoptimal'}, 'conj': {'content', 'particular'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Low
3599 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Indeed, this lack of detail pertaining to which inter- ventions should be expected to translate into what cognitive or affective outcomes for whom is what led Priniski et al 29 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PART, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, PRON, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Indeed'}, 'punct': {',', 'al'}, 'det': {'what', 'this'}, 'ROOT': {'lack'}, 'prep': {'into', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'detail', 'which', 'whom', 'outcomes'}, 'acl': {'pertaining'}, 'amod': {'inter-', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ventions'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'is', 'expected'}, 'xcomp': {'translate'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'affective'}, 'nsubj': {'what'}, 'ccomp': {'led'}, 'dobj': {'Priniski'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
3600 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ( this issue ) to identify this concern as a direction for future research 14 6 {'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'dep': {'issue'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ROOT': {'identify'}, 'dobj': {'concern'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'direction', 'research'}, 'amod': {'future'}} Medium High Low
3601 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance As these researchers write: “Thus the same UV intervention could increase perceptions of personal association, usefulness, or identi fication for different students 22 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'intervention', 'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'write'}, 'punct': {',', ':', '“'}, 'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'amod': {'different', 'personal', 'same'}, 'compound': {'identi', 'UV'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ccomp': {'increase'}, 'dobj': {'perceptions'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'association'}, 'conj': {'usefulness', 'fication'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Medium
3602 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance This type of treatment heterogeneity can be a great asset for an intervention that needs to reach a diverse group of students with different levels of initialinterest or success expectancies ”(p 31 14 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'an', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'type'}, 'prep': {'with', 'for', 'of'}, 'compound': {'treatment'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'levels', 'heterogeneity', 'intervention', 'expectancies'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'amod': {'great', 'initialinterest', 'different', 'diverse'}, 'attr': {'asset'}, 'relcl': {'needs'}, 'xcomp': {'reach'}, 'dobj': {'group'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'success'}, 'punct': {'(', '”'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long High Low
3603 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Puzzlements For all the points of clari fication and new insights about relevance that these special issue authors have contributed, there were nonetheless puzzlements that arose for me 28 14 {'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'npadvmod': {'Puzzlements'}, 'prep': {'for', 'about', 'For', 'of'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'me', 'points', 'fication', 'relevance'}, 'amod': {'clari', 'special', 'new'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'insights'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'issue'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'that'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'acl': {'contributed'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'nonetheless'}, 'attr': {'puzzlements'}, 'relcl': {'arose'}} Long High Medium
3604 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance As mentioned, those puzzlements resulted from assumptions about relevance that were more or less taken as givens by the contributors 20 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'mentioned'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'puzzlements'}, 'ROOT': {'resulted'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'contributors', 'relevance', 'assumptions', 'givens'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'less'}, 'relcl': {'taken'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
3605 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Yet, from my theoretical perspective as a cognitive contextualist concerned with the nature and processof learning unfolding in schools and in the world outside of school, those “givens ”demand critical examination (Alexander, Schallert, & Reynolds, 2009 ) 37 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADP': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Yet'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'outside'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'critical', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'perspective', 'school', 'unfolding', 'world', 'schools', 'contextualist', 'nature'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'acl': {'concerned'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'processof', 'Reynolds', 'Schallert', 'in'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'examination'}, 'nsubj': {'givens'}, 'ROOT': {'demand'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2009'}} Long High Low
3606 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance It is my sense that delving into those tacit assumptions will bring greater clarity to the construct of relevance and inform future efforts to craftinterventions that lead not only to desired attitudinal or regulatory changes but also to improvedlearning and performance 41 21 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, AUX, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'attr': {'sense'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'delving'}, 'prep': {'into', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'tacit', 'attitudinal', 'future', 'greater'}, 'pobj': {'craftinterventions', 'construct', 'assumptions', 'relevance'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'ccomp': {'bring'}, 'dobj': {'clarity', 'changes', 'efforts'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'conj': {'regulatory', 'performance', 'desired', 'inform'}, 'relcl': {'lead'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'pcomp': {'improvedlearning'}} Long High Medium
3607 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Speci fically, what I extracted from these six contributions are five shared assumptions about the nature and promotion of relevance 20 10 {'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'Speci'}, 'advmod': {'fically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'csubj': {'extracted'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'six'}, 'pobj': {'nature', 'relevance', 'contributions'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'nmod': {'five'}, 'amod': {'shared'}, 'attr': {'assumptions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'promotion'}} Long High Low
3608 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Those assumptions that call for critical analysis are: /C15What is taught or what is tasked in schools has relevance that simply awaits identi fication 24 12 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'Those'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'assumptions'}, 'relcl': {'awaits', 'call'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'amod': {'critical'}, 'pobj': {'schools', 'analysis'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'nsubjpass': {'/C15What', 'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'taught'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'csubj': {'tasked'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'conj': {'relevance'}, 'advmod': {'simply'}, 'compound': {'identi'}, 'dobj': {'fication'}} Long High Low
3609 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance /C15When relevance with content and tasks is forged, improved learning or performance will eventu- ally be realized.128P 17 6 {'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'compound': {'/C15When'}, 'nsubjpass': {'relevance'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'content'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'tasks'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'forged', 'be'}, 'punct': {',', 'realized.128P'}, 'amod': {'improved'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'ally'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'eventu-'}} Medium High Low
3610 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance /C15The identi fication of relevance requires the learner (the who) to forge a personal association with what is being taught or tasked (the what) 24 13 {'INTJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [INTJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PRON, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, DET, PRON, PUNCT] {'intj': {'/C15The'}, 'compound': {'identi'}, 'nsubj': {'fication'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'relevance'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'learner', 'association'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'who'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'forge'}, 'amod': {'personal'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'taught'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'tasked'}, 'parataxis': {'what'}} Long High Low
3611 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance /C15There are ways to increase the possibility that learners will recognize the meaningfulness, value, or utility of what is being taught and what is being tasked 26 15 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, AUX, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'learners', '/C15There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'ways'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to', 'will'}, 'relcl': {'tasked', 'increase'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'meaningfulness', 'possibility'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'recognize'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'value', 'utility'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'taught'}} Long High Medium
3612 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance /C15Relevance is a construct of signi ficance for all learners and all academic content and tasks 16 8 {'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'/C15Relevance'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'all'}, 'attr': {'construct'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'compound': {'signi'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'ficance'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'academic'}, 'conj': {'content', 'tasks'}} Medium High Low
3613 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Inherent relevance What struck me about these treatises in general was that the contributors seemed to accept the idea that there is, in fact, relevance to be found in the “whats ”of schooling —the content and assignments that students in elementary, secondary, or tertiary education encounter 46 26 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'Inherent', 'elementary', 'general'}, 'npadvmod': {'relevance'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'contributors', 'What', 'what'}, 'csubj': {'struck'}, 'dobj': {'idea', 'me', 'that'}, 'prep': {'s', 'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'encounter', 'education', 'schooling', 'treatises', 'fact'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'seemed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'found', 'accept'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'acl': {'is', 'relevance'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '—', '“'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'appos': {'content'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'assignments', 'tertiary', 'secondary'}} Long High High
3614 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Thus, the task for students ismerely to unearth that meaningfulness, to recognize the utility of that content, or to become intrinsi-cally motivated by the assignments given 26 14 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'ismerely', 'cally'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'task'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'content', 'assignments'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ROOT': {'unearth'}, 'dobj': {'meaningfulness', 'utility'}, 'xcomp': {'recognize'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'become'}, 'npadvmod': {'intrinsi'}, 'acomp': {'motivated'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'advcl': {'given'}} Long High Low
3615 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Is every topic, every lesson, and every task that students encounter valuable, signi ficant, or personally interesting 17 7 {'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ] {'ROOT': {'Is'}, 'det': {'every'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'topic'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'lesson'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'task', 'interesting'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'ficant'}, 'relcl': {'encounter'}, 'amod': {'valuable'}, 'compound': {'signi'}, 'advmod': {'personally'}} Medium High Low
3616 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Having spent a good many years as a public school teacher and then as a university professor, Ihave perused numerous curricula, observed countless lessons, scanned many a school textbook, andevaluated an array of assignments and assessments 36 13 {'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1} [AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'aux': {'Having'}, 'csubj': {'spent'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'amod': {'countless', 'numerous', 'observed', 'many', 'good', 'public'}, 'dobj': {'lessons', 'years', 'array', 'textbook', 'curricula'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'compound': {'university', 'school'}, 'pobj': {'assignments', 'teacher', 'professor'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'Ihave'}, 'conj': {'assessments', 'perused', 'andevaluated'}, 'ROOT': {'scanned'}, 'predet': {'many'}} Long High Low
3617 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Throughout those experiences, I often felt uncer-tain of the merits of what was being taught, tasked, or tested 18 11 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'Throughout', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'experiences', 'merits'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'ROOT': {'felt'}, 'compound': {'uncer'}, 'dobj': {'tain'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'aux': {'was'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'taught'}, 'conj': {'tasked', 'tested'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Medium High Low
3618 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance It was unclear to me why topicX waschosen as the focus of a lesson or assignment rather than Y, and I rarely heard teachers describe orillustrate the importance of what was being taught, tasked, or tested 36 20 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 5} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, SCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'nsubj': {'I', 'teachers', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'unclear'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'lesson', 'me', 'waschosen', 'focus'}, 'advmod': {'rather', 'rarely', 'why'}, 'ccomp': {'topicX', 'describe'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'cc': {'or', 'than', 'and'}, 'conj': {'assignment', 'heard', 'Y', 'tasked', 'tested'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dobj': {'importance', 'orillustrate'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'aux': {'was'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'taught'}} Long High Medium
3619 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance It has long been my mantra that educators at all levels are teaching less and less about more and more (Alexander, 2017;A lex a nder ,M ur phy ,&Wo ods , 1996) 32 16 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'It', 'educators'}, 'aux': {'has', 'are'}, 'advmod': {'about', 'less', 'long'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'attr': {'mantra'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'at'}, 'det': {'a', 'all'}, 'pobj': {'levels'}, 'ccomp': {'teaching'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'phy', 'less', 'ods', 'more'}, 'punct': {'(', 'Wo', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Alexander', 'nder'}, 'nummod': {'2017;A'}, 'appos': {'1996', 'lex'}, 'compound': {'ur', 'M'}} Long High Medium
3620 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Further, it is sometimes a struggle to identify the principled knowledge that educators are seeking to promote in their students not only at the lesson or task level but also in terms of the academic do main or discipline of concern 41 25 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'sometimes', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'educators'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'struggle'}, 'aux': {'do', 'are', 'to'}, 'acl': {'identify'}, 'amod': {'principled'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'seeking'}, 'xcomp': {'promote'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'terms', 'students', 'lesson', 'concern', 'academic'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'compound': {'task'}, 'conj': {'discipline', 'level', 'in'}, 'ccomp': {'main'}} Long High Medium
3621 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance I use the term principled knowledge to denote those concepts or procedures that are core to a domain and that are foundational to subsequent learning in that field (Alexander et al., 1996; Gelman & Greeno, 1989) 36 15 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'use'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'those'}, 'dobj': {'concepts', 'knowledge', 'term'}, 'amod': {'principled', 'subsequent'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'denote'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'Greeno', 'procedures', 'are'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'foundational', 'core'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'field', 'learning'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'Alexander'}, 'nmod': {'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'Gelman', 'al'}, 'attr': {'.'}, 'appos': {'1989', '1996'}} Long High Low
3622 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance When students and teachers grasp those principles, they can see them re flected in the content and are more likely to recog- nize the value or utility of a speci fic lesson or task meant to build on those principles 40 22 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'INTJ': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, ADJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, INTJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'them', 'they'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'task', 'utility', 'teachers', 'are'}, 'advcl': {'grasp'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'dobj': {'value', 'principles'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'ccomp': {'flected', 're'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'lesson', 'principles'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'xcomp': {'recog-', 'nize', 'build'}, 'nmod': {'speci'}, 'compound': {'fic'}, 'acl': {'meant'}} Long High Medium
3623 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Moreover, teachers are better prepared to illuminate that val ue or utility to their students during the flow of instruction 20 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'better'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'teachers'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'prepared'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'illuminate'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'val'}, 'dobj': {'ue'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'utility'}, 'prep': {'during', 'to', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'instruction', 'flow'}} Long High Low
3624 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In reality, however, the mile-wide-and-inch-deep cu rriculum is well established in the educational sys- tem (Schmidt, Houang, & Cogan, 2011) 20 8 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reality', 'tem'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'however'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'mile', '2011'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'wide'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'deep', 'Houang', 'inch', 'Cogan'}, 'compound': {'sys-', 'cu'}, 'nsubjpass': {'rriculum'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'established'}, 'appos': {'Schmidt'}} Long High Low
3625 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Lessons are crammed with questi onable information, the signi fi- cance of which is rarely re flected upon 18 8 {'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, X, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, VERB, SCONJ] {'nsubjpass': {'Lessons'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'crammed'}, 'prep': {'with', 'upon', 'of'}, 'amod': {'questi', 'onable'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'information'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'signi'}, 'nummod': {'fi-'}, 'nsubj': {'cance'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'rarely'}, 'intj': {'re'}, 'advcl': {'flected'}} Medium High Medium
3626 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance My purpose in raising this dep ressing thought is that efforts to interject relevance into learning and instructions hould consider a more systemic approach 24 10 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'My'}, 'nsubj': {'efforts', 'purpose'}, 'prep': {'into', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'raising'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'amod': {'ressing', 'systemic', 'dep'}, 'dobj': {'thought', 'approach', 'relevance'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'hould', 'to'}, 'acl': {'interject'}, 'pobj': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'instructions'}, 'ccomp': {'consider'}, 'advmod': {'more'}} Long High Medium
3627 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Even as edu- cators and educational researchers labor to help students find some personal value or utility in what is being taught, tasked, or tested, there should be con comitant efforts to reframe and reform what is being taught, tasked, and tested 42 20 {'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 9, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 2} [ADV, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'Even'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'educational', 'edu-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'cators'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'utility', 'tasked', 'tested', 'reform', 'researchers'}, 'advcl': {'help', 'labor'}, 'aux': {'should', 'is', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'find', 'taught'}, 'det': {'some'}, 'dobj': {'value'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'taught'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'compound': {'con', 'comitant'}, 'attr': {'efforts'}, 'acl': {'reframe'}} Long High Medium
3628 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance These reforms efforts will undoubtedly require supports for teachers as they work to identify the principled domain and topic kno wledge that warrants instructional time and as they consider ways to communicate the signi ficance and relevance of that content to their students 43 19 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'det': {'that', 'the', 'These'}, 'compound': {'signi', 'topic', 'reforms', 'kno'}, 'nsubj': {'efforts', 'that', 'they'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'advmod': {'undoubtedly'}, 'ROOT': {'require'}, 'dobj': {'domain', 'supports', 'ways', 'ficance'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'content', 'teachers'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'work', 'identify'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'principled'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'wledge', 'relevance', 'consider'}, 'relcl': {'warrants', 'communicate'}, 'npadvmod': {'time'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
3629 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance That is to say, even as researchers devise student-level interventions intended to instigate relevance judgments, it would seem imperative that educators and curriculum developers at all levels of schoolstake a long and hard look at what they are teaching 39 21 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'That', 'they', 'it', 'researchers', 'educators'}, 'parataxis': {'is'}, 'aux': {'would', 'are', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'say', 'instigate'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'devise'}, 'compound': {'curriculum', 'level', 'relevance', 'student'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'interventions', 'judgments'}, 'acl': {'intended'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'oprd': {'imperative'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'developers', 'hard'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'all'}, 'pobj': {'schoolstake', 'levels'}, 'amod': {'long'}, 'ccomp': {'look'}, 'pcomp': {'teaching'}} Long High High
3630 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance There should be a concerted effort to de fine the principled knowledge that warrants time and attention in academic domains and to ensure that stu-dents both understand the signi ficance of that content and have ample opportunity to learn it 40 20 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON] {'expl': {'There'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'concerted', 'ample', 'principled'}, 'attr': {'effort'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'signi', 'de', 'stu'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'domains', 'fine'}, 'appos': {'knowledge', 'both'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'dents'}, 'relcl': {'warrants'}, 'dobj': {'opportunity', 'time', 'ficance', 'it'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ensure', 'attention', 'have'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'ccomp': {'understand'}, 'acl': {'learn'}} Long High Medium
3631 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Thus, the practice of teaching less and less about more and more should be abandoned 15 12 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'about', 'less'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'practice'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pcomp': {'teaching'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'less', 'more'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'abandoned'}} Medium High Low
3632 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Instead, the practiceshould be to teach more about less, with the less comprising concepts and procedures of signi ficance — a signi ficance that can be communicated meaningfully to students 30 16 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Instead', 'about', 'meaningfully', 'less'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'practiceshould'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'teach'}, 'dobj': {'less', 'more'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'comprising'}, 'pobj': {'concepts', 'students', 'ficance'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'procedures'}, 'compound': {'signi'}, 'appos': {'ficance'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'communicated'}} Long High Low
3633 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Improved learning/performance Yet another assumption that appears to guide the work of the contributing authors is that students ’rec- ognition of relevance will ultimately result in improved learning or enhanced performance 31 13 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'SYM': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, ADV, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Improved'}, 'nmod': {'learning', 'students'}, 'punct': {'’', '/'}, 'nsubj': {'performance', 'ognition', 'that'}, 'cc': {'or', 'Yet'}, 'det': {'another', 'the'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'assumption'}, 'relcl': {'appears'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'xcomp': {'guide'}, 'dobj': {'work'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'enhanced', 'contributing', 'rec-', 'improved'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'authors', 'relevance'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'ultimately'}, 'ccomp': {'result'}} Long High Medium
3634 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance I take noissue with the assumption that learners who perceive the value or importance of academic content andTHE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 129 23 10 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NUM] {'nsubj': {'I', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'noissue', 'value'}, 'prep': {'learners', 'with', 'OF', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'EDUCATION', 'JOURNAL', 'assumption'}, 'punct': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'perceive'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'importance'}, 'amod': {'academic'}, 'compound': {'andTHE', 'content', 'EXPERIMENTAL'}, 'nummod': {'129'}} Long High Medium
3635 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance tasks or who find themselves personally interested in what is taught or tasked should generally outper- form those who regard such content or tasks as meaningless, trivial, or mundane 29 14 {'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'tasks', 'who'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'tasked', 'tasks', 'trivial', 'find', 'mundane'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'form', 'themselves', 'those'}, 'advmod': {'generally', 'personally'}, 'advcl': {'interested'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'taught'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'outper-'}, 'relcl': {'regard'}, 'amod': {'such', 'meaningless'}, 'punct': {','}} Long High Low
3636 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance The problem is thatthe path from relevance to improved learning or enhanced performance is by no means direct, as sug-gested by the models described in this issue (e.g., Acee et al., this issue ; Vansteenkiste et al., this issue ) 40 15 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 8} [DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'no', 'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'problem'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'improved', 'enhanced', 'thatthe'}, 'attr': {'.', 'issue', 'path'}, 'prep': {'by', 'to', 'in', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'means', 'issue', 'models', 'learning', 'relevance'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'performance'}, 'advcl': {'is', 'gested'}, 'acomp': {'direct'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'sug'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'acl': {'described'}, 'nmod': {'Acee', 'Vansteenkiste'}, 'compound': {'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}, 'appos': {'issue'}} Long High Medium
3637 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Rather, the contributors seem to envision relevance as instigating changes in students ’attitudes toward the content or tasks, which in turn evokes changes in their behaviors, which should ultimately contrib-ute to positive academic outcomes 34 16 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'ultimately', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'contributors'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'envision'}, 'dobj': {'attitudes', 'changes', 'relevance'}, 'prep': {'as', 'toward', 'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'instigating'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'students', 'turn', 'outcomes', 'behaviors'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'tasks'}, 'relcl': {'evokes', 'ute'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'contrib'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'academic'}} Long High Low
3638 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For example, that indirect path to learning or performance outcomes is seen in the process model offered by Vansteenkiste et al 21 8 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'prep': {'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'model', 'example', 'et'}, 'punct': {',', 'al'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'indirect'}, 'nsubjpass': {'path'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'Vansteenkiste', 'process'}, 'conj': {'outcomes'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'seen'}, 'acl': {'offered'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
3639 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In their model, rationale-related features contribute to per- ceptions of self-relevance on the learner ’s part and to the process of internalization central to SDT 25 13 {'ADP': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PROPN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nmod': {'model'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’s'}, 'npadvmod': {'rationale'}, 'amod': {'per-', 'related'}, 'pobj': {'features', 'ceptions', 'SDT', 'central', 'process', 'learner', 'relevance'}, 'ROOT': {'contribute'}, 'compound': {'self', 'internalization'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'part'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'to'}} Long High Low
3640 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Subsequently, when these changes of perception and internalization are realized, learners are expectedto manifest not only increased engagement and a greater sense of well-being but also improved learn-ing and performance 30 16 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'when', 'also', 'Subsequently', 'well'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'changes'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'being', 'perception'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'improved', 'performance', 'internalization', 'sense'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'realized'}, 'nsubj': {'learners'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'compound': {'expectedto'}, 'attr': {'engagement', 'manifest'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'amod': {'increased', 'greater'}, 'xcomp': {'learn'}, 'dobj': {'ing'}} Long High Medium
3641 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Similarly, the value-reappraisal intervention devised by Acee and Weinstein(2010 ) and referenced in several of the articles in this issue was found to prompt shifts in the values students placed on the learning of statistics and on their views of the utility of statistics for accomplish-ing future goals 48 24 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 11, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Similarly'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'values', 'reappraisal', 'value'}, 'nsubjpass': {'intervention', 'several'}, 'acl': {'placed', 'devised'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'goals', 'Acee', 'issue', 'utility', 'students', 'learning', 'statistics', 'articles', 'views'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'on', 'Weinstein(2010', 'referenced'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'prompt'}, 'dobj': {'shifts'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'future', 'ing', 'accomplish'}} Long High Low
3642 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance However, even as they reported on the bene fits of this intervention, Acee and Weinstein acknowledged that there was only “tentative evidence ”that the intervention “could increase students ’performance on course exams but these bene fits seemed to depend on unknown instructor and course factors ”(p 46 23 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 15, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'However', 'even'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'intervention', 'Acee', 'fits', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'reported'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'compound': {'course', 'bene'}, 'pobj': {'intervention', 'fits', 'exams', 'factors'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'course', 'Weinstein', 'seemed'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledged'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'amod': {'tentative', 'unknown'}, 'attr': {'evidence'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'acl': {'increase'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'performance'}, 'xcomp': {'depend'}, 'nmod': {'instructor'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long High High
3643 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Indeed, tentative evidence of the effects of relevance on learning and performance was what gener- ally characterized the articles populating this issue or referenced by the contributing authors 28 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'contributing', 'gener-', 'tentative'}, 'nsubj': {'evidence', 'ally'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'effects', 'authors', 'relevance'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'referenced'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'dative': {'what'}, 'ccomp': {'characterized'}, 'dobj': {'articles', 'issue'}, 'acl': {'populating'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
3644 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Whatwas more evident was that efforts to help students see the value or utility of what is being taught ortasked is more likely to translate into self-reported changes in attitudes or an expressed willingness tobe more strategically engaged 38 19 {'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PROPN, ADV, ADJ, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, VERB, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB] {'nsubj': {'students', 'value', 'Whatwas', 'efforts', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'strategically', 'more'}, 'amod': {'expressed', 'evident', 'reported'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to'}, 'acl': {'help'}, 'ccomp': {'see', 'is'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'utility'}, 'prep': {'into', 'tobe', 'of', 'in'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'taught'}, 'oprd': {'ortasked'}, 'acomp': {'engaged', 'likely'}, 'xcomp': {'translate'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'attitudes', 'changes'}, 'compound': {'willingness'}} Long High Medium
3645 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance The lingering question that must then be asked is whether such self- reported changes in attitudes or perceptions in the short term translate into documented changes in students ’learning behaviors over the long term 34 16 {'DET': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'lingering', 'documented', 'short', 'such', 'long', 'reported'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'self-', 'question'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'advmod': {'then'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'asked'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'attr': {'changes'}, 'prep': {'over', 'into', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'term', 'attitudes', 'translate', 'changes'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'perceptions'}, 'compound': {'term'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'behaviors'}} Long High Medium
3646 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Even more importantly, it is important to ask what the true value or utility of efforts to transform students ’perceptions of personal relevance amounts to if there is no empirical evidence that their learning and performance is positively impacted 39 20 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 2} [ADV, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'importantly', 'more', 'Even', 'positively'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'value'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'ask'}, 'pobj': {'efforts', 'what', 'relevance'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'true', 'empirical'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'utility'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'acl': {'transform', 'impacted'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'perceptions'}, 'ccomp': {'amounts'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'evidence'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubjpass': {'learning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}} Long High High
3647 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Thus, asthe theoretical and empirical work on relevance progresses, I would expect to see more attention paidto the immediate and long-term effects on students ’learning or academic performance 28 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'det': {'asthe', 'the'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'immediate', 'long', 'academic', 'more'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'performance', 'term', 'empirical'}, 'dep': {'work'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'compound': {'relevance'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'progresses'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'expect'}, 'xcomp': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'attention'}, 'ccomp': {'paidto'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}} Long High Low
3648 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Learner responsibility Given the contributors ’orientations toward relevance as a motivational construct, their emphases on individual learners and the personal or intrinsic association they perceive between themselves and theobjects or “whats ”of instruction seem justi fiably placed 37 17 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, ADV, VERB] {'amod': {'motivational', 'personal', 'Learner', 'individual'}, 'nsubj': {'responsibility', 'what', 'they', 'emphases', 'justi'}, 'prep': {'on', 'Given', 'of', 'toward', 'as', 'between'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'contributors', 'construct', 'learners', 'themselves', 'relevance', 'instruction'}, 'punct': {'’', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'orientations'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'s', 'theobjects', 'association', 'intrinsic'}, 'relcl': {'perceive'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'advmod': {'fiably'}, 'ccomp': {'placed'}} Long High Low
3649 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Within the context of school-based learning and instruction, however, there is yet another dimension to relevance that warrants consideration — rooted relevance (Alexander et al., 1996 ) 27 11 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'Within', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'context'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'school'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '—', '(', ','}, 'amod': {'based', 'rooted'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'.', 'instruction'}, 'advmod': {'yet', 'another', 'however'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'dimension'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'relevance'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'warrants', 'Alexander', 'et'}, 'dobj': {'consideration'}, 'appos': {'1996', 'relevance'}} Long High Medium
3650 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Before I de fine this term, let me provide a bit of context for its generation 16 8 {'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 2} [ADP, PRON, ADP, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'of', 'Before'}, 'nmod': {'I', 'de'}, 'pobj': {'generation', 'context', 'fine'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'npadvmod': {'term'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'let'}, 'nsubj': {'me'}, 'ccomp': {'provide'}, 'dobj': {'bit'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Medium High Low
3651 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For some time, I had been wrestling with the question of why so many educational inno-vations fail and why there is the tendency among educators and policymakers to revisit some iteration of failed techniques over and over (Alexander & Knight, 1993 ) 42 24 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'among', 'with', 'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'techniques', 'time', 'question', 'educators'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'vations'}, 'aux': {'to', 'had', 'been'}, 'ROOT': {'wrestling'}, 'advmod': {'so', 'why', 'over'}, 'amod': {'many', 'failed', 'educational'}, 'compound': {'inno'}, 'pcomp': {'fail'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'conj': {'policymakers', 'is', 'Alexander', 'Knight', 'over'}, 'attr': {'tendency'}, 'acl': {'revisit'}, 'dobj': {'iteration'}, 'npadvmod': {'1993'}} Long High High
3652 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Moreover, through our research, my colleagues and I (Alexander, Murphy, & Woods, 1997 ) became aware of a lack of foundational domain and disciplinary knowledge among educators responsible forteaching others 30 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'through', 'among', 'of'}, 'poss': {'our', 'my'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'research', 'lack', 'educators'}, 'nsubj': {'colleagues'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'I', 'Murphy', 'knowledge', 'Woods'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'1997'}, 'ROOT': {'became'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'disciplinary', 'foundational', 'responsible'}, 'xcomp': {'forteaching'}, 'dobj': {'others'}} Long High Low
3653 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Thus, we came to see that lack of domain or disciplinary knowledge as one of thebarriers to effective school reform (Alexander et al., 1996 ) 25 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'came'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'see'}, 'det': {'that'}, 'dobj': {'lack'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'reform', 'one', 'thebarriers'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'disciplinary', 'effective'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', '.'}, 'compound': {'Alexander', 'school', 'et'}, 'appos': {'1996', 'al'}} Long High Low
3654 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance We concluded that particular treatise by forwarding several recommendations we felt would help to break this unhealthy cycle and contributeto more effective instruction 23 10 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'concluded'}, 'det': {'that', 'this'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'unhealthy', 'several', 'effective'}, 'dobj': {'treatise', 'recommendations', 'cycle', 'instruction'}, 'prep': {'by'}, 'pcomp': {'forwarding'}, 'relcl': {'felt'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'help'}, 'xcomp': {'break'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'contributeto'}, 'advmod': {'more'}} Long High Medium
3655 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance I have already introduced you to two of those recommendations: Seekprincipled knowledge and teach more about less 17 12 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADV] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'already', 'about'}, 'ccomp': {'introduced'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'less', 'more', 'you'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'two', 'recommendations'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'ROOT': {'Seekprincipled'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'teach'}} Medium High Low
3656 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Still another of those recommendations speaks directly to this special issue on relevance —rooted relevance 15 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADV, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'directly', 'Still'}, 'nsubj': {'another'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'this', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'recommendations', 'relevance', 'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'speaks'}, 'amod': {'rooted', 'special'}, 'punct': {'—'}, 'appos': {'relevance'}} Medium High Low
3657 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In generating the term rooted relevance , my co-authors and I sought to convey that educators hold a dual responsibility in what they teach, task, or test (Alexander et al., 1996 ) 32 12 {'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'co', 'In', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'teach', 'generating'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'term'}, 'amod': {'rooted', 'dual'}, 'dobj': {'.', 'responsibility', 'what', 'relevance'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'authors', '-'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'they', 'educators'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'convey'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'hold'}, 'conj': {'test'}, 'compound': {'Alexander'}, 'nmod': {'et'}, 'appos': {'1996'}} Long High Medium
3658 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance On the one hand, they should be suf ficiently rooted in (i.e., knowledgeable about) the domains and disciplines they teach so130P 21 11 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'about', 'On', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'hand', 'domains'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'npadvmod': {'suf'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'ficiently'}, 'acomp': {'rooted'}, 'amod': {'knowledgeable'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'disciplines'}, 'relcl': {'teach'}, 'dobj': {'so130P'}} Long High Low
3659 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance they can represent those domains and disciplines substantively, accurately, and meaningfully to their students 14 7 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'they'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'represent'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'dobj': {'domains'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'meaningfully', 'disciplines'}, 'advmod': {'accurately', 'substantively'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'students'}} Medium High Low
3660 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance On the other hand, educators must know their students well enough to understand how thosedomains and disciplines naturally relate to learners ’individual goals, interests, and experiences 26 12 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADV, ADV, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'On'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'other', 'individual'}, 'pobj': {'goals', 'hand'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'thosedomains', 'educators'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'know'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'advmod': {'naturally', 'well', 'enough', 'how'}, 'xcomp': {'understand'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'experiences', 'interests', 'disciplines'}, 'ccomp': {'relate'}, 'nmod': {'learners'}} Long High Medium
3661 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance What we wanted to make evident was that, neither rootedness nor relevancy alone will break the unendingcycle of innovation/condemnation/innovation that has been established in educational research andpractice 27 16 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'SYM': 2} [PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, AUX, SCONJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'dobj': {'unendingcycle', 'What', 'evident'}, 'nsubj': {'rootedness', 'we'}, 'csubj': {'wanted'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to', 'will'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'punct': {',', '/'}, 'preconj': {'neither'}, 'cc': {'nor'}, 'conj': {'relevancy'}, 'advmod': {'alone'}, 'ccomp': {'break'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'nmod': {'condemnation', 'innovation'}, 'pobj': {'andpractice', 'innovation'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'established'}, 'amod': {'educational'}, 'compound': {'research'}} Long High Medium
3662 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance What seems requisite is a relevance to real-world, contemporary problems that is also wellrooted in the histories and theories upon which they are based 24 15 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'What'}, 'csubj': {'seems'}, 'oprd': {'requisite'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'relevance'}, 'prep': {'upon', 'to', 'in'}, 'amod': {'real', 'contemporary'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'world', 'histories', 'which'}, 'dep': {'problems'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that', 'they'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'are'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'relcl': {'based', 'wellrooted'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'theories'}} Long High Medium
3663 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance 39) Consequently, just as there needs to be a more systematic approach to relevance within the educa- tional system, teachers have a signi ficant and mediating role to play 29 14 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB] {'ROOT': {'have', '39'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'Consequently', 'more'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'needs', 'relevance', 'play'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'tional', 'educa-'}, 'attr': {'approach'}, 'prep': {'within'}, 'pobj': {'system'}, 'nsubj': {'teachers'}, 'compound': {'signi'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'ficant'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'mediating'}} Long High Medium
3664 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Educators at all levels need to con- sider how what they teach, task, or test is meaningful to the domain under study, while simultaneouslycommunicating the personal value or meaning that content holds for the students 35 17 {'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'task', 'content', 'Educators', 'they'}, 'prep': {'under', 'at', 'to', 'for'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'study', 'students', 'levels'}, 'ROOT': {'need'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'compound': {'con-'}, 'xcomp': {'sider'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'value'}, 'advcl': {'simultaneouslycommunicating', 'teach'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'meaning', 'is', 'test'}, 'acomp': {'meaningful'}, 'mark': {'while', 'that'}, 'amod': {'personal'}, 'ccomp': {'holds'}} Long High High
3665 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Augmented relevance As a devotee of John Dewey, it is always pleasing to see his writings acknowledged when someone is trying to unravel the complexities of psycho logical constructs like relevance 31 15 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'amod': {'Augmented', 'logical'}, 'dep': {'relevance'}, 'prep': {'like', 'As', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'devotee', 'relevance', 'Dewey', 'constructs'}, 'compound': {'John'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'someone', 'it', 'writings'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'always'}, 'acomp': {'pleasing'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'see', 'unravel'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'ccomp': {'acknowledged'}, 'advcl': {'trying'}, 'dobj': {'complexities'}, 'nmod': {'psycho'}} Long High Medium
3666 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Yet, there was a bit of irony for me in the contributors ’referencing of Dewey when I consider the speci fic approaches to forging relevance they overview and the populations that were of primary con cern to them 38 22 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON] {'advmod': {'when', 'Yet'}, 'punct': {',', 'populations', '’'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'referencing', 'bit'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'them', 'irony', 'contributors', 'cern', 'me', 'Dewey'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'fic', 'that', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'consider'}, 'compound': {'con', 'speci'}, 'ccomp': {'approaches'}, 'pcomp': {'forging'}, 'dobj': {'relevance'}, 'relcl': {'overview', 'were'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'primary'}} Long High Medium
3667 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance As with the editors of this special issue, I see the shadow of Dew ey looming large when the idea of relevance is framed as that which is personally meaningful or interesting 32 18 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'prep': {'as', 'with', 'As', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'editors', 'issue', 'Dew', 'that', 'relevance'}, 'amod': {'special'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'I', 'ey'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'large', 'shadow'}, 'ccomp': {'looming'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'personally'}, 'nsubjpass': {'idea'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'framed', 'is'}, 'acomp': {'meaningful'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'interesting'}} Long High Medium
3668 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance One insight I drew from Dewey ( 1913) pertained tom i sgu ide def fort so fs om eed uc a tor st om ak ewh a ti st a ught “interesting ”to students 34 9 {'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 8, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'INTJ': 3, 'DET': 3} [NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, INTJ, PROPN, PROPN, INTJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, INTJ, DET, PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'insight', 'I', 'sgu'}, 'relcl': {'drew'}, 'prep': {'to', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'st', 'Dewey'}, 'punct': {'fort', ')', '(', '”', '“'}, 'appos': {'1913'}, 'ROOT': {'ewh', 'ak', 'pertained', 'eed'}, 'dobj': {'tom'}, 'nmod': {'tor', 'i'}, 'conj': {'ide'}, 'amod': {'def'}, 'advmod': {'ught', 'so'}, 'intj': {'uc', 'fs'}, 'compound': {'ti', 'om', 'st'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'npadvmod': {'om'}, 'ccomp': {'interesting'}} Long High Low
3669 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance As he wrote: Here, and here only, have we the reality of the idea of “making things interesting 18 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADJ] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'things', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'wrote'}, 'punct': {',', ':', '“'}, 'advmod': {'Here', 'only', 'here'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'reality'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'idea'}, 'pcomp': {'making'}, 'ccomp': {'interesting'}} Medium High Medium
3670 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ”I know of no more demoraliz- ing doctrine —when taken literally —than the assertion of some of the opponents of interest that after subject-mat- ter has been selected, then the teacher should make it interesting 35 21 {'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 3} [PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ] {'punct': {',', '-', '”', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'teacher', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'know'}, 'prep': {'than', 'of'}, 'neg': {'no'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'when', 'more', 'literally'}, 'amod': {'ing', 'demoraliz-'}, 'pobj': {'opponents', 'some', 'interest', 'doctrine', 'assertion'}, 'ccomp': {'interesting', 'taken'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'mark': {'after', 'that'}, 'compound': {'subject', 'mat-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ter'}, 'aux': {'should', 'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advcl': {'selected'}, 'acl': {'make'}} Long High High
3671 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance On one side, it makes the selection of subject-matter a matter quite independent of the question of inter- est—that is to say of the child ’s native urgencies and needs; and, further, it reduces method in instruction to more or less external and arti ficial devices for dressing up the unrelated materials, so that they will get some hold upon attention 61 38 {'ADP': 9, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 6, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 3} [ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'On', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'upon'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'side', 'question', 'matter', 'est', 'attention', 'devices', 'child', 'instruction'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '-', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'makes'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'some'}, 'dobj': {'hold', 'urgencies', 'method', 'materials', 'selection'}, 'compound': {'subject'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'further'}, 'amod': {'inter-', 'independent', 'native', 'unrelated', 'more', 'ficial'}, 'parataxis': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'xcomp': {'say'}, 'ccomp': {'’s'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'external', 'arti', 'reduces', 'needs', 'less'}, 'pcomp': {'dressing'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'mark': {'that', 'so'}, 'advcl': {'get'}} Long High High
3672 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance 23) Dewey goes on to explain how meaningfulness or personal interest is better manifest within school- ing—an explanation that echoes what my co-authors and I (Alexander et al., 1996 ) tried to capture in our notion of rooted relevance 39 16 {'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 5} [NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'goes', '23', 'tried'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'authors', 'meaningfulness', 'co', 'that', 'Dewey'}, 'prt': {'on'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'explain'}, 'advmod': {'better', 'how'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'amod': {'rooted', 'personal'}, 'conj': {'interest', '.'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'manifest'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'et', 'school-'}, 'pobj': {'ing', 'relevance', 'notion'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'appos': {'explanation', 'Alexander', '1996'}, 'relcl': {'echoes'}, 'dobj': {'-', 'what'}, 'poss': {'our', 'my'}, 'npadvmod': {'al'}, 'xcomp': {'capture'}} Long High Medium
3673 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In reality, the principle of “making things interesting ”means that subjects be selected in relation to the child ’s present experience, powers, and needs and that (in case he does not perceive or appreciate this relevancy) the newmaterial be presented in such a way as to enable the child to appreciate its bearings, its relationships, its value in connection with what already has signi ficance for him 67 37 {'ADP': 9, 'NOUN': 19, 'PUNCT': 9, 'DET': 7, 'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 6, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADV, AUX, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'him', 'connection', 'way', 'reality', 'relation', 'case', 'child'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'principle', 'he', 'things', 'what'}, 'pcomp': {'making', 'has'}, 'ccomp': {'interesting', 'selected'}, 'ROOT': {'means', 'presented'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'subjects', 'newmaterial'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'dep': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'present'}, 'conj': {'experience', 'powers', 'relationships', 'value', 'needs', 'appreciate', 'perceive'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'dobj': {'bearings', 'relevancy', 'ficance', 'child'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'advcl': {'enable'}, 'xcomp': {'appreciate'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'advmod': {'already'}, 'compound': {'signi'}, 'dative': {'for'}} Long High High
3674 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance 23 –24) I invoke Dewey ( 1913) here due to concerns that arose from how contributors to this issue described interventions meant to help learners recognize the va lue, utility, or meaningfulness within what is being taught and tasked 39 17 {'NUM': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ] {'meta': {'23'}, 'punct': {'(', '–', ',', ')'}, 'prep': {'within', 'from', '24', 'to', 'due'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that', 'contributors'}, 'ROOT': {'invoke'}, 'dobj': {'learners', 'lue', 'interventions', 'Dewey'}, 'appos': {'1913'}, 'advmod': {'here', 'how'}, 'pcomp': {'described', 'to', 'taught'}, 'pobj': {'concerns', 'issue'}, 'relcl': {'arose'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'acl': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'help'}, 'conj': {'tasked', 'recognize', 'utility', 'meaningfulness'}, 'compound': {'va'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}} Long High Medium
3675 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance My concerns rest not so much on what these experts say, but rather what was not said about enhancing perceptions of relevance 22 15 {'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, NOUN, VERB, PART, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'poss': {'My'}, 'nsubj': {'experts', 'concerns'}, 'ROOT': {'rest'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'much', 'so', 'rather'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'of'}, 'dobj': {'perceptions', 'what'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'pcomp': {'say', 'enhancing'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'conj': {'said'}, 'pobj': {'relevance'}} Long High Low
3676 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Fr om my vantage point, the interventions were wholly aimed at learners and their efforts to find something of value, utility, or meaningfulness in the content and assignments given them 30 14 {'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON] {'advcl': {'Fr'}, 'prep': {'given', 'in', 'om', 'of', 'at'}, 'poss': {'my', 'their'}, 'compound': {'vantage'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'them', 'value', 'learners', 'point'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'interventions'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'wholly'}, 'ROOT': {'aimed'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'assignments', 'efforts', 'utility', 'meaningfulness'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'find'}, 'dobj': {'something'}} Long High Low
3677 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance There was little said about the responsibilities of teachers in this endeavor 12 7 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'amod': {'little'}, 'acomp': {'said'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'responsibilities', 'endeavor', 'teachers'}} Medium High Low
3678 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For Dewey, the role of the teacher in illuminating relevance is made apparent, and the onus for finding personal meaningfulness is no longer conveyed as the sole or primary responsibility of the students 33 17 {'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'of', 'for', 'For', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'teacher', 'Dewey', 'responsibility'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'role', 'onus'}, 'pcomp': {'illuminating', 'finding'}, 'dobj': {'meaningfulness', 'relevance'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'oprd': {'apparent'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'sole'}, 'neg': {'no'}, 'advmod': {'longer'}, 'conj': {'primary', 'conveyed'}} Long High Low
3679 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance I appreciate that several contributors mentioned educators ’explication of the value or utility of what they were teaching or assigning to students (Vansteenkiste et al., this issue ) 28 13 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'I', 'contributors', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'appreciate'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'several'}, 'ccomp': {'mentioned'}, 'poss': {'educators'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'explication', 'what'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'al', 'value'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'.', 'utility', 'assigning'}, 'aux': {'were'}, 'pcomp': {'teaching'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Vansteenkiste', 'issue'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Medium
3680 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance However, I would caution that merely “mentioning ”the value or utility of what is taught or tasked may have limited effect 21 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'merely', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'would', 'may'}, 'ROOT': {'caution'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'mentioning'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'effect', 'value'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'tasked', 'have', 'utility'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'taught'}, 'amod': {'limited'}} Long High Medium
3681 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance As with Walkington and Bernacki (this issue), I would be leery of rather shallow attempts to personalize academic content 19 10 {'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'As', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Walkington', 'attempts'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Bernacki'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'leery'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'amod': {'shallow', 'academic'}, 'acl': {'personalize'}, 'dobj': {'content'}} Medium High Low
3682 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance If there are bene fits to be accrued from more super- ficial or “seductive ”approaches to personalization, those bene fits would likely be short lived 25 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'mark': {'If'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'are', 'accrued'}, 'compound': {'bene'}, 'attr': {'fits'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'prep': {'to', 'from'}, 'amod': {'seductive', 'more', 'ficial'}, 'nmod': {'super-'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'pobj': {'personalization', 'approaches'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'nsubj': {'fits'}, 'advmod': {'short', 'likely'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'lived'}} Long High Medium
3683 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Rather, to echo Dewey ’s(1913 ) words, the content should be presented in such a way that students can “appreci- ate its bearings, its relationships, its value ”(p 28 13 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'SYM': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, PART, VERB, PROPN, SYM, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'that', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to', 'can'}, 'advcl': {'echo'}, 'nmod': {'s(1913', 'Dewey'}, 'dobj': {'bearings', 'words'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'content'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'presented'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'pobj': {'way'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'intj': {'appreci-'}, 'relcl': {'ate'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'conj': {'relationships', 'value'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long High Low
3684 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance I must admit that as I was writing the section, I could hear the voice of my late friend, Claire Ellen Weinstein, echoing in my head 26 14 {'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'could', 'was', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'admit'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'echoing', 'writing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'section', 'voice'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ccomp': {'hear'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'amod': {'late'}, 'pobj': {'head', 'friend'}, 'compound': {'Ellen', 'Claire'}, 'npadvmod': {'Weinstein'}} Long High High
3685 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance She would remind me that students must find a way to help themselves in those situations where teachers are not even mentioning the value, utility, or meaningfulness of thecontent, much less illuminating that relevance for students 36 21 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'DET': 4, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'She', 'teachers', 'students'}, 'aux': {'would', 'are', 'to', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'remind'}, 'dobj': {'me', 'value', 'relevance', 'themselves'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'find'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'those'}, 'npadvmod': {'way'}, 'relcl': {'help', 'mentioning'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'situations', 'thecontent'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'much', 'where', 'even'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'utility', 'meaningfulness'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'advcl': {'illuminating'}} Long High High
3686 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Nonetheless, asmotivation and strategy researchers attempt to inform the education communities about the power ofrelevance, they should aim for interventions that get to the heart of relevance rather than those thatmight rest on tenuous grounds 35 17 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless', 'rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nmod': {'asmotivation'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than'}, 'compound': {'power', 'thatmight', 'strategy', 'education'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'that', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'attempt'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'inform'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'dobj': {'communities'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'about', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'heart', 'ofrelevance', 'interventions', 'grounds', 'relevance'}, 'ROOT': {'aim'}, 'relcl': {'get'}, 'conj': {'rest'}, 'amod': {'tenuous'}} Long High Low
3687 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance There should be attempts to create comprehensive interventions thatmake teachers, students, and the educational system partners in this enterprise 19 8 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'attempts'}, 'acl': {'thatmake', 'create'}, 'amod': {'comprehensive', 'educational'}, 'dobj': {'teachers', 'interventions'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'students', 'partners'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'system'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'enterprise'}} Medium High Low
3688 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Such interventions would not place the responsibility of discovering relevance solely on the back of students who, as novi- ces, may be poorly positioned to see the value, utility, or meaningfulness of what is taught or tasked inthe way more knowledgeable others can and should 45 26 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 6, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, CCONJ, AUX] {'amod': {'Such', 'novi-', 'knowledgeable'}, 'nsubj': {'interventions', 'others'}, 'aux': {'would', 'may', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'place'}, 'det': {'the', 'inthe'}, 'dobj': {'responsibility', 'value', 'relevance'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'discovering', 'taught'}, 'advmod': {'poorly', 'solely', 'more'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'ces', 'back'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what', 'who'}, 'punct': {','}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'relcl': {'positioned'}, 'advcl': {'see'}, 'conj': {'utility', 'tasked', 'can', 'should', 'meaningfulness'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'way'}} Long High Low
3689 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Learner and domain characteristics I would assume that those contributing to this issue would agree that relevance is a construct of signi fi- cance to all learners and all fields of study 32 17 {'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'X': 1} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, X, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nmod': {'Learner'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'fields'}, 'npadvmod': {'characteristics'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'relevance', 'those'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'assume'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'contributing'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'cance', 'learners', 'issue', 'study'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'agree'}, 'attr': {'construct'}, 'compound': {'signi', 'fi-'}} Long High High
3690 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Relevance is not the dominion of any speci fic age group or academic domain 14 6 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, PART, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Relevance'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'attr': {'dominion'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'age', 'fic', 'speci'}, 'pobj': {'group'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'academic'}, 'conj': {'domain'}} Medium High Low
3691 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Even if these authors do not expres sly state this fact, their conceptions, models, and interventions are not explicitly con fine dt op art ic ul a ra ge so rd om a ins .Th a tbe in gs a id ,Iw a saw ar eth at there was a strong emphasis within these articles on students in middle school through college 62 27 {'ADV': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 9, 'NOUN': 17, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 11, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'explicitly', 'sly', 'Even', 'so'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'det': {'a', 'these', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'Iw', 'conceptions'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'expres'}, 'dobj': {'.Th', 'd', 'state'}, 'npadvmod': {'tbe', 'fact'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'models', 'interventions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'saw', 'are'}, 'compound': {'i', 'ra', 'op', 'fine', 'ins', 'ic', 'con', 'dt'}, 'attr': {'emphasis', 'art', 'ge'}, 'appos': {'ul'}, 'dep': {'rd'}, 'prep': {'through', 'on', 'within', 'ar', 'in', 'om', 'at'}, 'pobj': {'eth', 'school', 'college', 'students', 'articles', 'gs'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'amod': {'strong', 'middle'}} Long High Medium
3692 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Therewas also more attention paid to the areas of science and mathematics over other content domains 16 8 {'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Therewas'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'amod': {'other', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'attention'}, 'acl': {'paid'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'over'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'areas', 'domains', 'science'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'mathematics'}, 'compound': {'content'}} Medium High Low
3693 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For example, in their methodological piece, Hartwell and Kaplan ( this issue ) use the written responses of ninth-grade students to questions about the relevance of particular biology topics to theirlives as the source for their MDS analysis of relevance 40 17 {'ADP': 10, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'For', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'piece', 'students', 'analysis', 'questions', 'topics', 'example', 'source', 'relevance', 'theirlives'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'written', 'ninth', 'methodological', 'particular'}, 'nsubj': {'Hartwell'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Kaplan'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'parataxis': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'use'}, 'dobj': {'responses'}, 'compound': {'MDS', 'grade', 'biology'}} Long High Low
3694 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ( this issue ) conduct a secondary analysis of data gathered from an intervention project by Gaspard, Dicke, et al 20 6 {'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 4} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN] {'punct': {'(', 'al', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'conduct'}, 'amod': {'secondary'}, 'dobj': {'analysis'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'data', 'Gaspard', 'project'}, 'acl': {'gathered'}, 'compound': {'intervention'}, 'appos': {'Dicke', 'et'}} Long High Low
3695 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In their development of personalized learning tech- nologies, Walkington and Bernacki (this issue) also targeted mathematics and used students at thesixth- to eighth-grade levels to support their claims 28 12 {'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'at', 'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'thesixth-', 'levels', 'development'}, 'amod': {'eighth', 'personalized'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'compound': {'tech-', 'grade'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'claims', 'nologies', 'mathematics'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Bernacki', 'Walkington', 'used'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'targeted'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'support'}} Long High Low
3696 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ( this issue ) mention perti- nent research at the middle school level, much of what they detail involves high school and college stu-dents 24 8 {'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'mention'}, 'dep': {'perti-'}, 'compound': {'nent', 'school'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'research', 'school'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'amod': {'high', 'stu', 'middle'}, 'pobj': {'level'}, 'advmod': {'much'}, 'pcomp': {'detail', 'involves'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'college'}, 'npadvmod': {'dents'}} Long High Low
3697 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance They likewise build their case for utility-value (UV) interventions around science andmathematics content 13 4 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3} [PRON, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They'}, 'advmod': {'likewise'}, 'ROOT': {'build'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'case'}, 'prep': {'for', 'around'}, 'compound': {'andmathematics', 'utility', 'science'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'nmod': {'value'}, 'appos': {'UV'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'interventions'}} Medium High Low
3698 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance ( this issue ) describe grew out of the challenges that college students faced in finding relevance in their statistics courses 21 8 {'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 2} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'describe', 'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'grew'}, 'prep': {'out', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'challenges', 'relevance', 'courses'}, 'compound': {'statistics', 'finding', 'college'}, 'dep': {'students'}, 'acl': {'faced'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
3699 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance With this clear pattern identi fied, I was left to re flect on why those promoting the relevance of rele- vance had bounded their articles in this manner 28 15 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, PART, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'With', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'clear', 'rele-'}, 'compound': {'identi', 'pattern'}, 'pobj': {'manner', 'fied', 'vance'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'I'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'left'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to', 're'}, 'xcomp': {'flect'}, 'prt': {'on'}, 'advmod': {'why'}, 'nsubj': {'those'}, 'acl': {'promoting'}, 'dobj': {'articles', 'relevance'}, 'ccomp': {'bounded'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
3700 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Were there compelling reasons to situate relevance in middle school, high school, or college or to concentrate on the domains of science and mathematics?Upon re flection, I was able to formulate several plausible reasons for this pattern: research facility, empirical traditions, and academic needs 44 19 {'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 15, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 2} [AUX, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Were'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'amod': {'compelling', 'empirical', 'plausible', 'high', 'several', 'academic', 'middle'}, 'attr': {'reasons', 'facility'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'situate'}, 'dobj': {'reasons', 'relevance'}, 'prep': {'on', 're', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'school', 'science', 'domains', 'pattern', 'flection'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'conj': {'school', 'concentrate', 'college', 'mathematics?Upon', 'traditions', 'needs'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'formulate'}, 'compound': {'research'}} Long High Low
3701 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Research facility In much of what Dewey ( 1897 ,1913 ) writes on interest, he focuses on young children and the organic nature of the interests they manifest 28 12 {'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2} [NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'compound': {'Research'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'Dewey', 'they', 'facility'}, 'prep': {'on', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'interest', 'much', 'interests', 'children'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'1897', '1913'}, 'pcomp': {'writes'}, 'ROOT': {'focuses'}, 'amod': {'young', 'organic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'nature'}, 'relcl': {'manifest'}} Long High Low
3702 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance There is often little need to help the young find interest in educa- tional experiences 15 6 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'amod': {'educa-', 'little', 'tional', 'find', 'young'}, 'attr': {'need'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'help'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'interest'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'experiences'}} Medium High Low
3703 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance They may know what inter-ests them, but they may have little understanding as to why 15 11 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, SCONJ] {'nsubj': {'They', 'they'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'know'}, 'det': {'what'}, 'ccomp': {'ests', '-', 'inter'}, 'dobj': {'them', 'understanding'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'have'}, 'amod': {'little'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'pcomp': {'to', 'why'}} Medium High Medium
3704 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance They also have limited capacity to sharetheir thinking orally or in writing 12 6 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, VERB] {'nsubj': {'They'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'orally'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'amod': {'limited'}, 'dobj': {'capacity'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'compound': {'sharetheir'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'in'}} Medium High Low
3705 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Because of such challenges in studying relevance in the young, itmakes sense that researchers more often focus on older children, adolescents, and adults who are betterable to re flect on and articulate their views about the value, utility, or meaningfulness of what they are being taught or what they are tasked with 52 31 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 6, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 2} [SCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, PART, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP] {'ROOT': {'Because'}, 'pcomp': {'studying', 'of', 'taught'}, 'amod': {'such', 'young', 'older'}, 'pobj': {'children', 'what', 'value', 'sense', 'challenges'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'about'}, 'dobj': {'views', 'what', 'relevance'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'itmakes'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'who'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'more'}, 'acl': {'focus'}, 'conj': {'utility', 'tasked', 'adults', 'articulate', 'adolescents', 'meaningfulness'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'betterable'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to', 're'}, 'xcomp': {'flect'}, 'prt': {'on'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'being'}} Long High High
3706 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Moreover, because relevance as described in this special issue involves an association between a learner and some domain of study or associated task, it helps that older children through adults have amore-developed sense of academic domains 36 17 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'amore', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that', 'because'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'children', 'relevance'}, 'advcl': {'described'}, 'prep': {'through', 'between', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'some', 'an', 'this'}, 'amod': {'associated', 'older', 'developed', 'special', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'adults', 'domains', 'learner', 'study'}, 'ccomp': {'have', 'involves'}, 'dobj': {'sense', 'association'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'task'}, 'ROOT': {'helps'}} Long High High
3707 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In effect, their notions of science and mathematics, biologyor statistics have suf ficient maturity to allow them to re flect upon and respond to questions about the132P 27 13 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, PART, PART, VERB, SCONJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN] {'prep': {'about', 'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'the132P', 'effect', 'questions', 'science'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'statistics', 'them', 'notions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'respond', 'mathematics'}, 'compound': {'biologyor', 'ficient', 'suf'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'maturity'}, 'aux': {'to', 're'}, 'advcl': {'allow'}, 'ccomp': {'flect'}, 'prt': {'upon'}} Long High Medium
3708 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance From the standpoint of facility, there- fore, there is justi fication for the contributing authors ’emphasis on older rather than younger students 22 10 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'From', 'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'emphasis', 'fore', 'standpoint', 'facility'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'there-', 'justi'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'fication'}, 'amod': {'contributing', 'older', 'younger'}, 'poss': {'authors'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'cc': {'than'}} Long High Low
3709 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Empirical traditions There is another plausible reason for the learner and domain emphases observed in this issue 17 8 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'amod': {'Empirical', 'plausible'}, 'nsubj': {'traditions'}, 'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'another', 'the', 'this'}, 'attr': {'reason'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'nmod': {'learner'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'domain'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'emphases'}, 'acl': {'observed'}} Medium High Low
3710 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Motiva- tion and development researchers, who are well represented among contributing authors, have a longtradition of studying that point in students ’academic development where there is a noticeable decline in their personal investment in schooling (e.g., Anderman & Maehr, 1994 , Eccles et al., 1993 ) 46 17 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'academic', 'personal', 'noticeable', 'Motiva-'}, 'nmod': {'tion'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Maehr', 'have', 'Anderman', 'development'}, 'nsubjpass': {'researchers'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'where'}, 'ROOT': {'represented'}, 'prep': {'of', 'among', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'studying', 'contributing'}, 'dobj': {'longtradition', 'al', '.', 'authors', 'point'}, 'det': {'a', 'that'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'schooling', 'investment'}, 'appos': {'1993', '1994', 'development'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'decline'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'Eccles', 'et'}} Long High Medium
3711 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance In justifying their focus onmathematics, for example, Walkington and Bernacki (this issue) argued that: “Mathematics is a natural area to apply ideas of relevance, as students ’interest in learning mathematics tends to decline over adolescence ”(p 36 14 {'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 2} [ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'of', 'for', 'In', 'over'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'justifying'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'focus'}, 'dobj': {'ideas', 'mathematics', 'onmathematics'}, 'punct': {'’', ':', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'pobj': {'adolescence', 'relevance', 'example'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'interest', 'Mathematics', 'Walkington'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Bernacki'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'amod': {'natural'}, 'attr': {'area'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'apply'}, 'advcl': {'tends'}, 'xcomp': {'decline'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High High
3712 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Consequently, it makes sense that these researchers would carry forward those research traditions, as they explore more novel constructs such as relevance 22 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'forward', 'Consequently', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'it', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'makes'}, 'dobj': {'sense', 'constructs', 'traditions'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'det': {'these', 'those'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'acl': {'carry'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'advcl': {'explore'}, 'amod': {'novel', 'such'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'pobj': {'relevance'}} Long High High
3713 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Academic needs Finally, it is conceivable that the contributions in this special issue converge on the domains on mathe- matics and science because these are perceived as a reas of particular need now and in the years to come (Ellis, 2008) 41 21 {'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'mathe-', 'particular', 'Academic', 'special'}, 'ccomp': {'needs', 'converge'}, 'advmod': {'now', 'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'contributions'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'conceivable'}, 'mark': {'that', 'because'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'years', 'domains', 'matics', 'need', 'reas'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'in', 'science'}, 'nsubjpass': {'these'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'perceived', 'come'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'npadvmod': {'2008', 'Ellis'}} Long High High
3714 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance It is dif ficult to pick up any educational publication that does not reference STEM fields and students ’declining pursuit or competence in those fields as a cause for concern (Wang, 2013) 32 15 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, PROPN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'dif'}, 'attr': {'ficult'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'pick'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'det': {'any', 'a', 'those'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'declining'}, 'dobj': {'publication', 'fields', 'pursuit'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'reference'}, 'compound': {'STEM'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'students', 'competence'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'cause', 'fields', 'concern'}, 'appos': {'Wang'}, 'npadvmod': {'2013'}} Long High Low
3715 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance That concern is greater for underrepresented populations who may regard the content of science and mathe-matics as abstract in form and removed from their eve ryday existences (Harackiewicz, Canning, Tibbetts, Priniski, & Hyde, 2016) 34 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'That', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'ryday', 'concern', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'greater'}, 'prep': {'for', 'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'underrepresented'}, 'pobj': {'form', 'populations', 'eve', 'science'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'relcl': {'regard'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'Harackiewicz'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'compound': {'mathe'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'conj': {'Priniski', 'Hyde', 'Tibbetts', 'removed', 'matics'}, 'advmod': {'abstract', 'as'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'existences'}, 'npadvmod': {'Canning'}, 'appos': {'2016'}} Long High Low
3716 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance That is why the search for personal meaning or relevance when it comes to sci- ence and mathematics may compel the contributing authors investment in these domains 27 14 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3} [PRON, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'That', 'it', 'search'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'why'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'in'}, 'amod': {'contributing', 'personal'}, 'pobj': {'ence', 'domains', 'meaning'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'relevance', 'mathematics'}, 'advcl': {'comes', 'compel'}, 'compound': {'sci-', 'authors'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'dobj': {'investment'}} Long High High
3717 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Regardless of the justi fications for centering on older students and on science and mathematics, it is imperative that those who see relevance as a relevant motivation construct expand their investigationto match the theoretical and philosophical foundations from which that construct arises 42 21 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, VERB] {'advmod': {'Regardless'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'justi'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'science', 'students', 'fications', 'motivation'}, 'pcomp': {'centering'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'theoretical', 'older'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'philosophical', 'on', 'mathematics'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'foundations', 'who', 'those', 'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'imperative'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'see', 'construct'}, 'dobj': {'match', 'relevance', 'investigationto'}, 'ccomp': {'arises', 'construct'}, 'xcomp': {'expand'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
3718 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance While it issensible to start with those grades and domains wherein the ability to empirically investigate relevanceis perhaps easier and the demonstrated need is stronger, there is much more to be uncovered aboutthis construct 34 19 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PART, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'ability', 'need'}, 'advcl': {'issensible', 'easier'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'start'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'grades'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'is', 'domains'}, 'advmod': {'perhaps', 'much', 'empirically', 'wherein'}, 'acl': {'investigate'}, 'dobj': {'construct', 'relevanceis'}, 'amod': {'demonstrated', 'aboutthis'}, 'acomp': {'stronger'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'more'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'uncovered'}} Long High High
3719 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance For instance, there is little understanding of how the seeds of interest that Deweydescribes among the young take root over the course of the educational experience 26 15 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'among', 'For', 'of', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'course', 'interest', 'young', 'experience'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'little'}, 'attr': {'understanding'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'seeds'}, 'relcl': {'Deweydescribes'}, 'pcomp': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'root'}} Long High Medium
3720 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance What con figuration of internal and external factors stimulates the development of certain realms of meaningfulness while others remain stunted or wither away 23 9 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADV] {'det': {'What', 'the'}, 'compound': {'con'}, 'nsubj': {'others', 'figuration'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'internal'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'wither', 'external'}, 'pobj': {'realms', 'meaningfulness', 'factors'}, 'ROOT': {'stimulates'}, 'dobj': {'development'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'remain'}, 'acomp': {'stunted'}, 'advmod': {'away'}} Long High Medium
3721 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance How do certain students manage to identify with certainacademic domains or find personal meaning in the tasks set before them, while others seem to resist attempts to forge any such association 31 16 {'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [SCONJ, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'How'}, 'aux': {'to', 'do'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'certain', 'such', 'find', 'certainacademic'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'others'}, 'ROOT': {'manage'}, 'xcomp': {'resist', 'identify'}, 'prep': {'with', 'before', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'tasks', 'domains', 'them'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'meaning'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'acl': {'set', 'forge'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'seem'}, 'dobj': {'association', 'attempts'}} Long High High
3722 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Concluding thought In this commentary, I set out to find common ground among the diverse contributions constituting this special issue on relevance 22 9 {'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4} [NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'Concluding'}, 'ROOT': {'thought'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'In', 'among'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'ground', 'commentary', 'contributions', 'relevance'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ccomp': {'set'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'amod': {'find', 'diverse', 'special', 'common'}, 'acl': {'constituting'}, 'dobj': {'issue'}} Long High Low
3723 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Although the articles were penned by experts representing varied theo- retical frameworks, there were areas of consilience to be discerned 20 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'articles'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'were'}, 'advcl': {'penned'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'consilience', 'experts'}, 'acl': {'representing'}, 'amod': {'theo-', 'retical', 'varied'}, 'dobj': {'frameworks'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'areas'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'discerned'}} Long High Medium
3724 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Speci fically, this collection of articles shared a view of relevance as person-centered, complex and multifaceted, important, and mod-ifiable 19 7 {'PROPN': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'collection', 'Speci'}, 'advmod': {'fically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'relevance'}, 'ROOT': {'shared'}, 'dobj': {'view'}, 'npadvmod': {'mod', 'person'}, 'amod': {'centered'}, 'conj': {'multifaceted', 'ifiable', 'important', 'complex'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
3725 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Despite the insights I garnered from these writings, I was left with several nagging concerns that remained unresolved 18 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ] {'prep': {'with', 'Despite', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'concerns', 'writings', 'insights'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'garnered', 'remained'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'I'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'left'}, 'amod': {'nagging', 'several'}, 'acomp': {'unresolved'}} Medium High Medium
3726 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Overall, what those puzzlements led me to was the realization, echoed atseveral points in this commentary, that relevance or personal meaning (or the lack thereof) has no sin-gular root but emerges (or fails to emerge) from a convergence of internal and external factors 43 21 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 5} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'thereof', 'Overall'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'dative': {'what'}, 'det': {'this', 'no', 'those', 'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'puzzlements'}, 'csubj': {'led'}, 'dobj': {'me', 'root', 'points'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'attr': {'realization'}, 'ROOT': {'echoed'}, 'amod': {'atseveral', 'personal', 'gular', 'internal'}, 'pobj': {'convergence', 'commentary', 'factors'}, 'dep': {'relevance'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'conj': {'has', 'external', 'lack', 'emerges', 'fails', 'meaning'}, 'npadvmod': {'sin'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'emerge'}} Long High Low
3727 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Thus,educators or educational researchers ’efforts to illuminate relevance or to help students find it for themselves cannot be dealt with in any singular way 24 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'educators'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'singular'}, 'conj': {'help', 'researchers'}, 'nsubjpass': {'efforts'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'acl': {'illuminate'}, 'dobj': {'it', 'relevance'}, 'ccomp': {'find'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'themselves', 'way'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'dealt'}, 'det': {'any'}} Long High Low
3728 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Rather, efforts to forge meaningful associations between learners and what is taught or tasked must be systemic 17 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, AUX, AUX, ADJ] {'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'efforts'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'acl': {'forge', 'taught'}, 'amod': {'meaningful'}, 'dobj': {'associations'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'pobj': {'learners'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'conj': {'tasked'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'systemic'}} Medium High Low
3729 The Relevance of Relevance for Learning and Performance Without such a systematic approachthat involves not only students but also teachers, school leaderships, and policy makers, well-inten-tioned interventions that rest on students ’ability to discern meaningfulness in academic content orTHE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 133 36 14 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, ADV, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NUM] {'prep': {'on', 'Without', 'OF', 'in'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'tioned', 'academic'}, 'nsubj': {'approachthat', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'involves'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'well', 'also'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'meaningfulness'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'leaderships', 'makers', 'teachers'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'compound': {'EXPERIMENTAL', 'policy', 'school', 'orTHE'}, 'npadvmod': {'inten'}, 'appos': {'ability', 'interventions', 'JOURNAL'}, 'relcl': {'rest'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'content', 'EDUCATION'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'discern'}, 'nummod': {'133'}} Long High Low
3730 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development ingly more regulated and routinized in a manner that mirrors the content and pro - cesses of those annual assessments 20 9 {'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADV, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'ingly', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'regulated'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'routinized', 'cesses'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'assessments', 'manner'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'mirrors'}, 'dobj': {'content'}, 'amod': {'annual', 'pro'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Long High Low
3731 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development In effect, they would likely see an educational experience oriented toward test performance rather than toward learning or stu - dent development 22 10 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'effect'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'advmod': {'likely', 'rather'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'educational'}, 'dobj': {'experience'}, 'acl': {'oriented'}, 'compound': {'stu', 'test', 'dent'}, 'cc': {'or', 'than'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'conj': {'development'}} Long High Low
3732 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development For many educational experts, the level of investment that American society now makes in identifying and assessing academic benchmarks or content stan - dards is almost incomprehensible 27 11 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'prep': {'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'many', 'academic', 'educational', 'American'}, 'pobj': {'experts', 'investment'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'level', 'society'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'benchmarks'}, 'advmod': {'now', 'almost'}, 'relcl': {'makes'}, 'pcomp': {'identifying'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'dards', 'assessing'}, 'compound': {'content', 'stan'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'incomprehensible'}} Long High Low
3733 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development It is also the mounting emotional, educational, and socio - political costs that come with this unhealthy obsession with the quantification of school achievement 24 11 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3} [PRON, AUX, ADV, DET, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'emotional', 'unhealthy', 'political', 'mounting'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'conj': {'educational'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'socio'}, 'attr': {'costs'}, 'relcl': {'come'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'quantification', 'achievement', 'obsession'}, 'compound': {'school'}} Long High Low
3734 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development If we probe deeper into this testing mania, we find that thereare good intentions at its core—a well-meaning search for evidence that we aretruly “educating” the future citizenry of our country 31 16 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'mark': {'If', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'probe'}, 'advmod': {'aretruly', 'well', 'deeper'}, 'prep': {'into', 'at', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'testing'}, 'pobj': {'evidence', 'core', 'country', 'mania'}, 'punct': {'-', '—', '”', ',', '“'}, 'ROOT': {'find'}, 'ccomp': {'thereare'}, 'amod': {'future', 'good', 'meaning'}, 'dobj': {'intentions', 'citizenry'}, 'poss': {'its', 'our'}, 'appos': {'search'}, 'acl': {'educating'}} Long High High
3735 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Yet many within the educa - tional research community, as well as in the public at large, believe that the costs of the accountability movement have far outstripped any academic benefits thatmight be realized (Abedi, 2004; Feinberg, 1988) 38 17 {'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'cc': {'as', 'Yet'}, 'nsubj': {'many', 'costs'}, 'prep': {'at', 'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'amod': {'educa', 'large', 'academic', 'tional'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'compound': {'accountability', 'research', 'benefits'}, 'pobj': {'public', 'movement', 'community'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'far'}, 'ROOT': {'believe'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ccomp': {'outstripped', 'realized'}, 'nsubjpass': {'thatmight'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'oprd': {'Abedi'}, 'npadvmod': {'2004'}, 'conj': {'Feinberg'}, 'appos': {'1988'}} Long High Medium
3736 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Those railing against Public Law107-110, commonly known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB), and other manifes-tations of the accountability movement perceive such efforts as significant barriersto the attainment of educational goals—goals that include producing a populacewith a hunger for knowledge, the ability to reflect deeply on critical issues, and theskills to deal effectively with the many demands of a complex and rapidly chang-ing world made more accessible as a result of a technological revolution (Alexan-der et al., in press) 79 35 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 9, 'ADP': 12, 'PROPN': 8, 'PUNCT': 13, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 5, 'DET': 10, 'NOUN': 23, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 11, 'PART': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Those', 'that', 'ability', 'tations'}, 'acl': {'reflect', 'deal', 'railing', 'known'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'as', 'against'}, 'compound': {'accountability', 'Alexan', 'Left', 'manifes', 'Public'}, 'pobj': {'goals', 'Child', 'demands', '-', 'Law107', 'barriersto', 'revolution', 'issues', 'world', 'knowledge', 'press', '110', 'movement', 'result'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '—', '(', ','}, 'advmod': {'more', 'effectively', 'deeply', 'commonly'}, 'det': {'No', 'a', 'the'}, 'advcl': {'Behind'}, 'appos': {'goals', 'attainment', 'der', 'NCLB'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'-', 'critical', 'significant', 'technological', 'other', 'many', 'ing', 'such', 'educational', 'complex'}, 'conj': {'chang', 'rapidly', 'theskills', 'perceive'}, 'dobj': {'hunger', 'al', '.', 'efforts', 'populacewith'}, 'relcl': {'include'}, 'xcomp': {'producing'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'oprd': {'accessible'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
3737 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development On whichever side of the sociopolitical or educational spectrum one falls with regard to this controversial issue of accountability, there remains the often sharedperception that the current state of education is far from optimal 34 18 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NUM, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADV, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADP, ADJ] {'prep': {'On', 'from', 'to', 'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'whichever', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'accountability', 'side', 'issue', 'education', 'regard', 'spectrum'}, 'amod': {'controversial', 'often', 'current', 'optimal', 'sociopolitical'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'educational'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'ccomp': {'falls'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'attr': {'sharedperception'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'state'}, 'acl': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'far'}} Long High Medium
3738 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Thus, althoughmany rally around the belief that schooling is not adequately serving the needs ofall segments of the school population, there is no agreed-upon course of action.Educational researchers cannot place themselves above this fray, either 35 20 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'either', 'adequately'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.'}, 'amod': {'althoughmany', 'needs', 'agreed', 'Educational', 'ofall'}, 'advcl': {'rally'}, 'prep': {'around', 'above', 'of'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'population', 'fray', 'belief', 'action'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'schooling', 'researchers'}, 'aux': {'can', 'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acl': {'serving'}, 'dobj': {'segments', 'themselves'}, 'compound': {'school'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'place'}, 'prt': {'upon'}, 'attr': {'course'}} Long High Medium
3739 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Weshould not be shocked that those in political and public arenas talk almost obses - sively about benchmarks or standards or rely on questionable measures to docu - ment students’ achievements 31 12 {'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3} [PROPN, PART, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Weshould'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'shocked'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'those'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'to', 'in'}, 'amod': {'questionable', 'political'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'sively', 'public', 'rely', 'standards'}, 'pobj': {'arenas', 'achievements', 'measures', 'benchmarks'}, 'ccomp': {'talk'}, 'advmod': {'almost'}, 'dobj': {'obses'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'compound': {'docu', 'ment'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Medium
3740 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development What coherent or comprehensive models have we placed at the feet of the public orthe policymakers, who, I must believe, also want the best for our children andyouth 28 15 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADJ] {'det': {'What', 'the'}, 'amod': {'coherent', 'public'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'comprehensive'}, 'dobj': {'models', 'best', 'who'}, 'aux': {'have', 'must'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'placed'}, 'prep': {'for', 'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'children', 'policymakers', 'feet'}, 'compound': {'orthe'}, 'punct': {',', 'andyouth'}, 'relcl': {'believe'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'dep': {'want'}, 'poss': {'our'}} Long High Low
3741 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Indeed, my reaction to Robert Gagné’s (1977) intriguing questions that opened this discussion is that we still know far too little about the optimal course of learnerdevelopment across the lifespan and about the anticipated changes that occur inthose on that journey 41 22 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'too', 'far', 'still'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '’s', ')'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'nsubj': {'reaction', 'that', 'we'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'about', 'across'}, 'compound': {'Robert'}, 'pobj': {'learnerdevelopment', 'journey', 'course', 'lifespan', 'changes', 'Gagné'}, 'nummod': {'1977'}, 'amod': {'anticipated', 'optimal', 'intriguing'}, 'appos': {'questions'}, 'relcl': {'opened', 'occur'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'discussion', 'little'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'know'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'about'}, 'acomp': {'inthose'}} Long High Medium
3742 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development As the contributors to this special issue rightly acknowledge,research has demonstrated that those who face educational difficulties are also aptto suffer physically, socially, and emotionally (e.g., Hughes & Zhang, 2007; Lohr,Teglasi, & French, 2004; Teglasi, Cohn, & Meshbesher, 2004) 39 11 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 15, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 3} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, NOUN, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'aptto', 'who', 'contributors', 'those', 'research'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'special'}, 'pobj': {'issue'}, 'advmod': {'physically', 'also', 'emotionally', 'socially', 'rightly'}, 'advcl': {'acknowledge'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrated'}, 'relcl': {'face'}, 'dobj': {'difficulties'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'suffer'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'2004', 'Hughes'}, 'conj': {'Zhang', 'Lohr', 'French', 'Meshbesher', 'Cohn', 'Teglasi'}, 'npadvmod': {'2007'}} Long High High
3743 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development But the educa - tional concerns addressed herein extend well beyond identified populations strug -634 ALEXANDER 16 5 {'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, PROPN] {'cc': {'But'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'educa', 'identified', 'tional'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'nsubj': {'concerns'}, 'ROOT': {'addressed'}, 'compound': {'strug', '-634', 'herein'}, 'dobj': {'extend'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'prep': {'beyond'}, 'pobj': {'populations'}, 'npadvmod': {'ALEXANDER'}} Medium High Low
3744 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development They are pertinent to all members of the classroom community, even those who appear to be negotiating the academic de - mands of formal education adequately 26 13 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, X, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV] {'nsubj': {'They', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'pertinent'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'members', 'community', 'education'}, 'compound': {'de', 'classroom'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'even', 'adequately'}, 'appos': {'those'}, 'relcl': {'appear'}, 'aux': {'be', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'negotiating'}, 'amod': {'formal', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'mands'}} Long High Low
3745 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development This special issue is an occasion to initiate an interdisciplinary dialogue about the interface between cognitive and socioemotional competences within schoolsettings and to consider how current educational goals and pedagogical practicesinfluence the co-development of such competencies 36 17 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'interdisciplinary', 'pedagogical', 'such', 'educational', 'special', 'current', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'occasion'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'initiate'}, 'dobj': {'goals', 'dialogue', '-', 'development'}, 'prep': {'about', 'within', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'competencies', 'interface', 'schoolsettings', 'competences'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practicesinfluence', 'consider', 'socioemotional'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'ccomp': {'co'}} Long High Medium
3746 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development If there is to be some reason - able alternative to the test obsession that now marks the formal educational sys - tem, one that values learning over test performance, then it must come from those with the theoretical and methodological knowledge and the commitment to engagein extended interdisciplinary research 50 25 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'det': {'the', 'some'}, 'npadvmod': {'reason'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'interdisciplinary', 'formal', 'educational', 'able', 'extended'}, 'attr': {'alternative'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'with', 'over'}, 'compound': {'sys', 'test'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'knowledge', 'those', 'obsession'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'now', 'then'}, 'relcl': {'values', 'marks'}, 'dobj': {'research', 'tem'}, 'appos': {'one'}, 'acl': {'learning', 'engagein'}, 'ROOT': {'come'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'commitment', 'methodological'}} Long High Medium
3747 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development It must come from a consortium of individ - uals like those contributing to this special issue 17 8 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'come'}, 'prep': {'like', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'uals', 'consortium', 'those', 'issue'}, 'compound': {'individ'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'acl': {'contributing'}, 'amod': {'special'}} Medium High Low
3748 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Therefore, let me throw down the gauntlet to this scholarly assemblage to commit to the systematic, multidis - ciplinary, and multidimensional study of the formal educational experience and the cognitive and socioemotional changes that this experience should ideallyevoke—what I have labeled academic development (Alexander, 2000, 2006; Al- exander, Schallert, & Reynolds, 2009; Alexander, Sperl, Buehl, Fives, & Chiu,2004) 58 21 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 18, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADJ': 9, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Therefore'}, 'punct': {'-', '—', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'ROOT': {'let'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'me', 'experience'}, 'ccomp': {'labeled', 'throw', 'ideallyevoke'}, 'prt': {'down'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'gauntlet', 'that', 'what', 'development'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'multidimensional', 'formal', 'educational', 'scholarly', 'academic', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'study', 'experience', 'assemblage'}, 'aux': {'should', 'have', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'commit'}, 'npadvmod': {'multidis', '2006'}, 'conj': {'Fives', 'Schallert', 'socioemotional', 'Sperl', 'ciplinary', 'Buehl', 'Reynolds', 'Chiu,2004', 'changes', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'appos': {'2000', '2009', 'Alexander'}, 'nmod': {'Al-'}, 'dep': {'exander'}} Long High Low
3749 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development I first coined the term academic development in my theoretical and empirical writings precisely because no more suitable label for the multifaceted nature of hu-man growth and development could be found (e.g., Alexander, 2000) 34 15 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'advmod': {'first', 'precisely', 'e.g.', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'coined'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'term'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'suitable', 'academic', 'multifaceted'}, 'dobj': {'development'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'empirical', 'development'}, 'pobj': {'growth', 'nature', 'writings'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'neg': {'no'}, 'nsubjpass': {'label'}, 'compound': {'man', 'hu'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'found'}, 'npadvmod': {'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'2000'}} Long High Medium
3750 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Although Iuse the word academic , I wish to assuage any fears that I am dealing with school- ing in narrow cognitive terms 23 10 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2} [SCONJ, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'Iuse', 'I'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'appos': {'word'}, 'advcl': {'academic'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'wish'}, 'aux': {'am', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'assuage'}, 'dobj': {'fears'}, 'acl': {'dealing'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'compound': {'school-'}, 'pobj': {'ing', 'terms'}, 'amod': {'narrow', 'cognitive'}} Long High High
3751 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Rather, the descriptor academic signals the conflu- ence of cognitive, social, emotional, motivational, and cultural factors that con-tribute to optimal student development within the context of formal education 28 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADJ': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'con', 'descriptor', 'student'}, 'amod': {'cultural', 'conflu-', 'social', 'formal', 'academic', 'optimal', 'cognitive'}, 'ROOT': {'signals'}, 'appos': {'ence'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'of'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'emotional', 'factors'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dep': {'that'}, 'pobj': {'tribute', 'education', 'context', 'development'}} Long High Low
3752 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Specifically, as a way to explicate and justify this new concept of academic de - velopment, my intentions are threefold 20 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, X, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'velopment', 'way'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'explicate'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'justify'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'new'}, 'dobj': {'concept'}, 'compound': {'de'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'nsubj': {'intentions'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'threefold'}} Long High Low
3753 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development First, I want to expose several significant myths that presently plague the educational experience and that act as barriers tothe worthwhile goals of this special issue 26 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'presently', 'First'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'expose'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'tothe', 'educational', 'special', 'worthwhile', 'several'}, 'dobj': {'experience', 'myths'}, 'relcl': {'plague'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'act'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'barriers'}, 'conj': {'goals'}} Long High Low
3754 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Those myths include the mistaken beliefthat achievement, as defined by high-stakes testing, equates to learning, when, infact, such an excessive focus can be detrimental to lifelong, meaningful learning.The needs of students are better served when more time and attention is devoted toconcepts and processes held as central to academic domains, what has been termedprincipled knowledge (Alexander, Murphy, & Woods, 1997; Gelman & Greeno, 1989) 64 24 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 15, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 10, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 16, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'Those', 'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'infact', 'time', 'myths', 'focus'}, 'ROOT': {'termedprincipled', 'include'}, 'amod': {'mistaken', 'devoted', 'central', 'meaningful', 'high', 'excessive', 'lifelong', 'academic', 'more'}, 'compound': {'beliefthat', 'stakes'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'achievement'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'acl': {'held', 'defined'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'domains', 'students', 'testing'}, 'conj': {'processes', 'Murphy', 'Woods', 'Greeno', 'equates', 'Gelman', 'attention'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'better'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'aux': {'can', 'has'}, 'advcl': {'be', 'is'}, 'acomp': {'detrimental'}, 'nsubjpass': {'needs', 'what'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'been'}, 'csubjpass': {'served'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'attr': {'toconcepts'}, 'appos': {'1997', '1989', 'Alexander'}} Long High High
3755 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development There are also the myths that mentioning (i.e., “covering the content”)equates to teaching and that the purpose of education is clear 21 12 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'X': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'also'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'myths'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'purpose'}, 'relcl': {'mentioning'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', '“'}, 'advcl': {'covering'}, 'dobj': {'content”)equates'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'teaching'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'pobj': {'education'}, 'conj': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'clear'}} Long High Medium
3756 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Second, I hope to convince readers that there is much to be gained when educa - tion is viewed as a developmental process rather than a year-by-year, course- by-course treatment of instructional content 33 18 {'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1} [X, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PART, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'rather', 'Second', 'when'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'hope'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'convince'}, 'dobj': {'readers'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'much'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'relcl': {'gained'}, 'compound': {'educa'}, 'nsubjpass': {'tion'}, 'advcl': {'viewed'}, 'prep': {'by', 'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'course-', 'instructional', 'developmental'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'content', 'year', 'process'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'npadvmod': {'year'}, 'nmod': {'by'}, 'dep': {'treatment'}} Long High High
3757 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development This developmental orientation couldhelp to amplify the degree to which a learner’s academic development is muchmore than a coldly cognitive act of accumulating factual tidbits 25 11 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'factual', 'developmental', 'academic', 'couldhelp', 'cognitive'}, 'ROOT': {'orientation'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'amplify'}, 'dobj': {'tidbits', 'degree'}, 'prep': {'than', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'act'}, 'poss': {'learner'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'development'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'muchmore'}, 'advmod': {'coldly'}, 'pcomp': {'accumulating'}} Long High Low
3758 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development the continual interplay of cognitive and motivational/emotional forces operating within a dynamic sociocultural context 14 5 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SYM': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, SYM, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'sociocultural', 'continual', 'dynamic', 'cognitive'}, 'ROOT': {'interplay'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'emotional'}, 'punct': {'/'}, 'pobj': {'forces', 'context'}, 'acl': {'operating'}} Medium High Low
3759 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Third, one of the advantages that comes with viewing formal education as a de - velopmental process is that this orientation could potentially lessen the emphasis on immediate or short-term educational gains and promote contemplation of themore enduring and long-term effects of instructional or curricular decisions 46 20 {'ADJ': 10, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 4} [ADJ, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'potentially', 'Third'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'orientation', 'one', 'that'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'decisions', 'effects', 'gains', 'process', 'advantages'}, 'relcl': {'comes'}, 'pcomp': {'viewing'}, 'amod': {'immediate', 'enduring', 'instructional', 'de', 'short', 'formal', 'velopmental', 'educational', 'long'}, 'dobj': {'contemplation', 'education', 'emphasis'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ccomp': {'lessen'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'curricular', 'promote', 'term'}, 'nmod': {'themore'}} Long High Medium
3760 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development I donot wish to suggest that there are no merits to the examination of more short-termoutcomes; there are 18 12 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'preconj': {'donot'}, 'ccomp': {'wish', 'are'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'suggest'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'attr': {'merits'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'examination', 'termoutcomes'}, 'amod': {'short', 'more'}, 'punct': {';', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}} Medium High Medium
3761 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development However, these more “immediate” gains must be consideredin relation to what they suggest about long-term growth and development 18 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'amod': {'immediate', 'consideredin', 'more', 'long'}, 'nsubj': {'gains', 'they'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'relation'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'suggest'}, 'compound': {'term'}, 'pobj': {'growth'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'development'}} Medium High Low
3762 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development For ex - ample, do we want to risk stifling students’ interest in reading by immersing them in a “drill-and-practice” phonics curriculum devoid of stimulating literature, orrisk turning “struggling readers” into “struggling thinkers” by failing to teach themto think critically and intensively about what they read or hear 48 19 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 12, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 13, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'prep': {'in', 'by', 'into', 'of', 'about', 'For'}, 'npadvmod': {'ex'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'literature', 'ample', 'curriculum', 'thinkers'}, 'aux': {'to', 'do'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'xcomp': {'stifling', 'teach', 'risk'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'them', 'themto', 'interest', 'think'}, 'pcomp': {'read', 'failing', 'immersing'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'nmod': {'drill'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'hear', 'intensively', 'practice'}, 'compound': {'phonics', 'orrisk', 'turning'}, 'amod': {'struggling', 'devoid', 'stimulating'}, 'appos': {'readers'}, 'advmod': {'critically'}} Long High Low
3763 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development I would think not.To support this contention, I will share my specific approach to the study of learn - ers’ academic development and the theoretical and methodological insights and challenges that this research program has revealed 36 18 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'I', 'program'}, 'aux': {'would', 'To', 'has', 'will'}, 'ROOT': {'think', 'share'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.', '’'}, 'advcl': {'support'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'contention', 'approach', 'that'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'specific', 'academic'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'study', 'development'}, 'compound': {'research', 'learn'}, 'nmod': {'ers'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'challenges', 'methodological', 'insights'}, 'ccomp': {'revealed'}} Long High Medium
3764 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development That theoretical and empiricalprogram centers on the model of domain learning (MDL; Alexander, 1997), whichis an attempt to examine the paths of knowledge, strategic processing, and interestas they interact and intertwine across the lifespan as learners journey toward com-petence or even expertise in academic domains 45 19 {'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'That', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'theoretical', 'academic'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'intertwine', 'expertise', 'empiricalprogram', 'interestas', 'Alexander'}, 'ROOT': {'centers'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'of', 'toward', 'across'}, 'pobj': {'domains', 'petence', 'learning', 'knowledge', 'model', 'lifespan'}, 'compound': {'domain', 'com'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'1997', 'attempt', 'MDL', 'whichis'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'examine'}, 'dobj': {'paths'}, 'nsubj': {'learners', 'they'}, 'relcl': {'interact'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'journey'}, 'advmod': {'even'}} Long High Medium
3765 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Before I delve into educational myths that interfere with the pursuit of aca- demic development, I want to share briefly my personal journey to the realizationthat the very construct of academic development needed to be introduced into theeducational vernacular 39 18 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, ADV, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Before'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'delve'}, 'prep': {'into', 'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'very', 'theeducational', 'educational', 'academic', 'demic'}, 'pobj': {'myths', 'realizationthat', 'development', 'vernacular', 'pursuit'}, 'relcl': {'interfere'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'aca-'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'share', 'introduced'}, 'advmod': {'briefly'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'dobj': {'journey', 'construct'}, 'acl': {'needed'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Medium
3766 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Specifically, over the past 25 years, I have been aggres-sively engaged in the theoretical and empirical study of human learning 20 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'sively', 'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in', 'over'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'past'}, 'nummod': {'25'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'years', 'study'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'dep': {'aggres'}, 'ROOT': {'engaged'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'empirical'}, 'compound': {'human'}} Long High Low
3767 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development That pur-suit was a natural outgrowth of my years as a private and public school teacher 16 8 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'That', 'a'}, 'compound': {'pur', 'school'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'nsubj': {'suit'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'amod': {'private', 'natural'}, 'attr': {'outgrowth'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'pobj': {'years', 'teacher'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'public'}} Medium High Low
3768 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Aswith many in my profession, I chose to become a teacher for altruistic reasons—tohelp students realize their potential through formal education 21 10 {'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1} [PROPN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Aswith'}, 'npadvmod': {'many'}, 'prep': {'through', 'for', 'in'}, 'poss': {'my', 'their'}, 'pobj': {'reasons', 'education', 'profession'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'I'}, 'ROOT': {'chose'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'become'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'teacher'}, 'amod': {'altruistic', 'formal'}, 'dep': {'tohelp'}, 'ccomp': {'realize'}, 'dobj': {'potential'}} Long High Low
3769 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Although I consid - ered myself very effective in this honorable profession, I knew that I had much to learn if those altruistic goals were ever to be realized to the level I envisioned 34 21 {'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'mark': {'if', 'Although', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'goals', 'I'}, 'advmod': {'very', 'consid', 'ever'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advcl': {'ered'}, 'dobj': {'much', 'myself'}, 'acomp': {'effective'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'altruistic', 'honorable'}, 'pobj': {'level', 'profession'}, 'ROOT': {'knew'}, 'ccomp': {'had', 'were'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'envisioned', 'learn'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'realized'}} Long High High
3770 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Thus, I enrolled in a doctoral program in which I found myself enamored with educational research and the potential it held for illuminating the path toward im - proved learning for all who crossed the threshold into the realm of formal educa - tion 44 23 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 8, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'who', 'I', 'it', 'myself', 'i'}, 'ROOT': {'enrolled'}, 'prep': {'in', 'into', 'with', 'of', 'toward', 'for'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'proved', 'formal', 'educational', 'doctoral'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'tion', 'program', 'learning', 'realm', 'all', 'research'}, 'relcl': {'held', 'found', 'crossed'}, 'ccomp': {'enamored'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'potential'}, 'pcomp': {'illuminating'}, 'dobj': {'threshold', 'path'}, 'auxpass': {'m'}, 'compound': {'educa'}} Long High Low
3771 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Indeed, I learned much about what was required for students like those I had taught to progress not only in their academics but also in their everyday lives.One of the most important lessons that I learned, however, was that complexproblems like academic development require multidisciplinary problem solving.Even the most gifted teachers or the most forward-thinking educational psychol - ogists cannot hope to bring students to the pinnacle of their academic potential 71 41 {'ADV': 10, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 9, 'VERB': 10, 'ADP': 9, 'AUX': 4, 'NOUN': 13, 'PART': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 4, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PART, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'only', 'also', 'however', 'Even', 'forward', 'most'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'teachers', 'One', 'complexproblems'}, 'ROOT': {'hope', 'was', 'learned'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'much', 'that'}, 'prep': {'like', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'for'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'pcomp': {'required'}, 'pobj': {'lessons', 'academics', 'pinnacle', 'students', 'those', 'development', 'lives', 'potential'}, 'aux': {'can', 'had', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'learned', 'taught'}, 'xcomp': {'solving', 'progress', 'bring'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'ogists', 'in'}, 'amod': {'important', 'gifted', 'thinking', 'educational', 'everyday', 'academic'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'require'}, 'compound': {'multidisciplinary', 'psychol', 'problem'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Medium
3772 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development The problem is not simply instructional, cognitive, motivational, or socio - political 12 4 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'problem'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'simply'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'socio'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'acomp': {'cognitive'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'political'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Medium High Low
3773 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development This is the theme of this issue and of this notion of aca - demic development.636 ALEXANDER 17 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'This'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'attr': {'theme'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'ALEXANDER', 'issue', 'notion'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'of'}, 'npadvmod': {'aca'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'demic'}, 'compound': {'development.636'}} Medium High Low
3774 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development EDUCATIONAL MYTHS How does one explain how or why certain activities, ideas, or beliefs initially take root within the individual mind or the public conscience, becoming commonplace,routine, or pervasive in character, whereas other comparable activities, ideas, orbeliefs lie fallow or languish 41 18 {'ADJ': 10, 'NOUN': 11, 'SCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB] {'nsubj': {'EDUCATIONAL', 'one', 'activities'}, 'appos': {'MYTHS'}, 'advmod': {'How', 'initially', 'how'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'ROOT': {'explain'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'pervasive', 'beliefs', 'why', 'routine', 'languish', 'ideas', 'conscience'}, 'amod': {'comparable', 'certain', 'other', 'individual', 'public', 'fallow'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ccomp': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'lie', 'root'}, 'prep': {'within', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'character'}, 'advcl': {'orbeliefs', 'becoming'}, 'acomp': {'commonplace'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}} Long High High
3775 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Ideally, one would hope that a deciding factor be - tween those notions that are ultimately embraced and those that are discredited or discarded would be the credibility or strength of supporting evidence 33 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 6, 'VERB': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Ideally', 'ultimately'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'factor', 'those'}, 'aux': {'would', 'be'}, 'ROOT': {'hope'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'supporting', 'deciding'}, 'ccomp': {'tween'}, 'dobj': {'notions'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'embraced', 'discredited'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'be', 'strength', 'discarded'}, 'attr': {'credibility'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'evidence'}} Long High Medium
3776 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Sadly, evena cursory examination of wildly popular fads (e.g., text-messaging while driving,bungee jumping) or shared social practices (e.g., overeating on holidays, living oncredit) offers sufficient refutation of this ideal state 30 6 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'wildly', 'Sadly'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'evena', 'cursory', 'bungee'}, 'nsubj': {'examination', 'overeating'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'popular', 'sufficient', 'ideal', 'social', 'living'}, 'pobj': {'state', 'holidays', 'fads'}, 'npadvmod': {'text'}, 'appos': {'oncredit', 'messaging'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'driving'}, 'conj': {'jumping', 'practices'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'ROOT': {'offers'}, 'dobj': {'refutation'}, 'det': {'this'}} Long High Medium
3777 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development It is not only the general popu - lace that finds questionable ideas or practices attractive or irresistible 18 8 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'attractive', 'questionable', 'general'}, 'compound': {'popu'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'attr': {'lace'}, 'relcl': {'finds'}, 'dobj': {'ideas'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'practices', 'irresistible'}} Medium High Low
3778 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development The same tendency can be documented among educational researchers and practitioners whohold passionately to underlying assumptions or favored interventions that are un - tested or run counter to the prevailing evidence 31 13 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'favored', 'underlying', 'prevailing', 'same', 'educational'}, 'nsubjpass': {'tendency'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'documented'}, 'prep': {'to', 'among'}, 'pobj': {'evidence', 'researchers', 'assumptions'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'run', 'practitioners'}, 'advcl': {'whohold'}, 'advmod': {'counter', 'passionately'}, 'dobj': {'interventions'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'npadvmod': {'un'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'acomp': {'tested'}} Long High Low
3779 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development There is even reason to question what some educators or educational researchers regard as “evidence” in support offavored approaches or emergent interventions, but that issue lies outside the scopeof the current discussion 32 14 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 3} [PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'attr': {'reason'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'question'}, 'dobj': {'discussion', 'what', 'approaches'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'some'}, 'nsubj': {'issue', 'educators'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'amod': {'current', 'educational', 'emergent'}, 'conj': {'researchers', 'interventions', 'lies'}, 'ccomp': {'regard'}, 'prep': {'as', 'outside', 'in'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'pobj': {'evidence', 'scopeof', 'support'}, 'acl': {'offavored'}} Long High Low
3780 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Perhaps like others within the educational community, I have harbored the somewhat impish urge to stand up in a public forum and shout “The emperor hasno clothes!” when I encounter these seemingly unwarranted claims or perceptions.Further, I feel strongly that those within the educational research community havean obligation to call the public’s attention to seemingly widespread beliefs or per-ceptions that, at a minimum, demand closer inspection 66 33 {'ADV': 6, 'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 17, 'DET': 8, 'ADJ': 9, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 3} [ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'somewhat', 'Further', 'strongly', 'Perhaps', 'seemingly'}, 'prep': {'within', 'like', 'to', 'in', 'at'}, 'pobj': {'minimum', 'community', 'others', 'obligation', 'forum', 'beliefs'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'widespread', 'impish', 'unwarranted', 'closer', 'educational', 'public', 'havean'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', '!', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'emperor', 'I', 'that'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'feel', 'harbored', 'encounter'}, 'dobj': {'urge', 'claims', 'clothes', 'attention', 'inspection'}, 'acl': {'call', 'stand'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'shout', 'perceptions', 'ceptions'}, 'ccomp': {'hasno', 'those'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nmod': {'research', 'community'}, 'poss': {'public'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'per'}, 'relcl': {'demand'}} Long High High
3781 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development It is also essential to turnthat critical eye inward to scrutinize certain popular conceptions that appear withinthe educational discourse 19 6 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'inward', 'also'}, 'acomp': {'essential'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'det': {'turnthat', 'withinthe'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'educational', 'popular', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'eye'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'scrutinize'}, 'dobj': {'conceptions'}, 'relcl': {'appear'}, 'oprd': {'discourse'}} Medium High Low
3782 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development I want to expose whatI perceive as insidious educational myths that have been allowed to take root andspread within the realms of public perception and political decision making,maybe even reaching into sectors of the educational community 36 16 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PROPN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'expose', 'take'}, 'dobj': {'andspread', 'perceive', 'whatI'}, 'prep': {'into', 'as', 'within', 'of'}, 'amod': {'political', 'public', 'educational', 'insidious'}, 'pobj': {'myths', 'realms', 'community', 'sectors', 'perception'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'allowed'}, 'compound': {'decision', 'root'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'making'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'maybe', 'even'}, 'advcl': {'reaching'}} Long High Low
3783 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development These are beliefsthat cannot continue to infiltrate individual minds or public conscience without theprotection that comes with healthy skepticism or reasonable doubt 22 10 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2} [PRON, AUX, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'beliefsthat', 'that', 'These'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'continue'}, 'xcomp': {'infiltrate'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'healthy', 'public', 'reasonable'}, 'dobj': {'minds'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'conscience', 'doubt'}, 'prep': {'without', 'with'}, 'pobj': {'theprotection', 'skepticism'}, 'relcl': {'comes'}} Long High Low
3784 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Specifically, I want to discuss six educational myths that I contend are alive and well within public and political arenas—myths that have not been successfully dis - pelled and that, therefore, continue to exert tremendous influence on funded edu - cational research and mandated educational practices 46 20 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 8, 'PART': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'therefore', 'Specifically', 'successfully', 'edu'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that', 'myths'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'discuss', 'exert'}, 'nummod': {'six'}, 'amod': {'cational', 'funded', 'educational', 'public', 'tremendous'}, 'dobj': {'influence', 'practices', 'myths'}, 'relcl': {'been', 'contend'}, 'ccomp': {'continue', 'are'}, 'acomp': {'pelled', 'alive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'mandated', 'well', 'that', 'political'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within'}, 'pobj': {'arenas', 'research'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'npadvmod': {'dis'}} Long High Medium
3785 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Achievement on High-Stakes Tests Equals Learning The first myth that I want to expose is the belief that the word achievement , which has come to represent performance on high-stakes tests, equates to the concept oflearning 36 16 {'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, VERB, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, AUX, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'which', 'achievement', 'I', 'myth', 'Achievement'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to'}, 'amod': {'first', 'high', 'High'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'word', 'stakes', 'concept', 'Stakes'}, 'pobj': {'tests', 'oflearning', 'Tests'}, 'ROOT': {'Equals'}, 'xcomp': {'expose', 'represent', 'Learning'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'want', 'come'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'belief'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'equates'}} Long High Medium
3786 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development In fact, I have arguedelsewhere that effective education requires effective assessment (Alexander, 2006;ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT 637 15 4 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, NUM] {'prep': {'In'}, 'pobj': {'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '('}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'education'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'arguedelsewhere'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'effective'}, 'ccomp': {'requires'}, 'dobj': {'assessment'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2006;ACADEMIC', 'DEVELOPMENT'}, 'nummod': {'637'}} Medium High Medium
3787 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Alexander & Riconscente, 2005), which is defined as the “process of obtaining information that is used to make educational decisions about students, to givefeedback to the student about his or her progress, strengths, weaknesses, to judgeinstructional effectiveness and curricular adequacy, and to inform policy” (Ameri - can Federation of Teachers, National Council of Measurement in Education, & National Educational Association, 1990,p 61 26 {'PROPN': 13, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 15, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 9, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 3} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'adequacy', 'weaknesses', 'Council', 'Federation', 'inform', 'strengths', 'Riconscente', 'Association'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'npadvmod': {'2005'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which', 'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'defined', 'used', 'givefeedback'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'as'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'progress', 'students', 'effectiveness', 'process', 'student', 'Education', 'Teachers', 'Measurement'}, 'pcomp': {'obtaining'}, 'dobj': {'policy', 'decisions', 'information'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}, 'amod': {'curricular', 'judgeinstructional', 'educational'}, 'poss': {'his', 'her'}, 'compound': {'Ameri', 'Educational', 'National'}, 'appos': {'can'}, 'nummod': {'1990,p'}} Long High Low
3788 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development But tests are merely one aspect ofassessment, and tests that result in reliable and valid data are, at best, only mean - ingful samplings of students’ knowledge and capabilities 29 12 {'CCONJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 5} [CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'and', 'But'}, 'nsubj': {'tests', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'merely', 'at', 'best', 'only'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'compound': {'aspect'}, 'attr': {'ofassessment', 'samplings'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'relcl': {'result'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'ingful', 'mean', 'reliable'}, 'conj': {'valid', 'are', 'capabilities'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'data'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
3789 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Consequently, when the educational system relies solely or almost exclusively on high-stakes tests to es - tablish the worth of its teachers, the effectiveness of its schools, or the attainment of its students, the potential merits of assessment are misunderstood 40 19 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, NOUN] {'advmod': {'es', 'when', 'solely', 'almost', 'Consequently'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'tablish', 'high', 'educational', 'potential'}, 'nsubj': {'system', 'merits'}, 'advcl': {'relies'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'attainment', 'exclusively'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'stakes'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 'tests', 'students', 'schools', 'assessment', 'worth'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'appos': {'effectiveness'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'misunderstood'}} Long High Medium
3790 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development This tendency to equate performance on high-stakes assessments with learning is problematic for a number of other reasons 18 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'tendency'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'equate'}, 'dobj': {'performance'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'amod': {'other', 'high'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'compound': {'stakes'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'assessments', 'reasons', 'number'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'problematic'}} Medium High Low
3791 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development It portrays education as a series ofdiscrete hurdles to be cleared rather than as an ongoing journey to be relished 20 11 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'series', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'portrays'}, 'dobj': {'education'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'advcl': {'ofdiscrete'}, 'nsubjpass': {'hurdles'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'cleared'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'amod': {'ongoing'}, 'pobj': {'journey'}, 'acl': {'relished'}} Long High Medium
3792 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Inaddition, it is all about the “ends” and not the “means.” That is, test performance isthe goal—not the understanding or knowledge that such tests are sampling 26 16 {'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'dep': {'is', 'Inaddition'}, 'punct': {'.', '—', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'That', 'it', 'tests'}, 'ROOT': {'goal', 'is'}, 'advmod': {'all'}, 'prep': {'about'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'ends'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'means'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'isthe', 'test'}, 'appos': {'understanding'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'sampling'}} Long High Low
3793 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development In es-sence, this orientation colors academic content as information to be garnered inservice of performance, not as knowledge to be sought for personal fulfillment.Further, linking learning to high-stakes tests may promote performance avoidanceversus mastery orientation (Harackiewicz, Barron, & Elliot, 1998; Linnenbrink,2005) 41 14 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 12, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, ADP, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'of', 'for', 'In', 'as'}, 'compound': {'es', 'mastery', 'avoidanceversus', 'performance', 'stakes'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'pobj': {'tests', 'information', 'knowledge', 'performance', 'sence', 'fulfillment'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'nsubj': {'orientation'}, 'ROOT': {'colors', 'promote'}, 'amod': {'high', 'personal', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'content', 'orientation', 'inservice'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'sought', 'garnered'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'Further'}, 'csubj': {'linking'}, 'appos': {'Linnenbrink,2005', '1998', 'Harackiewicz'}, 'conj': {'Elliot', 'Barron'}, 'cc': {'&'}} Long High Low
3794 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development That means that students work to avoid failure rather than seek to under-stand and master valued academic content 18 8 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'That', 'students'}, 'ROOT': {'means'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'work'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'avoid'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'failure'}, 'advmod': {'under', 'rather'}, 'cc': {'and', 'than'}, 'conj': {'valued', 'seek'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'stand'}, 'npadvmod': {'master'}, 'amod': {'academic'}} Medium High Medium
3795 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development It is about what they do at that pointon a select measure 12 9 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'prep': {'about', 'at'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'do'}, 'det': {'a', 'that'}, 'pobj': {'pointon'}, 'amod': {'select'}, 'attr': {'measure'}} Medium High Low
3796 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development How far one has progressed or future academic/personal goalsdo not enter into the equation 14 7 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [SCONJ, ADV, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, SYM, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'How', 'far'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'goalsdo'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'progressed'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'future', 'personal', 'academic'}, 'punct': {'/'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'enter'}, 'prep': {'into'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'equation'}} Medium High Medium
3797 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Finally, this orientation toward education is “coldlycognitive” (Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993) 12 3 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'nsubj': {'orientation'}, 'prep': {'toward'}, 'pobj': {'education'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'coldlycognitive'}, 'dep': {'Pintrich'}, 'conj': {'Boyle', 'Marx'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'appos': {'1993'}} Medium High Low
3798 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development It overlooks critical strategic and mo - tivational factors that are central to academic development 15 5 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'overlooks'}, 'amod': {'strategic', 'academic', 'critical'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'mo'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'conj': {'tivational'}, 'dobj': {'factors'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'central'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'development'}} Medium High Low
3799 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Of course, it might be argued that the compulsion to let the test drive curriculum may not theoretically be a justifiable decision but that from a practical standpoint itmakes sense, since it would seem to ensure that students at least learn the contentthat is flagged by those tests—the very argument put forth by former PresidentGeorgeW 55 33 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 6, 'VERB': 8, 'SCONJ': 4, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, PROPN] {'advmod': {'least', 'course', 'forth', 'Of', 'theoretically', 'at'}, 'punct': {',', 'that', '—'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it', 'contentthat'}, 'aux': {'would', 'may', 'might', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'mark': {'that', 'since'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'it', 'test', 'compulsion'}, 'acl': {'let', 'put'}, 'ccomp': {'be', 'flagged', 'drive', 'learn'}, 'dobj': {'curriculum'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'amod': {'very', 'practical', 'justifiable', 'former'}, 'attr': {'decision'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'prep': {'seem', 'from'}, 'compound': {'standpoint', 'itmakes'}, 'pobj': {'tests', 'argument', 'PresidentGeorgeW', 'sense'}, 'xcomp': {'ensure'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High High
3800 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development The problem is that the empirical evidence brings even that argu - ment into question 15 7 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'evidence', 'problem'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'empirical'}, 'ccomp': {'brings'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'compound': {'argu'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'dobj': {'ment'}, 'prep': {'into'}, 'pobj': {'question'}} Medium High Medium
3801 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development For example, an experiment by Deci, Spiegel, Ryan, Koestner, and Kauffman (1982) showed that students working with teachers who were in - structed to facilitate learning employed more strategies associated with higher aca - demic attainment did better than students whose teachers were told to focus on test standards 49 18 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 9, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'by', 'with', 'than', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 'Deci', 'students', 'example', 'standards', 'attainment'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'who', 'experiment'}, 'conj': {'Koestner', 'Kauffman', 'Spiegel', 'Ryan'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'1982'}, 'ROOT': {'showed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'associated', 'working'}, 'relcl': {'told', 'were'}, 'advmod': {'better', 'in'}, 'acomp': {'structed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'facilitate', 'focus'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'strategies'}, 'ccomp': {'employed'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'more', 'demic'}, 'npadvmod': {'aca'}, 'advcl': {'did'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'nsubjpass': {'teachers'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'compound': {'test'}} Long High Medium
3802 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Several years later, Flink, Boggiano, and Barrett (1990) replicated andextended those findings 12 3 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'amod': {'Several'}, 'npadvmod': {'years'}, 'advmod': {'later'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Flink'}, 'appos': {'1990', 'Boggiano'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Barrett'}, 'ROOT': {'replicated'}, 'advcl': {'andextended'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'dobj': {'findings'}} Medium High Low
3803 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development study, teachers told to en - sure that their students perform well on target measures manifested more control - ling instructional strategies and had lower student performance than teachers di - rected to facilitate student learning 36 10 {'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'dep': {'study', 'di'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'teachers'}, 'ROOT': {'told'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'advmod': {'en', 'well'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'sure', 'strategies', 'student'}, 'mark': {'than', 'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ccomp': {'perform'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'compound': {'teachers', 'target', 'student'}, 'pobj': {'measures'}, 'acl': {'manifested'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'lower', 'more', 'ling'}, 'npadvmod': {'control'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'had'}, 'advcl': {'learning', 'rected', 'facilitate'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High High
3804 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Still other data suggest the flaws inherent in the “teach to the test” curricular mentality (e.g., Grolnick & Ryan, 1987; Ryan &638 ALEXANDER 23 7 {'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, NUM, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Still'}, 'amod': {'other', 'curricular', 'inherent'}, 'nsubj': {'data'}, 'ROOT': {'suggest'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'flaws', 'mentality'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'punct': {'(', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'pobj': {'teach', 'test'}, 'intj': {'e.g.'}, 'conj': {'ALEXANDER', '638', 'Ryan', 'Grolnick'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'appos': {'1987'}} Long High Low
3805 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development It is not only the students who suffer in the current high-stakes test climate 14 8 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'students'}, 'relcl': {'suffer'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'amod': {'high', 'current'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'compound': {'stakes', 'test'}, 'pobj': {'climate'}} Medium High Low
3806 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development For ex - ample, Emmet Rosenfeld (2004), a former teacher in Virginia, brought the poten - tial side effects of this test obsession to reality as he discussed the negative influ - ence that the state’s Standards of Learning had on his career: Standards of Learning were introduced to make education better 52 23 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADJ': 6, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADV] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'For'}, 'npadvmod': {'ex'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', ','}, 'pobj': {'reality', 'ample', 'Virginia', 'obsession', 'career', 'Learning'}, 'compound': {'side', 'Emmet', 'test'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'Standards', 'Rosenfeld'}, 'appos': {'2004', 'teacher'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'tial', 'poten', 'influ', 'negative', 'former'}, 'ccomp': {'brought'}, 'dobj': {'ence', 'effects', 'that', 'education'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'make', 'discussed'}, 'poss': {'his', 'state'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'relcl': {'had'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Standards'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'introduced'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advmod': {'better'}} Long High High
3807 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development The intense pressure to raise test scores eventually squeezed the life out of school, both for my kids and for me.… I no longer loved myjob; at least, I didn’t want to spend the rest of my professional career teaching to astandardized test 43 23 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'intense', 'professional', 'astandardized'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'pressure'}, 'aux': {'did', 'to'}, 'acl': {'raise'}, 'compound': {'career', 'test'}, 'dobj': {'life', 'scores', 'rest', 'myjob'}, 'advmod': {'eventually', 'longer', 'at', 'least'}, 'ROOT': {'want', 'squeezed'}, 'prep': {'for', 'out', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'kids', 'school', 'teaching', 'me', 'test'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '…', '.'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'for'}, 'neg': {'no', 'n’t'}, 'ccomp': {'loved'}, 'xcomp': {'spend'}} Long High Low
3808 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development 20) Accountability Is About Improving Students’ Learning Although I am focusing on the current obsession with high-stakes testing, I want to deal with another myth that interferes with students’ academic development.Throughout the public and political discourse about educational reform, the notionof “accountability” is often conjured as some elixir to heal current ailments 52 24 {'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NOUN': 14, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1} [X, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'conjured', 'want', '20'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', '.', ')', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'Accountability', 'I', 'that'}, 'ccomp': {'Is'}, 'prep': {'on', 'About', 'Throughout', 'with', 'about'}, 'amod': {'Improving', 'high', 'educational', 'current', 'public', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'Students', 'students', 'elixir', 'testing', 'myth', 'obsession', 'reform', 'discourse'}, 'acomp': {'Learning'}, 'mark': {'as', 'Although'}, 'aux': {'to', 'am'}, 'advcl': {'focusing', 'heal'}, 'det': {'another', 'the', 'some'}, 'compound': {'stakes'}, 'xcomp': {'deal'}, 'relcl': {'interferes'}, 'appos': {'development'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'political'}, 'nmod': {'notionof'}, 'nsubjpass': {'accountability'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'dobj': {'ailments'}} Long High High
3809 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Whenaccountability is so voiced, it is typically in terms of educational administrators orclassroom teachers who must be held responsible for their students’ performanceon state and national assessments 27 12 {'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'Whenaccountability', 'who'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'advmod': {'so', 'typically'}, 'ccomp': {'voiced'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 'state', 'terms'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'national'}, 'compound': {'orclassroom', 'administrators'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'relcl': {'held'}, 'oprd': {'responsible'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nmod': {'performanceon'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'assessments'}} Long High Low
3810 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Implicit in this rhetoric is the assumption thatthis stress on state, district, or school administrators’ or teachers’ accountabilitywill contribute to improved student learning 23 8 {'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Implicit'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'thatthis', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'rhetoric', 'state'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'assumption'}, 'acl': {'stress'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'conj': {'district', 'teachers', 'administrators'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'school', 'student'}, 'advmod': {'accountabilitywill'}, 'advcl': {'contribute'}, 'amod': {'improved'}} Long High Low
3811 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development In effect, this presumption amounts to a “trickle-down” philosophy of educa- tional reform 13 6 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'reform', 'effect', 'philosophy'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'presumption'}, 'ROOT': {'amounts'}, 'nmod': {'trickle'}, 'prt': {'down'}, 'amod': {'tional', 'educa-'}} Medium High Low
3812 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development But does such a belief hold up under scrutiny—or is this just anotherinstance of educational mythology 16 11 {'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [CCONJ, AUX, DET, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'or', 'But'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'belief'}, 'ROOT': {'hold'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'prep': {'under', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'scrutiny', 'mythology'}, 'punct': {'—'}, 'conj': {'is'}, 'amod': {'just', 'educational'}, 'attr': {'anotherinstance'}} Medium High Low
3813 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development At the very least, we must acknowledge thatthis persistent emphasis on accountability stands as a symbol of public and politi - cal distrust with the educational system and educational professionals 30 14 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'At', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'thatthis'}, 'advmod': {'very'}, 'pobj': {'accountability', 'system', 'least', 'symbol', 'distrust'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'emphasis'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledge'}, 'amod': {'public', 'educational', 'persistent'}, 'ccomp': {'stands'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'politi'}, 'conj': {'professionals', 'cal'}} Long High Low
3814 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development In effect, since we cannot trust educational professionals to work for improved studentlearning, we must hold threats over their heads to ensure compliance 23 12 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'In', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'effect', 'studentlearning', 'heads'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to', 'must'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'ensure', 'trust'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'improved'}, 'dobj': {'compliance', 'threats', 'professionals'}, 'xcomp': {'work'}, 'ROOT': {'hold'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
3815 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Such an“overseer mentality” dismisses the power of positive reinforcers and rewards toencourage individuals to work under challenging conditions or with learners ingreatest need 23 8 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'ingreatest', 'positive', 'Such', 'challenging'}, 'compound': {'an“overseer', 'toencourage'}, 'nsubj': {'mentality', 'individuals'}, 'punct': {'”'}, 'ROOT': {'dismisses'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'power'}, 'prep': {'under', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'conditions', 'learners', 'reinforcers'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'rewards', 'with'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'work'}, 'appos': {'need'}} Long High Low
3816 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Where are the social, motivational, and financial incentives forthose who consider entering one of the most challenging and significant profes - sions 22 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, AUX, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, VERB, VERB, NUM, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Where', 'most'}, 'xcomp': {'are', 'entering'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'social', 'challenging', 'financial'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'significant'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'incentives', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'forthose'}, 'relcl': {'consider'}, 'dobj': {'one'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'profes'}, 'pobj': {'sions'}} Long High Medium
3817 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development All stick and no carrot! Not much of a motivational plan to recruit outstand - ing candidates into the teaching profession 21 10 {'DET': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2} [DET, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'All', 'the', 'no'}, 'ROOT': {'stick', 'much'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'carrot'}, 'punct': {'!', '-'}, 'neg': {'Not'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'amod': {'motivational', 'ing', 'outstand'}, 'pobj': {'plan', 'profession'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'recruit'}, 'dobj': {'candidates'}, 'compound': {'teaching'}} Long High Low
3818 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Another dimension of this accountability myth is mirrored in the unit of analy - sis central to educational legislation, such as NCLB 22 10 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PROPN] {'det': {'Another', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'dimension'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'accountability'}, 'pobj': {'analy', 'legislation', 'unit', 'NCLB', 'myth'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'mirrored'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'appos': {'sis'}, 'amod': {'such', 'educational', 'central'}} Long High Low
3819 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development If accountability were truly about improved student learning over the course of the educational experience,then we would expect the data that come from high-stakes tests to be directly rele - vant to the identification and service of individual students’ academic strengths and needs 43 20 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'nsubj': {'accountability', 'that', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'be', 'were'}, 'advmod': {'directly', 'then', 'truly'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'of', 'about', 'over'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'high', 'educational', 'academic', 'improved'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'tests', 'students', 'strengths', 'identification', 'student', 'experience'}, 'acl': {'learning'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'expect'}, 'dobj': {'data'}, 'relcl': {'come'}, 'compound': {'stakes', 'rele'}, 'acomp': {'vant'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'needs', 'service'}} Long High Medium
3820 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Indeed, if there was more diagnostic merit to these high-stakes tests atACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT 639 14 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, NUM] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'amod': {'diagnostic', 'high'}, 'attr': {'merit'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'compound': {'atACADEMIC', 'stakes'}, 'pobj': {'tests'}, 'ROOT': {'DEVELOPMENT'}, 'nummod': {'639'}} Medium High Medium
3821 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development the level of the individual learner, and if there was more focus on deeper process - ing and more complex thinking, then there would be more reason to devote educa - tional time and money to their development and implementation 40 21 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'level'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'more', 'educa', 'deeper', 'individual', 'tional', 'complex'}, 'pobj': {'learner', 'development', 'thinking'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'attr': {'reason', 'focus'}, 'nmod': {'process'}, 'appos': {'ing'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'more'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'devote'}, 'dobj': {'time'}, 'conj': {'money', 'implementation'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
3822 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Yet beyond summative judgments of whether students pass or fail, graduate or not, the unit ofanalysis on which programmatic, accountability, and instructional decisions arebased has little to do with individual student learning and development 34 16 {'CCONJ': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1} [CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, PART, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'or', 'Yet', 'and'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of', 'beyond'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'summative', 'instructional'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'learning', 'judgments'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'ofanalysis'}, 'pcomp': {'pass'}, 'conj': {'accountability', 'not', 'decisions', 'development', 'fail', 'graduate'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'unit', 'student'}, 'relcl': {'do', 'programmatic'}, 'acl': {'arebased'}, 'ROOT': {'has'}, 'dobj': {'little'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Medium
3823 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development To support this contention, Michelle Riconscente and I examined the language of NCLB to test our hypothesis that the focus was not on learners but on teachersand schools (Alexander & Riconscente, 2005) and that phrases such as “high-achieving schools,” “low-performing schools,” or “schools that excel” dot the leg - islative landscape 51 22 {'PART': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 15, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN] {'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'test', 'support'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'contention', 'landscape', 'hypothesis', 'language'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'compound': {'Michelle', 'leg', 'islative'}, 'nsubj': {'phrases', 'that', 'Riconscente', 'focus'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'dot', 'on', 'I', 'schools', 'Riconscente'}, 'ROOT': {'examined'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'schools', 'NCLB'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'nummod': {'teachersand'}, 'appos': {'schools', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2005'}, 'amod': {'performing', 'such', 'achieving'}, 'advmod': {'high', 'low'}, 'relcl': {'excel'}} Long High Medium
3824 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development What we determined in our discourse analysis was that the NCLB legislation used the word “school” almost 4,000 times 19 10 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NUM, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What', 'word'}, 'nsubj': {'legislation', 'we'}, 'csubj': {'determined'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'discourse'}, 'pobj': {'analysis'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'NCLB'}, 'ccomp': {'used'}, 'punct': {'”', '“'}, 'appos': {'school'}, 'advmod': {'almost'}, 'nummod': {'4,000'}, 'npadvmod': {'times'}} Medium High Medium
3825 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development In fact, “individual”was used 10 times less and “student” showed up at half the frequency of “school” orits variants in this legislation 22 10 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'legislation', 'variants', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'auxpass': {'individual”was'}, 'ROOT': {'used'}, 'nummod': {'10'}, 'quantmod': {'times'}, 'amod': {'less'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'student'}, 'conj': {'showed'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'advmod': {'at'}, 'predet': {'half'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'frequency'}, 'nmod': {'school'}, 'compound': {'orits'}} Long High Low
3826 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Regrettably, we must not lose sight of the fundamentalfact that schools do not learn 14 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB] {'advmod': {'Regrettably'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'schools', 'we'}, 'aux': {'do', 'must'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'lose'}, 'dobj': {'sight'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'fundamentalfact'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'learn'}} Medium High Medium
3827 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Clearly, there is a confounding of measures of overall schoolachievement with those of individual students in the educational mythology 19 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Clearly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'confounding'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'measures', 'students', 'those', 'schoolachievement', 'mythology'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'overall', 'educational'}} Medium High Low
3828 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development However, the choice of assessment must be commensurate with the goals of that assess-ment since certain indicators have value in particular contexts or for certain tasksor student populations but not others (Mislevy, 1994; Pellegrino, Chudowsky, &Glaser, 2001) 37 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'choice', 'indicators'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'goals', 'assessment', 'populations', 'ment'}, 'aux': {'have', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'commensurate'}, 'compound': {'tasksor', 'assess', 'student'}, 'mark': {'since'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'particular'}, 'dobj': {'value'}, 'advcl': {'contexts'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', '&'}, 'conj': {'Pellegrino', 'for', 'Glaser', 'others'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'appos': {'Mislevy', '1994', '2001', 'Chudowsky'}} Long High Medium
3829 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development High-stakes assessments that measure broad content knowledgeare often ineffective tools for diagnosing student learning or guiding instruc - tional decision making (Braun & Mislevy, 2004) 25 4 {'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'broad', 'ineffective', 'instruc', 'tional', 'High'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'stakes', 'decision', 'student'}, 'nsubj': {'assessments', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'measure'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'content', 'tools', 'making'}, 'ROOT': {'knowledgeare'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pcomp': {'diagnosing'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'guiding', 'Mislevy', 'Braun'}, 'npadvmod': {'2004'}} Long High Low
3830 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development When the academic develop - ment of students moves to the foreground, the characteristics of those students, along with features of the task and the context, are raised to a higher status,thereby allowing for more valid inferences about learning (Baxter, Elder, &Glaser, 1996; Mislevy, 1994) 45 21 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 12, 'ADP': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'When', 'thereby', 'more'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'valid', 'higher', 'academic'}, 'compound': {'develop'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'ment'}, 'prep': {'to', 'with', 'of', 'about', 'for', 'along'}, 'pobj': {'features', 'students', 'task', 'status', 'inferences', 'foreground'}, 'advcl': {'moves', 'allowing'}, 'nsubjpass': {'characteristics'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Elder', 'Mislevy', 'Glaser', 'context'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'raised'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'Baxter'}, 'appos': {'1996', '1994'}} Long High Medium
3831 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Mentioning Equals Teaching Even in the pre-NCLB days, when I was teaching public school, I remember the pressure to cover the content, that is, the feeling that I had to ensure that my stu - dents were at least exposed to all the knowledge and skills specified in the district’s scope and sequence chart 54 30 {'VERB': 9, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADP, ADJ, VERB, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advcl': {'teaching', 'Mentioning'}, 'compound': {'Equals', 'stu'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'school', 'Teaching', 'that', 'pressure'}, 'advmod': {'least', 'when', 'Even', 'at', 'that'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'public', 'pre', '-', 'NCLB'}, 'pobj': {'days', 'knowledge', 'chart'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'dents'}, 'aux': {'was', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'remember'}, 'acl': {'cover', 'specified'}, 'relcl': {'is', 'had'}, 'appos': {'feeling'}, 'xcomp': {'ensure'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'district', 'my'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ccomp': {'exposed'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skills', 'sequence'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nmod': {'scope'}} Long High High
3832 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Covering the content haslong been de rigueur for practicing teachers required to deal with far too much content in far too short a time span 25 10 {'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'X': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 2} [VERB, DET, NOUN, PROPN, AUX, X, X, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADV, ADJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'csubj': {'Covering'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'haslong', 'teachers'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'advmod': {'de', 'too', 'far'}, 'acomp': {'rigueur'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'practicing'}, 'acl': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'deal'}, 'amod': {'short', 'much'}, 'pobj': {'content'}, 'compound': {'time'}, 'npadvmod': {'span'}} Long High Low
3833 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Moreover, I remain greatly concerned that thisdrive to get through the material in today’s classrooms comes at great cost to aca -640 ALEXANDER 23 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM, PROPN] {'advmod': {'greatly', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'thisdrive'}, 'ROOT': {'remain', 'ALEXANDER'}, 'acomp': {'concerned'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'comes', 'get'}, 'prep': {'through', 'at', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'cost', 'material', 'aca', 'classrooms'}, 'poss': {'today'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'great'}, 'compound': {'-640'}} Long High Medium
3834 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Like many educators, it had not occurred to me that this men - tioning was a poor proxy for the teaching of which I knew I was capable 28 17 {'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADJ] {'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of', 'Like'}, 'amod': {'many', 'poor'}, 'pobj': {'teaching', 'which', 'me', 'educators'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'tioning', 'it'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'occurred'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'men'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'attr': {'proxy'}, 'relcl': {'knew'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'capable'}} Long High Medium
3835 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Men - tioning simply does not allow teachers or their students to delve deeply and meaningfully into important academic content 20 7 {'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Men'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'nsubj': {'tioning', 'teachers'}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'deeply'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'allow'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'students', 'meaningfully'}, 'ccomp': {'delve'}, 'prep': {'into'}, 'amod': {'important', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'content'}} Long High Low
3836 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development It is Dolores Durkin (1978–1979) who is credited with coining the term men- tioning 15 6 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3} [PRON, AUX, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'compound': {'Dolores'}, 'attr': {'Durkin'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'1978–1979'}, 'nsubjpass': {'who'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'credited'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pcomp': {'coining'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'tioning', 'term'}, 'dep': {'men-'}} Medium High Low
3837 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Durkin, investigating the deplorable lack of comprehension instruction, referred to mentioning as the superficial treatment of essential concepts and strate - gies 22 7 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Durkin'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advcl': {'investigating'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'deplorable', 'superficial', 'essential'}, 'dobj': {'gies', 'lack'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'strate', 'comprehension'}, 'pobj': {'concepts', 'treatment', 'instruction'}, 'dep': {'referred'}, 'pcomp': {'mentioning'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
3838 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Viewed in this manner, mentioning may promote an “illusion of teaching” among educators, as well as an “illusion of learning” on the part of students (Alex - ander & Knight, 1993) 31 15 {'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Viewed'}, 'prep': {'on', 'among', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'manner', 'part', 'learning', 'teaching', 'educators'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'mentioning'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'promote'}, 'dobj': {'illusion'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'cc': {'as', '&'}, 'conj': {'illusion', 'Knight'}, 'compound': {'Alex'}, 'appos': {'ander'}, 'npadvmod': {'1993'}} Long High Low
3839 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Thus, educators must recognize that even repeated men - tioning of key academic content does not ensure that learning will occur 21 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'even'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'tioning', 'educators'}, 'aux': {'does', 'will', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'recognize'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'repeated', 'academic', 'key'}, 'compound': {'men'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'content'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'ensure', 'occur'}} Long High High
3840 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development That is why others have called for teaching more about less (diSessa, 1993) 13 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'That', 'others'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'about', 'more', 'why'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ccomp': {'called'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pcomp': {'teaching'}, 'dobj': {'less'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'1993', 'diSessa'}} Medium High Medium
3841 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development This counter - point to mentioning (which entails teaching less and less about more and more) may allow educators the time they need to teach 25 14 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'compound': {'counter'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'point', 'they'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pcomp': {'mentioning'}, 'relcl': {'entails', 'need'}, 'dobj': {'teaching', 'educators'}, 'advmod': {'about', 'less'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'less', 'more'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'allow'}, 'npadvmod': {'time'}, 'xcomp': {'teach'}} Long High Low
3842 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development However, it does not address thefundamental question of what content ultimately merits such valuable instruc - tional focus 18 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'ultimately', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'content', 'it'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'address'}, 'amod': {'thefundamental', 'tional', 'such', 'valuable'}, 'dobj': {'question', 'focus'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'merits'}, 'npadvmod': {'instruc'}} Medium High Low
3843 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development To do that one must ascertain the underlying principles that define disciplines and domains and determine how those foundational principles can beintroduced, honed, and elaborated over the course of students’ academic develop-ment 32 16 {'PART': 1, 'VERB': 8, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 2} [PART, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'aux': {'can', 'To', 'must'}, 'advcl': {'do'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'ment', 'principles', 'disciplines'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'that', 'principles'}, 'ROOT': {'ascertain'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'underlying', 'foundational', 'academic'}, 'relcl': {'define'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'elaborated', 'domains', 'determine', 'honed'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'ccomp': {'beintroduced'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'prep': {'of', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'students'}, 'compound': {'develop'}} Long High Medium
3844 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Such principles are much more foundational understand-ings than the multitude of concepts and skills that constitute typical schoolcurricula 18 9 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'foundational', 'Such', 'typical'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'principles'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'much', 'more'}, 'compound': {'understand'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'attr': {'ings'}, 'prep': {'than', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'multitude', 'concepts'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skills'}, 'relcl': {'constitute'}, 'dobj': {'schoolcurricula'}} Medium High Low
3845 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development These principles are, in effect, the premises that define a domain or dis-cipline and distinguish it from yet another domain or discipline 22 13 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADV, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'another', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'principles'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'effect'}, 'attr': {'premises'}, 'relcl': {'define'}, 'dobj': {'domain', 'it'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'dis', 'discipline', 'distinguish'}, 'acomp': {'cipline'}, 'advmod': {'yet'}} Long High Low
3846 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development For instance, edu-cational experiences should assist students to understand the nature of historicalthinking and facilitate their capacity to gather and analyze relevant historical evi-dence (Maggioni, VanSledright, & Alexander, 2009) 29 9 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'instance'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'evi', 'edu'}, 'amod': {'cational', 'relevant', '-', 'historical'}, 'nsubj': {'experiences'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'assist'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'capacity', 'nature', 'dence'}, 'xcomp': {'understand'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pcomp': {'historicalthinking'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'analyze', 'facilitate', 'Alexander'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'acl': {'gather'}, 'appos': {'Maggioni', '2009'}, 'npadvmod': {'VanSledright'}} Long High Low
3847 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development They should also supportstudents’ acquisition of the strategies required to pose and test hypotheses aboutthe physical world in science and to interrogate texts while reading in order toachieve a deep comprehension of the encrypted message (Alexander et al., inpress; Fox & Alexander, 2009) 43 15 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'PART': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'They', 'acquisition'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'poss': {'supportstudents'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'aboutthe', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'message', 'strategies', 'science'}, 'acl': {'required'}, 'xcomp': {'pose'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'compound': {'Alexander', 'test', 'et'}, 'conj': {'interrogate', 'hypotheses', 'Alexander'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'encrypted', 'physical'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', 'world', 'Fox', 'inpress'}, 'dobj': {'texts', 'comprehension'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'reading'}, 'ROOT': {'toachieve'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2009'}} Long High Medium
3848 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Effective Education Will Eliminate Student Differences Another persistent belief that works against the realization of academic develop - ment is the myth that effective education can somehow eliminate learner differ - ences 32 11 {'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'amod': {'effective', 'persistent', 'Effective', 'learner', 'academic'}, 'nsubj': {'Education', 'that', 'education'}, 'aux': {'can', 'Will'}, 'csubj': {'Eliminate'}, 'compound': {'Student', 'differ', 'develop'}, 'dobj': {'belief', 'ences', 'Differences'}, 'det': {'Another', 'the'}, 'relcl': {'works'}, 'prep': {'of', 'against'}, 'pobj': {'realization', 'ment'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'myth'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'somehow'}, 'acl': {'eliminate'}} Long High Medium
3849 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development I first became aware of this myth as a new assistant professor 12 7 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'advmod': {'first'}, 'ROOT': {'became'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'myth', 'professor'}, 'amod': {'new'}, 'compound': {'assistant'}} Medium High Low
3850 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development At a college meeting, a well-intentioned administrator came to the podium to share departmen - tal initiatives 17 7 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'At', 'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'departmen', 'tal', 'college'}, 'pobj': {'podium', 'meeting'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'amod': {'intentioned'}, 'nsubj': {'administrator'}, 'ROOT': {'came'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'share'}, 'dobj': {'initiatives'}} Medium High Low
3851 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development In the excitement of the moment, this individual stated that his de - partment’s professional development activities would succeed in leveling the aca - demic playing field for allstudents 29 12 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, X, PUNCT, PROPN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'excitement', 'allstudents', 'moment'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'individual', 'activities'}, 'ROOT': {'stated'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'partment', 'his'}, 'compound': {'playing', 'de', 'development'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'professional', 'demic'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'succeed'}, 'pcomp': {'leveling'}, 'npadvmod': {'aca'}, 'dobj': {'field'}} Long High Medium
3852 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development The implication of his message was that the better the instruction, the more equality in student learning and achievement wouldbe evidenced 21 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'implication', 'equality'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'message'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'the'}, 'amod': {'better', 'more'}, 'dep': {'instruction'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'achievement', 'student'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'wouldbe'}, 'ccomp': {'evidenced'}} Long High Medium
3853 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development get started that great education would bring about academic parity at the level of the individual student 17 8 {'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2} [AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'auxpass': {'get'}, 'ROOT': {'started'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'great', 'academic', 'individual'}, 'nsubj': {'education'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'bring'}, 'prt': {'about'}, 'dobj': {'parity'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'level', 'student'}} Medium High Medium
3854 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Sadly, it is not just this one well-intentioned but misguidedprofessor who gives credence to the myth that effective education will eliminateindividual differences 22 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, DET, NUM, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'just', 'well', 'Sadly'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'education', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'amod': {'effective', 'intentioned'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'attr': {'misguidedprofessor'}, 'relcl': {'gives'}, 'dobj': {'credence', 'differences'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'myth'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'acl': {'eliminateindividual'}} Long High Medium
3855 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Before I proceed, let me clarify that I am talking about the mythology surround - ingindividual differences, not group differences 20 9 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'that', 'Before'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'me'}, 'advcl': {'proceed'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'let'}, 'ccomp': {'talking', 'clarify'}, 'aux': {'am'}, 'prep': {'about'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'mythology'}, 'npadvmod': {'surround'}, 'amod': {'ingindividual'}, 'pobj': {'differences'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'compound': {'group'}, 'appos': {'differences'}} Long High High
3856 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development There is every reason to view the disparity between particular groups as real and unacceptable (Lee, 2002) 17 8 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'every', 'the'}, 'attr': {'reason'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'view'}, 'dobj': {'disparity'}, 'prep': {'as', 'between'}, 'amod': {'real', 'particular'}, 'pobj': {'Lee', 'groups'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'unacceptable'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2002'}} Medium High Low
3857 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development How - ever, the rhetoric does not stop at the group but permeates to the level of the indi - vidual learner 22 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [SCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'How', 'ever'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'rhetoric'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'stop'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'group', 'level', 'learner'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'permeates'}, 'npadvmod': {'indi'}, 'amod': {'vidual'}} Long High Medium
3858 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Consider the following excerpt from NCLB ( Public Law 107-110 , 2001) 12 2 {'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'SYM': 1} [VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NUM, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'Consider'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'following'}, 'dobj': {'excerpt'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pobj': {'NCLB'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'Public'}, 'appos': {'Law'}, 'nummod': {'107', '2001', '110'}} Medium High Low
3859 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development In the Statement of Purpose, it is claimed that NCLB’s purpose of ensuringthat “all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain ahigh-quality education and reach, at a minimum, proficiency on challenging Stateacademic achievement standards and state academic assessments” (p 42 18 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 13, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'at', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'ensuringthat', 'Purpose', 'Statement', 'proficiency', 'standards'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'claimed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'NCLB'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'children', 'purpose'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'amod': {'minimum', 'significant', 'challenging', 'academic', 'fair', 'Stateacademic', 'ahigh'}, 'conj': {'equal', 'assessments', 'reach'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dobj': {'opportunity', 'education'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'obtain'}, 'compound': {'quality', 'achievement'}, 'nmod': {'state'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long High Medium
3860 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development 15) can beaccomplished by “closing the achievement gap between high- and low-performingchildren, especially the achievement gaps between minority and nonminority stu - dents, and between disadvantaged children and their more advantaged peers” (p 33 13 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'meta': {'15'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'beaccomplished'}, 'prep': {'by', 'between'}, 'pcomp': {'closing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'achievement', 'stu'}, 'dobj': {'gap'}, 'nmod': {'high-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'dents', 'low', 'peers', 'nonminority', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'performingchildren', 'children', 'minority'}, 'advmod': {'especially', 'more'}, 'dep': {'gaps'}, 'amod': {'advantaged', 'disadvantaged'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'npadvmod': {'p'}} Long High Low
3861 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Thus, even within the federal legislation, there is the notion that effective edu- cation can indeed close “the achievement gap between high- and low-performingchildren,” as the wording of NCLB suggests 30 16 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'indeed', 'even'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'prep': {'as', 'within', 'of', 'between'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'federal', 'edu-', 'effective'}, 'pobj': {'legislation', 'performingchildren', 'NCLB', 'wording'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'notion'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'cation'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'acl': {'close'}, 'compound': {'achievement'}, 'dobj': {'gap'}, 'nmod': {'high-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'low'}, 'ROOT': {'suggests'}} Long High Medium
3862 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Despite such well-intentionedphraseology, the reality, I would contend, is to the contrary 12 8 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'Despite'}, 'amod': {'well', 'such'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'contrary', 'intentionedphraseology'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'reality', 'I'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'parataxis': {'contend'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}} Medium High Medium
3863 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development That is to say, we cannever eliminate individual differences that exist within all groups, be they minority or nonminority, economically advantaged or disadvantaged 23 12 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'That', 'that', 'we', 'they'}, 'parataxis': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'say'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'cannever', 'economically'}, 'ROOT': {'eliminate'}, 'amod': {'individual'}, 'dobj': {'differences'}, 'relcl': {'exist'}, 'prep': {'within'}, 'det': {'all'}, 'pobj': {'groups'}, 'conj': {'advantaged', 'be', 'nonminority', 'disadvantaged'}, 'attr': {'minority'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Low
3864 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Moreover, as I arguehere, effective education will not only fail to eliminate differences that exist be-tween learners but will also serve to exacerbate such differences 25 14 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'Moreover', 'also'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'education', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'arguehere'}, 'amod': {'be', 'such', 'effective'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'fail'}, 'xcomp': {'eliminate', 'exacerbate'}, 'dobj': {'learners', 'differences'}, 'relcl': {'exist'}, 'compound': {'tween'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'serve'}} Long High Medium
3865 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development For one, there hasbeen more than a century of research on the variability that exists at the level of theindividual with regard to an array of cognitive, affective, and motivational factorsthat influence student learning 34 18 {'ADP': 9, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'at', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'theindividual', 'array', 'learning', 'variability', 'regard', 'one', 'level', 'research'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'hasbeen'}, 'amod': {'more', 'cognitive'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'factorsthat'}, 'attr': {'century'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'exists'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'affective'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'influence'}, 'dobj': {'student'}} Long High Low
3866 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Students inevitably bring these differences into theacademic environment, and their effects on learning and development can be tre - mendous 20 8 {'NOUN': 7, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2} [NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'effects', 'Students'}, 'advmod': {'inevitably'}, 'ROOT': {'bring'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'dobj': {'differences'}, 'prep': {'into', 'on'}, 'amod': {'theacademic'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'environment'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'be', 'development'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'npadvmod': {'tre'}, 'acomp': {'mendous'}} Long High Low
3867 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Unless human variability can be excised, any expectations of academic “sameness” implied by this myth remain invalid 17 7 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ] {'mark': {'Unless'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'human'}, 'nsubjpass': {'variability'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'excised'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'det': {'any', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'expectations'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'myth', 'sameness'}, 'acl': {'implied'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'ROOT': {'remain'}, 'acomp': {'invalid'}} Medium High Medium
3868 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Let me again make it clear that Iam not discussing inequities or disparities that currently exist between cultural andsocioeconomic groups 20 9 {'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [VERB, PRON, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ, SCONJ, PROPN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Let'}, 'nsubj': {'Iam', 'me', 'that', 'it'}, 'advmod': {'currently', 'again'}, 'ccomp': {'make', 'clear'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'discussing'}, 'dobj': {'inequities'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'disparities'}, 'relcl': {'exist'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'amod': {'andsocioeconomic', 'cultural'}, 'pobj': {'groups'}} Long High Medium
3869 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development More to the point, there is reason to assume that effective instruction could po - tentially exacerbate human differences that exist rather than eliminate them 25 12 {'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2} [ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB, PRON] {'advmod': {'rather', 'More', 'tentially'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'point'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'reason'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'assume', 'exist'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'human', 'effective', 'exacerbate'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'instruction'}, 'npadvmod': {'po'}, 'appos': {'differences'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'ccomp': {'eliminate'}, 'dobj': {'them'}} Long High Medium
3870 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development This assumption is supported by the research on the Matthew effect (Stanovich, 1986).Keith Stanovich named this effect for its literary reference to Matthew 25:29: “Forunto every one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance: but from himthat hath not shall be taken away even that which he hath.” What Stanovich pro - posed is that students who are cognitively, affectively, or motivationally richer get642 ALEXANDER 68 31 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 8, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 11, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 8, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 6, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV, PRON, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'himthat', 'this', 'This', 'every', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Stanovich', 'assumption', 'Forunto'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'ROOT': {'supported', 'is'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'hath', 'effect', 'Matthew', 'research', 'reference'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'from'}, 'compound': {'get642', 'Matthew'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ':', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'Stanovich', 'he', 'that', 'who'}, 'nummod': {'25:29', '1986).Keith'}, 'appos': {'Stanovich', 'one', 'ALEXANDER'}, 'advcl': {'named'}, 'dobj': {'which', 'abundance', 'effect', 'What', 'that'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'amod': {'affectively', 'literary', 'pro'}, 'relcl': {'hath', 'are'}, 'aux': {'shall'}, 'ccomp': {'given'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'conj': {'have', 'richer', 'taken'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'away', 'motivationally', 'cognitively', 'even'}, 'csubj': {'posed'}, 'attr': {'students'}} Long High Medium
3871 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Conversely, those who enter their academic experiences with limited cognitive and motivational re - sources face the prospect of falling further and further behind their more privileged classmates 28 14 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'further', 'Conversely', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'those', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'enter'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'limited', 'privileged', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'prospect', 'experiences'}, 'prep': {'behind', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'classmates', '-', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'further', 're'}, 'ROOT': {'face'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pcomp': {'falling'}} Long High Low
3872 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Learning environments will, consequently, not be experienced equallyby students as a consequence of preexisting differences in their knowledge, strate - gic abilities, motivations, and cognitive capabilities 26 9 {'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PART, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'gic', 'equallyby', 'Learning', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubjpass': {'environments'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'consequently'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'experienced'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'differences'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'consequence'}, 'pcomp': {'preexisting'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'npadvmod': {'strate'}, 'conj': {'motivations', 'capabilities', 'abilities'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
3873 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development The individual differences that preexist any educational experience ensure that variability in learning will re - sult from those experiences 20 9 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'any', 'The', 'those'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'educational'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'variability', 'differences'}, 'relcl': {'preexist'}, 'dobj': {'experience'}, 'ROOT': {'ensure'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'experiences'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ccomp': {'re'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'advcl': {'sult'}} Long High Medium
3874 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development The Purpose of Formal Education Is Clear One might assume from the intense concentration of fiscal and human resources on current programmatic and assessment efforts that the most fundamental educa - tional issues—the reason that the social institutions of schools exist and the pur - pose of the formal education they provide—have been resolved 54 25 {'DET': 7, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 10, 'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2} [DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, PROPN, NUM, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'One', 'Purpose', 'institutions'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'from'}, 'compound': {'Formal', 'pur', 'Clear'}, 'pobj': {'concentration', 'education', 'resources', 'schools', 'efforts', 'Education'}, 'ROOT': {'Is'}, 'aux': {'have', 'might'}, 'ccomp': {'resolved', 'assume'}, 'amod': {'fiscal', 'educa', 'programmatic', 'fundamental', 'tional', 'intense', 'social', 'formal', 'current'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'assessment', 'pose', 'human'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'most'}, 'punct': {'-', '—'}, 'nsubjpass': {'issues'}, 'appos': {'reason'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'provide', 'exist'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}} Long High Medium
3875 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development However, I would argue that either we have failed to weigh these most basic questions orwe have failed to consider that content and processes of current edu- cational practices in light of our beliefs 34 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'most'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'we'}, 'aux': {'would', 'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'argue'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'ccomp': {'failed'}, 'xcomp': {'weigh', 'consider'}, 'det': {'that', 'these'}, 'amod': {'cational', 'edu-', 'basic', 'current'}, 'compound': {'questions'}, 'dobj': {'orwe', 'content'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'processes'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'practices', 'beliefs', 'light'}, 'poss': {'our'}} Long High Medium
3876 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development The bottom line is the tacit acceptance thatthe purpose of education is clear and well established 16 8 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'tacit', 'bottom'}, 'nsubj': {'purpose', 'line'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'compound': {'thatthe', 'acceptance'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'education'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'clear'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'conj': {'established'}} Medium High Low
3877 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development In truth, one might have un-told purposes for participating in formal education 12 6 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'education', 'truth'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'one'}, 'aux': {'have', 'might'}, 'ROOT': {'un'}, 'amod': {'told', '-', 'formal'}, 'dobj': {'purposes'}, 'pcomp': {'participating'}} Medium High Low
3878 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development For example, is the purpose ofeducation, as Malcolm Forbes (n.d.) stated, to “replace an empty mind with anopen one” 19 9 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PART, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'with', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'anopen', 'example'}, 'punct': {'.', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Malcolm', 'purpose'}, 'attr': {'ofeducation'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'Forbes'}, 'appos': {'n.d'}, 'advcl': {'stated'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'replace'}, 'amod': {'empty'}, 'dobj': {'mind'}, 'nummod': {'one'}} Medium High Medium
3879 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Or is it “the progressive discovery of our own ignorance,” as the histo-rian Will Durant (n.d.) so eloquently said 19 11 {'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1} [CCONJ, AUX, PRON, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, VERB] {'cc': {'Or'}, 'ROOT': {'said', 'is'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'rian'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'progressive', 'own'}, 'attr': {'discovery'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'Durant', 'ignorance'}, 'compound': {'Will', 'histo'}, 'appos': {'n.d', '.'}, 'advmod': {'eloquently', 'so'}} Medium High Low
3880 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Maybe, like John Dewey (1897), oneconceives of education as “a social process … a process of living and not a prepa- ration for future living” (p 26 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Maybe'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '…', '“'}, 'ROOT': {'like'}, 'compound': {'prepa-', 'John'}, 'pobj': {'process', 'education', 'living', 'Dewey'}, 'appos': {'process', 'p', 'oneconceives', '1897'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'social', 'future'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'ration'}} Long High Low
3881 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development 10), the function of education “is to teach one to think intensively and to think critically.” Prophetically, King warned that“education which stops with efficiency may prove the greatest menace to society.The most dangerous criminal may be the man gifted with reason, but with no mor - als.” From a more pragmatic and legalistic standpoint, the Supreme Court in Yoderv 59 28 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 12, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADJ': 4} [NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN] {'meta': {'10'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '”', ',', '“'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'criminal', 'King', 'function'}, 'prep': {'From', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Yoderv', 'efficiency', 'education', 'society', 'standpoint', 'als', 'reason'}, 'ROOT': {'be', 'is', 'Court', 'warned'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'think', 'teach'}, 'dobj': {'that“education', 'one', 'menace'}, 'advmod': {'critically', 'most', 'intensively', 'Prophetically', 'more'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'think', 'legalistic'}, 'relcl': {'stops'}, 'ccomp': {'prove'}, 'amod': {'greatest', 'dangerous', 'pragmatic'}, 'attr': {'man'}, 'acl': {'gifted'}, 'compound': {'mor', 'Supreme'}} Long High Low
3882 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Wisconsin (1972) ruled that the purpose of education is to prevent citizens from becoming a burden on the state 19 10 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Wisconsin', 'purpose'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'appos': {'1972'}, 'ROOT': {'ruled'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'education', 'state'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'prevent'}, 'dobj': {'citizens'}, 'pcomp': {'becoming'}, 'attr': {'burden'}} Medium High Medium
3883 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Yet even from this less lofty vantage point, itwould appear that the educational system has failed for far too many of the popu - lace 25 13 {'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN] {'cc': {'Yet'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'even', 'far', 'too'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'lofty', 'educational', 'popu'}, 'compound': {'vantage'}, 'pobj': {'many', 'point', 'lace'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'aux': {'has', 'itwould'}, 'ROOT': {'appear'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'system'}, 'ccomp': {'failed'}} Long High Medium
3884 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development However, do we see any of these laudable or pragmatic purposes reflected in current educational policies or assessment practices 19 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'any'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'amod': {'laudable', 'educational', 'current'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'practices', 'pragmatic'}, 'pobj': {'purposes', 'policies'}, 'acl': {'reflected'}, 'compound': {'assessment'}} Medium High Low
3885 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Where is the depth of explo - ration of self or domains of knowledge implied by these declarations (Deci et al., 1982; diSessa, 1993) 24 9 {'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [SCONJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Where'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'depth'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'explo'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'pobj': {'self', 'ration', 'knowledge', 'declarations'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'domains', 'diSessa'}, 'acl': {'implied'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'appos': {'1982', '1993', 'Deci'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Medium
3886 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Where is the concern for thinking intensively or critically(e.g., Alexander et al., in press) 14 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3} [SCONJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Where', 'intensively'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'.', 'concern'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'thinking'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'critically(e.g'}, 'punct': {',', '.', ')'}, 'compound': {'Alexander', 'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'al'}, 'pobj': {'press'}} Medium High Medium
3887 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development I see little in the current educational policies and as - sessment that portray a clear educational purpose beyond the acquisition of the most basic skills in threshold domains.ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT 643 31 14 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, NUM] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'see', 'DEVELOPMENT'}, 'dobj': {'little', 'purpose'}, 'prep': {'beyond', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'clear', 'educational', 'basic', 'current'}, 'pobj': {'sessment', 'skills', 'domains', 'acquisition', 'policies'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'as'}, 'punct': {'-', '.'}, 'ccomp': {'portray'}, 'advmod': {'most'}, 'compound': {'threshold', 'ACADEMIC'}, 'nummod': {'643'}} Long High Low
3888 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development The Social and Motivational Aspects of Education Are Well Understood In their analysis of the research base for the American Psychological Association’s learner-centered principles, Alexander and Murphy (1998) stated that the socio - cultural context and motivational/affective forces play a significant role in stu - dents’ learning and development 49 19 {'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 11, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'INTJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'SYM': 1} [DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, INTJ, PROPN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, SYM, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nmod': {'dents', 'Social'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'forces', 'Murphy', 'Motivational', 'development', 'Alexander'}, 'nsubj': {'Aspects', 'context'}, 'prep': {'for', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'analysis', 'learning', 'Education', 'base', 'principles'}, 'ROOT': {'Are', 'stated'}, 'advmod': {'Well'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', 'Understood', ')', '(', ',', '/'}, 'poss': {'Association', 'their'}, 'compound': {'American', 'affective', 'stu', 'Psychological', 'research'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'npadvmod': {'socio', 'learner'}, 'amod': {'motivational', 'significant', 'centered', 'cultural'}, 'appos': {'1998'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'play'}, 'dobj': {'role'}} Long High Medium
3889 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development A wealth of research from social psychology, school psychology, educational psychology, and other fields has established thatmany noncognitive factors that operate in schools and in out-of-school environ - ments can serve to foster or frustrate students’ academic development (Pintrich et al., 1993) 42 15 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 10, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'A'}, 'nsubj': {'ments', 'wealth', 'that'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'psychology', 'schools', 'research', 'school'}, 'amod': {'noncognitive', 'foster', 'social', 'other', 'educational', 'academic'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'compound': {'environ', 'school'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'fields', 'psychology', 'serve', 'frustrate'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'aux': {'can', 'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'established'}, 'nmod': {'thatmany', 'out'}, 'dobj': {'development', 'factors'}, 'relcl': {'operate'}, 'dep': {'students'}, 'appos': {'1993', 'Pintrich'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
3890 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development For instance, students who have low self-esteem or low efficacy beliefs;students without social supports in school or at home; or students who are bored,disaffected, or generally unengaged cannot be expected to realize their academicpotential (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991) 36 17 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'without', 'For', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'home', 'supports', 'instance', 'school'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'have', 'are'}, 'amod': {'social', 'low'}, 'compound': {'self', 'efficacy'}, 'dobj': {'academicpotential', 'esteem'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'students', 'unengaged', 'expected', 'at', 'beliefs;students'}, 'acomp': {'bored'}, 'ROOT': {'disaffected'}, 'advmod': {'generally'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'realize'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'Csikszentmihalyi'}, 'npadvmod': {'1991'}} Long High Low
3891 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Nonetheless, when we consider the focus ofteacher preparation, policy initiatives, or curricular interventions, it would appearthat the educational experience is largely conceptualized and operationalized as a“coldly cognitive” enterprise (Pintrich et al., 1995 ) 33 10 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'a“coldly', 'when', 'Nonetheless', 'largely'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '”', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we', 'focus'}, 'advcl': {'consider'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'curricular', 'ofteacher', 'educational', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'preparation'}, 'compound': {'policy'}, 'conj': {'operationalized', '.', 'interventions', 'al', 'initiatives'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'appearthat'}, 'nsubjpass': {'experience'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'conceptualized'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'pobj': {'enterprise'}, 'appos': {'Pintrich'}, 'npadvmod': {'1995', 'et'}} Long High Medium
3892 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development If academic development is to be fully embraced, it will be critical to address multiple dimensions of students’ lives—from their physical care to their socialwell-being—even as we strive to expand their minds and enrich their knowledgeand cognitive capabilities 38 21 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'If', 'as'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'academic', 'physical', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we', 'development'}, 'advcl': {'is', 'strive'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'fully', 'even'}, 'xcomp': {'address', 'embraced', 'expand'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'critical'}, 'dobj': {'capabilities', 'dimensions', 'minds', 'lives'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'care', 'being'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'socialwell', 'knowledgeand'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'enrich'}} Long High High
3893 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development There should also be systematic consideration of howthe educational experience influences motivational and affective conditions, alongwith the cognitive outcomes that are commonplace 22 9 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ] {'expl': {'There'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'motivational', 'educational', 'cognitive'}, 'attr': {'consideration'}, 'prep': {'alongwith', 'of'}, 'nmod': {'influences', 'howthe'}, 'compound': {'experience'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'affective'}, 'pobj': {'conditions', 'outcomes'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'commonplace'}} Long High Low
3894 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development For example, there are reasonsto be concerned about the long-term effects of non-engaging reading programs onstudents’ motivations toward reading (Guthrie & Wigfield, 1997) and about agrowing dislike of mathematics that is seemingly associated with “drill-and-kill”pedagogical approaches (Meece, Wigfield, & Eccles, 1990; Middleton & Spanias,1999) 44 15 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 15, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PROPN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'with', 'of', 'toward', 'about', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'mathematics', 'example', 'effects', 'programs', 'approaches'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ',', ';', '“'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'reasonsto', 'term'}, 'attr': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'concerned'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'-', 'non', 'engaging', 'long'}, 'conj': {'onstudents', 'Spanias,1999', 'kill”pedagogical', 'Wigfield', 'Eccles', 'about', 'Middleton'}, 'dobj': {'motivations', 'dislike'}, 'npadvmod': {'1997', 'Guthrie'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'pcomp': {'agrowing'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'seemingly'}, 'relcl': {'associated'}, 'nmod': {'drill'}, 'appos': {'Meece'}, 'nummod': {'1990'}} Long High Low
3895 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development It is not simply a matter of how noncognitive factors shape students’ learning and development 15 7 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It', 'factors'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'how'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'matter'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'noncognitive'}, 'pcomp': {'shape'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'dobj': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'development'}} Medium High Medium
3896 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development How the educational experience influences students socially,culturally, motivationally, and affectively is also of concern 14 6 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, AUX, ADV, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'also', 'How', 'socially', 'culturally', 'affectively', 'motivationally'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'educational'}, 'nsubj': {'experience'}, 'ROOT': {'influences'}, 'dobj': {'students'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'is'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'concern'}} Medium High Medium
3897 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development I wish I could say thatthe centuries of educational research and practice have resulted in a clear picture ofthe cognitive and affective transformations that should occur in students as theyparticipate in the formal educational process 35 16 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3} [PRON, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'wish'}, 'aux': {'should', 'could', 'have'}, 'ccomp': {'say', 'resulted'}, 'xcomp': {'thatthe'}, 'dobj': {'centuries'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'clear', 'formal', 'educational', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'transformations', 'students', 'process', 'theyparticipate', 'research'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practice', 'affective'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'ofthe'}, 'compound': {'picture'}, 'relcl': {'occur'}} Long High Low
3898 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development There is research sug - gesting that motivation begins to wane as students progress through school (Wigfield, Tonks, & Eccles, 2004) 21 6 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'research'}, 'advmod': {'sug'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'acl': {'gesting'}, 'det': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'motivation'}, 'relcl': {'begins'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'wane'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'progress'}, 'prep': {'through'}, 'pobj': {'school'}, 'appos': {'Wigfield'}, 'conj': {'Eccles', 'Tonks'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'2004'}} Long High Medium
3899 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Evidence of diminished engagement, in - creased boredom, and learner apathy has also been reported (e.g., Riconscente, 2007) 18 6 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Evidence'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'diminished', 'creased', 'learner'}, 'pobj': {'engagement'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nmod': {'in'}, 'appos': {'boredom'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'apathy'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'also'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'npadvmod': {'2007', 'Riconscente'}} Medium High Low
3900 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Of course, no one program or intention can hope to do it all 13 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, PRON] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'no'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'nsubj': {'program'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'intention'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'hope'}, 'xcomp': {'do'}, 'dobj': {'it'}, 'appos': {'all'}} Medium High Low
3901 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development The scope andcomplexity of the problem is simply too much for any one empirical study, evenone that is longitudinal in design 21 12 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'any', 'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'scope'}, 'nsubj': {'andcomplexity', 'that'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'study', 'problem', 'design'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'too'}, 'acomp': {'longitudinal', 'much'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'amod': {'empirical'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'evenone'}, 'relcl': {'is'}} Long High Low
3902 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development However, at a minimum, we should expect thatinterventions that speak to academic development at an individual level considernoncognitive variables.644 ALEXANDER 20 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'at', 'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'pobj': {'ALEXANDER', 'minimum', 'development'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'expect'}, 'dobj': {'thatinterventions'}, 'relcl': {'speak'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'considernoncognitive', 'academic'}, 'compound': {'level', 'variables.644'}} Long High Low
3903 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development THE MDL I would like to offer up one modest program of research that I have pursued over the past 10 years and that has sought to investigate academic development in termsof students’ learning in academic domains 37 18 {'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, PROPN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'THE'}, 'npadvmod': {'MDL'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'has', 'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'like'}, 'xcomp': {'investigate', 'offer'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'nummod': {'one', '10'}, 'amod': {'modest', 'termsof', 'past', 'academic'}, 'dobj': {'program', 'that', 'development'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'years', 'domains', 'research'}, 'relcl': {'pursued'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sought'}, 'punct': {'’'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}} Long High Low
3904 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development My approach to studying academic de - velopment is the MDL, in which my goal was to document the systematic changes that occur in learners as they progress toward increased competence within recog - nized fields of study (e.g., Alexander, 1997; Alexander, Jetton, & Kulikowich, 1995; Alexander, Murphy, Woods, Duhon, & Parker, 1997; Murphy & Alexander,2002) 56 17 {'PRON': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 18, 'PROPN': 13, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 3} [PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PRON, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT] {'poss': {'My', 'my'}, 'nsubj': {'goal', 'they', 'approach', 'that'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'toward'}, 'pcomp': {'studying'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'nized', 'increased', 'academic'}, 'compound': {'de'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'dobj': {'velopment', 'changes'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'MDL'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'fields', 'learners', 'competence', 'study'}, 'relcl': {'was', 'occur'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'document'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'progress'}, 'npadvmod': {'Alexander', 'recog'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'1997', '1995'}, 'conj': {'Murphy', 'Woods', 'Alexander,2002', 'Jetton', 'Parker', 'Kulikowich', 'Alexander', 'Duhon'}, 'cc': {'&'}} Long High Medium
3905 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development The interplay between three central constructs (i.e., knowledge, strategicprocessing, and interest), each investigated in two varied forms (i.e., domain andtopic knowledge, surface-level strategies and deep-processing strategies, and indi - vidual interest and situational interest), serves as the backbone of the MDL 41 14 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 17, 'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 15, 'X': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'interplay'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in', 'between'}, 'nummod': {'two', 'three'}, 'amod': {'varied', 'vidual', 'central', 'deep', 'situational'}, 'pobj': {'MDL', 'forms', 'backbone', 'constructs'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'cc': {'and', 'i.e.'}, 'conj': {'strategicprocessing', 'interest', 'knowledge', 'serves', 'strategies'}, 'nsubj': {'each'}, 'acl': {'investigated'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'nmod': {'domain'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'surface', 'level', 'andtopic'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}, 'npadvmod': {'indi'}} Long High Low
3906 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Based on decades of prior research on these constructs, individually and in combination(e.g., Alexander & Judy, 1988; de Jong & Ferguson-Hessler, 1986; Dewey, 1913;Hidi, 1990), I formulated a model as to what changes should transpire in their in-terrelations should individuals show growth toward increased competence andperhaps even expertise in a specific academic domain 53 21 {'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 9, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 13, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 4, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2} [VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, X, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADV, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'Based', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'toward', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'terrelations', '.', 'decades', 'combination(e.g', 'competence', 'domain', 'research', 'constructs'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'increased', 'prior', 'specific'}, 'det': {'a', 'what', 'these'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ';', ')'}, 'advmod': {'individually', 'even'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'individuals', 'growth', 'Alexander'}, 'conj': {'Judy', 'Jong', 'Dewey', 'Hessler'}, 'appos': {'1988', '1913;Hidi'}, 'nmod': {'de', 'in'}, 'compound': {'Ferguson'}, 'nummod': {'1986'}, 'npadvmod': {'1990'}, 'ROOT': {'formulated'}, 'dobj': {'expertise', 'model', 'changes'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'pcomp': {'transpire'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'show'}, 'ccomp': {'andperhaps'}} Long High Low
3907 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Thus, as depicted in Figure 1, it was hypothesized that those in the earliest stage of their domain-specific development (i.e., acclimation) have both limited andfragmented domain (breadth) or topic (depth) knowledge upon which they candraw 35 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'SCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'i.e.'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'depicted'}, 'prep': {'upon', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Figure', 'which', 'stage', 'development'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'hypothesized'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'those'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'limited', 'andfragmented', 'specific', 'earliest'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'appos': {'acclimation', 'breadth'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'dobj': {'domain'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'nmod': {'topic', 'depth'}, 'conj': {'knowledge'}, 'relcl': {'candraw'}} Long High High
3908 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development In part because of the state of their knowledge, students in acclimation alsohave to use many surface-level strategies that allow them to make sense of the do-main-specific problems they confront, and they are less able to delve into deep-processing strategies that allow them to transform or deeply ponder the current sit-uation 51 29 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 9, 'PART': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, AUX, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'because', 'in', 'into', 'of', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'acclimation', 'state', 'part', 'knowledge', 'problems', 'strategies'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that', 'them', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'alsohave'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'use', 'delve'}, 'amod': {'specific', 'many', 'deep', 'surface', 'current', 'do'}, 'compound': {'processing', 'sit', 'level'}, 'dobj': {'sense', 'strategies', 'uation'}, 'relcl': {'confront', 'allow'}, 'ccomp': {'make', 'transform'}, 'advmod': {'main', 'less', 'deeply'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'ponder', 'are'}, 'acomp': {'able'}} Long High Medium
3909 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Furthermore, this lack of rich domain knowledge and the high strategic de - mands are complicated by a lack of deep-seated interest in or personal identifica - tion with the domain or a given domain-specific task (i.e., individual interest) 39 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'X': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'i.e.', 'Furthermore'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'lack'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'rich', 'personal', 'given', 'specific', 'seated', 'deep', 'high', 'strategic', 'individual'}, 'compound': {'domain', 'de', 'identifica'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'knowledge', 'interest', 'lack'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'task', 'tion', 'mands'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'complicated'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'appos': {'interest'}} Long High Low
3910 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Rather, learners in acclimation rely on features of the task or the context to piquetheir interest and motivate their engagement (i.e., situational interest) 23 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'i.e.', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'learners'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'acclimation', 'features'}, 'ROOT': {'rely'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'motivate', 'context'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'piquetheir'}, 'dobj': {'interest', 'engagement'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'situational'}, 'appos': {'interest'}} Long High Low
3911 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development If conditions are favorable and the suitable educational experiences are forth - coming, learners can cross the threshold into competence—and thankfully most students who have the benefit of a K–12 education can achieve at least fragile com - petence in most basic academic domains (e.g., reading, mathematics, history) 48 20 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 15, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT] {'mark': {'If'}, 'nsubj': {'who', 'students', 'conditions', 'learners', 'experiences'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'favorable', 'coming'}, 'cc': {'and', 'e.g.'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'suitable', 'basic', 'fragile', 'educational', 'most', 'academic'}, 'conj': {'reading', 'are', 'mathematics', 'achieve'}, 'advmod': {'at', 'thankfully', 'forth', 'least'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '—', '(', ','}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'cross'}, 'dobj': {'petence', 'threshold', 'benefit'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'competence', 'education', 'domains'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'compound': {'com', 'K–12'}, 'appos': {'history'}} Long High Medium
3912 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development In effect, competence is an extended stage that is marked by quantitative and qualita - tive changes in knowledge, strategic processing, and interest 23 9 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'effect', 'changes'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'competence'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'quantitative', 'strategic', 'extended'}, 'attr': {'stage'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'marked'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'qualita'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'interest', 'tive'}} Long High Low
3913 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development For instance, topic and domain knowledge not only increases, but that knowledge becomes more co - hesive or more principled, which is a hallmark of this stage 27 15 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'stage'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nmod': {'topic'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'becomes', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'knowledge'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'ROOT': {'increases'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'this'}, 'amod': {'co', 'more', 'hesive'}, 'acomp': {'principled'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'hallmark'}} Long High Medium
3914 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development What is also dramatic and related to this quantitative and qualitative shift in domain knowledge withincompetence is that learners manifest more deep-processing strategies and a risingpersonal interest in the domain 30 15 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'learners', 'What'}, 'csubj': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'acomp': {'dramatic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interest', 'qualitative', 'related'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'quantitative', 'more', 'risingpersonal'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'withincompetence', 'shift'}, 'compound': {'domain', 'knowledge', 'processing'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'manifest'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'dobj': {'strategies'}} Long High Medium
3915 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Toward mid-level competence, this investment inthe domain becomes a compelling force that is marked by individuals’ intentionalACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT 645 19 7 {'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, NUM] {'prep': {'Toward'}, 'amod': {'compelling', 'mid', '-', 'level'}, 'pobj': {'competence', 'individuals'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'det': {'a', 'this', 'inthe'}, 'nsubj': {'domain', 'investment'}, 'ROOT': {'becomes'}, 'attr': {'force'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'marked'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'intentionalACADEMIC'}, 'advcl': {'DEVELOPMENT'}, 'nummod': {'645'}} Medium High Low
3916 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development pursuit of knowledge and experiences related to the field, a transformational process we have documented in the words and actions of competent learners in such diversedomains as reading and history (Fox & Dinsmore, 2009; Maggioni et al., 2009) 38 15 {'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'pursuit'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'field', 'knowledge', 'learners', 'diversedomains', 'words'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'history', 'actions', 'Dinsmore', 'al', 'experiences'}, 'acl': {'related'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'transformational', 'competent', 'such'}, 'appos': {'.', 'process', 'Maggioni', '2009'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'documented'}, 'npadvmod': {'Fox', '2009', 'et'}} Long High Low
3917 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development For the relatively rare percentage of individuals who reach the stage of profi - ciency or expertise, their domain and topic knowledge is understandably exten - sive 27 10 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'understandably', 'relatively'}, 'amod': {'exten', 'rare'}, 'pobj': {'percentage', 'individuals', 'ciency'}, 'nsubj': {'domain', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'reach'}, 'dobj': {'stage'}, 'compound': {'topic', 'profi'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'expertise'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'sive'}} Long High Low
3918 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Even more indicative of their expertise is that these individuals are expected to be engaged in activities that contribute new knowledge and understandings tothe domain 25 13 {'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'Even'}, 'acomp': {'indicative'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'expertise', 'activities'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'individuals'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'ccomp': {'expected'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'engaged'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'contribute'}, 'amod': {'new'}, 'dobj': {'domain', 'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'understandings'}, 'compound': {'tothe'}} Long High Medium
3919 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development This transformational knowledge comes about, in part, because theseindividuals are truly engrossed in and self-identify with the domain 18 10 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'transformational'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge'}, 'ROOT': {'comes'}, 'prt': {'about'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'part'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'nsubjpass': {'theseindividuals'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'truly'}, 'advcl': {'engrossed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'conj': {'identify'}} Medium High Medium
3920 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Further, theirinterest helps them strategically engage in problem finding and problem cre - ation—an engagement that is extensively deep-processing in character 21 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'strategically', 'extensively', 'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'them', 'theirinterest'}, 'ROOT': {'helps'}, 'ccomp': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'compound': {'cre', 'problem'}, 'pobj': {'finding', 'character'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ation'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'appos': {'engagement'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'amod': {'deep'}, 'acomp': {'processing'}} Long High Low
3921 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development It is cru - cial to note that these attributes of proficiency or expertise cannot be realistically achieved within the confines of typical K–16 education 25 13 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'compound': {'cru', 'K–16'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'attr': {'cial'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'note'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'attributes'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'proficiency', 'confines', 'education'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'expertise'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'realistically'}, 'ccomp': {'achieved'}, 'amod': {'typical'}} Long High Medium
3922 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Nonetheless, the foundations for exper - tise must be established during these formative years and should be reflected in the goals and experiences that compose K–16 education.646 ALEXANDER FIGURE 1 A representation of the changing relation of domain and topic knowledge, sur- face-level and deep-processing strategies, and individual and situational interest over the stagesof the model of domain learning. 59 25 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 23, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, NUM, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.', 'FIGURE'}, 'det': {'A', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'foundations'}, 'prep': {'during', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'over'}, 'compound': {'K–16', 'education.646', 'topic', 'domain', 'ALEXANDER', 'exper'}, 'pobj': {'goals', 'years', 'tise', 'relation', 'learning', 'domain', 'stagesof'}, 'aux': {'should', 'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'representation', 'established'}, 'amod': {'formative', 'changing', 'individual', 'deep'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'interest', 'knowledge', 'experiences', 'situational', 'reflected', 'strategies'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'compose'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'nmod': {'face', 'level', 'sur-'}, 'appos': {'model'}} Long High Low
3923 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development The evidence we have gathered from young students to renowned experts has provided support for the MDL in a range of domains, from biology, astrophysics,and history to reading, educational psychology, and special education (e.g., Alex - ander, Kulikowich, & Schulze, 1994) 41 15 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 12, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'evidence', 'we'}, 'aux': {'has', 'have'}, 'relcl': {'gathered'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'renowned', 'young', 'special'}, 'pobj': {'biology', 'students', 'range', 'experts', 'domains', 'MDL'}, 'ROOT': {'provided'}, 'dobj': {'support'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'history', 'astrophysics', 'education', 'Schulze', 'Kulikowich'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'appos': {'psychology', 'ander'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'compound': {'Alex'}, 'npadvmod': {'1994'}} Long High Low
3924 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Others researchers have found the MDL worthy of exploration as well and have put the predictions of the model to the testin such domains as physical education, social studies, engineering, technology,and music therapy (e.g., Chen, Shen, Scrabis, & Tolley, 2002; Lawless & Kuli - kowich, 1998; VanSledright, 2002) 48 17 {'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 9, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 16, 'NUM': 3} [NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, PROPN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADV, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'music', 'Kuli', 'Others'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'MDL'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ccomp': {'worthy'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'model', 'education', 'domains', 'exploration'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'as', 'well'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'studies', 'Tolley', 'kowich', 'Shen', 'Scrabis', 'Lawless', 'put', 'therapy', 'engineering', 'technology'}, 'dobj': {'predictions'}, 'amod': {'social', 'such', 'physical', 'testin'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'npadvmod': {'Chen'}, 'appos': {'1998', '2002', 'VanSledright'}} Long High Low
3925 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development What these data suggest is that academic de - velopment is a promising way to consider the long-term, continuous influence of cognitive and motivational factors on learners and learning 29 12 {'PRON': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, ADJ, X, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'dobj': {'influence', 'What'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'velopment', 'data'}, 'csubj': {'suggest'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'promising', 'continuous', 'long', 'academic', 'cognitive'}, 'compound': {'de'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'way'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'consider'}, 'nmod': {'term'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'learning'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'factors'}} Long High Medium
3926 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Yet there is muchmore to be done to test the MDL and to allow for fuller exploration of changes overtime within domains and disciplines, that is, to inform understanding of academicdevelopment 31 18 {'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1} [CCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, AUX, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'cc': {'and', 'Yet'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'muchmore'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'done'}, 'advcl': {'test'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'MDL', 'understanding'}, 'conj': {'allow', 'disciplines'}, 'prep': {'for', 'within', 'of'}, 'amod': {'fuller'}, 'pobj': {'academicdevelopment', 'changes', 'domains', 'exploration'}, 'advmod': {'overtime', 'that', 'is'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dep': {'inform'}} Long High Low
3927 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Clearly, longitudinal studies that reveal the orchestrated changes in these cogni - tive and noncognitive forces are necessary, along with studies that explore critical transition periods in the lives of learners at varying ages and in varying socioculturalcontexts 38 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Clearly'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'varying', 'longitudinal', 'orchestrated', 'critical'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'explore', 'reveal'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'changes', 'periods'}, 'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'at', 'along'}, 'nmod': {'cogni', 'tive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'noncognitive', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'forces', 'socioculturalcontexts', 'learners', 'ages', 'lives'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'necessary'}, 'compound': {'transition'}} Long High Low
3928 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development We are also concerned with how one first gets a solid foothold in a domain,as in the emergence of children’s individual interest (Jablonski & Alexander, 2009)or the manner in which intentionality drives development even in the face of strug-gles or setbacks (Kulikowich & Alexander, 2009) 45 23 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 3} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, SCONJ, NUM, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'intentionality', 'one', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'even', 'how'}, 'acomp': {'concerned'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'as', 'in'}, 'amod': {'first', 'solid', 'individual'}, 'pcomp': {'gets'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'foothold', 'development'}, 'pobj': {'emergence', 'which', 'interest', 'face', 'domain', 'gles'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'children'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'appos': {'Jablonski', 'manner', '2009)or'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Kulikowich', 'Alexander', 'setbacks'}, 'relcl': {'drives'}, 'compound': {'strug'}, 'npadvmod': {'2009'}} Long High Medium
3929 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development We are also working diligently touncover more precise but less intrusive measures of strategic processing (Fox & Al-exander, 2009) 19 7 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'diligently', 'less', 'also', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'working'}, 'advcl': {'touncover'}, 'amod': {'precise', 'strategic'}, 'cc': {'but', '&'}, 'conj': {'intrusive', 'exander'}, 'dobj': {'measures'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'processing'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Fox'}, 'compound': {'Al'}, 'npadvmod': {'2009'}} Medium High Low
3930 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Although there is much work to be done and far more interdisciplin-ary inquiry to be initiated, we remain excited about the prospects of discoveringmore about the nature of human domain learning in the years to come 36 21 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'amod': {'ary', 'much', 'more', 'human'}, 'attr': {'work'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'initiated', 'done'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'far'}, 'npadvmod': {'interdisciplin'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'conj': {'inquiry'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'remain'}, 'acomp': {'excited'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'years', 'learning', 'prospects', 'discoveringmore', 'nature'}, 'compound': {'domain'}, 'acl': {'come'}} Long High Medium
3931 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Again, this work on the MDL represents just one examination of academic de- velopment 14 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADV, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Again', 'just'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'work'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'velopment', 'MDL'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'dobj': {'examination'}, 'amod': {'academic'}, 'compound': {'de-'}} Medium High Low
3932 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development It is by no means the only or best approach to investigating academicdevelopment 13 8 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'prep': {'by', 'to'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'means'}, 'amod': {'only'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'best'}, 'attr': {'approach'}, 'pcomp': {'investigating'}, 'dobj': {'academicdevelopment'}} Medium High Low
3933 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Thus, we look forward to many other investigations into the multi - tude of factors, situations, or contexts that can illuminate the nature of this intrigu - ing construct and guide us in fostering optimal development for all who walk through the doors of our schools in hopes of becoming well educated 52 28 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 9, 'ADP': 10, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'well', 'forward'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'look'}, 'prep': {'through', 'to', 'in', 'into', 'of', 'for'}, 'amod': {'many', 'ing', 'other', 'intrigu', 'optimal'}, 'pobj': {'investigations', 'doors', 'tude', 'construct', 'factors', 'schools', 'all', 'hopes'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'multi'}, 'conj': {'situations', 'guide', 'contexts'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'walk', 'illuminate'}, 'dobj': {'nature', 'us', 'development'}, 'pcomp': {'becoming', 'fostering'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'acomp': {'educated'}} Long High Low
3934 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development As did thelate Robert Gagné (1977), we remain committed to helping students become morecompetent and more capable of adjusting to the complexities of life in a post - industrial society, not only so that they may survive but also so that they may “find a satisfying quality to their lives” (p 51 28 {'SCONJ': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, AUX, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, ADV, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'mark': {'As', 'that', 'so'}, 'aux': {'did', 'may'}, 'advcl': {'thelate'}, 'compound': {'Robert'}, 'dobj': {'quality', 'Gagné'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'1977'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'we', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'remain'}, 'acomp': {'committed', 'capable'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'adjusting', 'helping'}, 'ccomp': {'become'}, 'attr': {'morecompetent'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'more'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'life', 'complexities', 'lives', 'society'}, 'npadvmod': {'post'}, 'amod': {'industrial', 'satisfying'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'dep': {'p', 'survive'}, 'conj': {'find'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
3935 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development MOVING BEYOND THE MYTHOLOGY What I have endeavored to show is that we can no longer allow the educational mythos to survive if we truly intend for formal schooling to set learners on a pathtoward optimal learning and development 39 21 {'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'set', 'MOVING', 'intend'}, 'prep': {'on', 'BEYOND'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'THE'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'MYTHOLOGY'}, 'dobj': {'learners', 'What'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'mythos', 'schooling', 'we'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have', 'to'}, 'csubj': {'endeavored'}, 'xcomp': {'show'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'if', 'for', 'that'}, 'neg': {'no'}, 'advmod': {'longer', 'truly'}, 'ccomp': {'allow', 'survive'}, 'amod': {'pathtoward', 'formal', 'educational', 'optimal'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'development'}} Long High High
3936 Through Myth to Reality- Reframing Education as Academic Development Even though the minimum criteria for a“free and appropriate education” have still to be realized for many, they simply doACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT 647 22 12 {'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, PROPN, NUM] {'advmod': {'simply', 'Even', 'still'}, 'mark': {'though'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'minimum'}, 'nsubj': {'criteria', 'they'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'nmod': {'a“free'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'appropriate'}, 'pobj': {'many', 'education'}, 'punct': {',', '”'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'realized'}, 'ROOT': {'doACADEMIC'}, 'dobj': {'DEVELOPMENT'}, 'nummod': {'647'}} Long High Medium
3937 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In our use of the term theoretical perspective, we are acknowl- edging that broad orientations to learning are instantiated by particular models and theories offering mechanisms of learning 28 12 {'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'use', 'perspective', 'models'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'nmod': {'term'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'theoretical', 'broad'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'acknowl-'}, 'ROOT': {'edging'}, 'dobj': {'orientations', 'mechanisms'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'conj': {'theories', 'instantiated'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'acl': {'offering'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
3938 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Our focus is most often on how the broad cat-egories, or perspectives , fare in the criterial evaluation to which we put them 23 15 {'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1} [PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADP, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, PRON, PRON, VERB, PRON] {'poss': {'Our'}, 'nsubj': {'egories', 'we', 'focus'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'most', 'how'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'broad', 'criterial'}, 'compound': {'cat'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'perspectives'}, 'pcomp': {'fare'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'evaluation'}, 'relcl': {'put'}, 'dobj': {'them'}} Long High Medium
3939 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The accomplishment of our overarching intention was predicated on the completion of four specific and interrelated tasks 17 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'accomplishment'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'overarching'}, 'pobj': {'completion', 'specific', 'intention'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'predicated'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'interrelated'}, 'conj': {'tasks'}} Medium High Low
3940 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Therefore, we first articulate principles of learning, ac- ceptable to those holding multiple theoretical perspectives,and basic to a viable conceptualization of learning 22 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, X, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'first', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'amod': {'viable', 'theoretical', 'holding', 'articulate', 'multiple'}, 'dobj': {'principles'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'conceptualization', 'perspectives'}, 'dep': {'ac-'}, 'ROOT': {'ceptable'}, 'det': {'a', 'those'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'basic'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
3941 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Second, we position four dimensions of learning within an interactive framework that can serve as a basis for judging the com-prehensiveness and potential viability of current and future theoretical perspectives and empirical investigations 33 15 {'ADJ': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Second'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'position'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'dobj': {'dimensions', 'viability'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'within', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'judging'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'interactive', 'theoretical', 'empirical', 'current'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'framework', 'basis'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'serve'}, 'compound': {'com'}, 'nmod': {'prehensiveness'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'potential', 'future', 'investigations'}} Long High Low
3942 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Third, having considered these common principles and interactivedimensions, we forward a working definition of learning 15 6 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'Third'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'having'}, 'advcl': {'considered'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'amod': {'working', 'common'}, 'dobj': {'principles', 'definition'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interactivedimensions'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'forward'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Low
3943 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Last, we present three exemplars to illustrate the way in which the interactive dimensions of learning dynamically unfold in everyday instances of human learning 24 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'dynamically', 'Last'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'dimensions', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'present'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'dobj': {'exemplars', 'way'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'illustrate'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'learning', 'instances'}, 'amod': {'interactive', 'everyday', 'human'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'relcl': {'unfold'}} Long High Low
3944 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered It is important to consider the value of this endeavor be- fore we initiate these tasks 16 8 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'X': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, X, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'initiate'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'tasks', 'value'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'endeavor'}, 'punct': {'be-'}, 'npadvmod': {'fore'}} Medium High Low
3945 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered One apparent value is to bring the notion of learning into the realm of explicit discourse so that we may contemplate the construct more deeply 25 14 {'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2} [NUM, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'amod': {'explicit', 'apparent'}, 'nsubj': {'value', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'bring'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'construct', 'notion'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'pobj': {'discourse', 'realm'}, 'mark': {'that', 'so'}, 'advcl': {'contemplate'}, 'advmod': {'deeply', 'more'}} Long High High
3946 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Although itwould be convenient if the nature of learning were well estab- lished thereby requiring no detailed explication, we contend that there is no such clear consensus and that a thoughtful,critical look at the very nature of learning is beneficial, both for those just entering the field and for those more deeply invested in the domain 56 34 {'SCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 8, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'VERB': 7, 'ADV': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 5, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, AUX, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'if', 'Although', 'that'}, 'aux': {'itwould'}, 'advcl': {'be', 'requiring'}, 'acomp': {'estab-', 'convenient', 'beneficial'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'nature', 'we', 'look'}, 'prep': {'for', 'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'nature', 'those', 'domain'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'thereby', 'just', 'well', 'deeply', 'more'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'lished'}, 'amod': {'thoughtful', 'clear', 'detailed', 'critical', 'very', 'such'}, 'dobj': {'explication', 'field'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'contend'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'attr': {'consensus'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'for', 'is'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'acl': {'invested', 'entering'}} Long High High
3947 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In this article, we want to highlighthow conceptualizations of learning, whether expressed or not, shape everyday decisions that have import in our lives 23 12 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, PART, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'article', 'lives'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'highlighthow'}, 'dobj': {'import', 'decisions', 'conceptualizations'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'advcl': {'expressed'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'shape'}, 'amod': {'everyday'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'poss': {'our'}} Long High Medium
3948 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In addition, it is easy to read the research literature as implying that each professed view on learning is fully ade- quate and thus requires no further justification 28 14 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'as', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'addition'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'view'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'easy'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'each'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'dobj': {'justification', 'literature'}, 'pcomp': {'implying'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'professed', 'further', 'ade-'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'fully', 'thus'}, 'attr': {'quate'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'requires'}} Long High Medium
3949 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Such views, we suggest, have underestimated the complexity of learningand led to a disregard for competing notions and to a frac- turing of the community along theoretical fault lines 29 14 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'competing', 'theoretical', 'frac-', 'Such'}, 'nsubj': {'views', 'we'}, 'punct': {','}, 'parataxis': {'suggest'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'underestimated'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'complexity'}, 'prep': {'for', 'along', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'turing', 'lines', 'community', 'disregard', 'learningand', 'notions'}, 'conj': {'led', 'to'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'fault'}} Long High Low
3950 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Such parochialism and fracturing can contribute to a balkanization of the field, an unproductive breakdown in willingness to en- tertain alternative frameworks beyond the level of caricature.This lack of theoretical comity within education and psychol- ogy as to the nature of learning has been noted (Alexander, 1997; Eisner, 1997; Mayer, 2001; Reynolds, Sinatra, & Jet-ton, 1996; Schallert & Martin, 2003) 60 23 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 16, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 10, 'DET': 6, 'PUNCT': 16, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 5} [ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'theoretical', 'Such', 'tertain', 'unproductive', 'alternative', 'psychol-'}, 'nsubj': {'parochialism'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'ton', 'Schallert', 'Mayer', 'Martin', 'ogy', 'Reynolds', 'Sinatra', 'fracturing'}, 'aux': {'can', 'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'noted', 'contribute'}, 'prep': {'within', 'beyond', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'This'}, 'pobj': {'comity', 'balkanization', 'field', 'education', 'caricature', 'learning', 'willingness', 'nature', 'level'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'appos': {'breakdown', '1997', 'Eisner', '1996', '2003', '2001'}, 'acl': {'en-'}, 'dobj': {'frameworks'}, 'nsubjpass': {'lack'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'oprd': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'1997'}, 'compound': {'Jet'}} Long High Low
3951 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Indeed, contrasting and contentious views of learning dot the educational landscape and hinder progress in this domain for researchers and practi-tioners alike 22 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'alike'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'contrasting'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'contentious', 'educational'}, 'conj': {'views', 'tioners', 'progress'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'ROOT': {'dot'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'landscape'}, 'compound': {'practi', 'hinder'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'researchers'}} Long High Low
3952 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Nonetheless, because learning remains core to educational and psychological (e.g., cognitive, motivational, and emotional) endeavors despite its problematic and elusivenature, we consider it worthwhile to search for a way to frame the problem differently 34 13 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV] {'advmod': {'differently', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'it', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'search', 'remains'}, 'acomp': {'core'}, 'prep': {'for', 'despite', 'to'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'emotional', 'elusivenature', 'psychological'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'pobj': {'endeavors', 'problematic', 'way'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'ccomp': {'worthwhile'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'relcl': {'frame'}, 'dobj': {'problem'}} Long High High
3953 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Our proposal is that the seemingly irreconcilable differ- ences among theoretical perspectives arise largely from theirspecific position in the learning landscape and the vista on learning that each position affords 30 13 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'poss': {'Our'}, 'nsubj': {'ences', 'proposal'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'advmod': {'seemingly', 'largely'}, 'amod': {'learning', 'theoretical', 'irreconcilable'}, 'compound': {'theirspecific', 'differ-', 'position'}, 'prep': {'in', 'on', 'among', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'landscape', 'perspectives', 'position'}, 'ccomp': {'arise', 'affords'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'vista'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High High
3954 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered This is not to say that all such perspectives are equally defensible 12 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'perspectives', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'say'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'all'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'equally'}, 'acomp': {'defensible'}} Medium High Medium
3955 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Rather, we at- tempt to demonstrate that their differences may arise from de- fending quite different locales within the learning landscape.Such views as espoused by cognitive contextualists (Ander- son, 1977; Bransford, 1979; Piaget, 1926; Spiro, Vispoel, Schmitz, Samarapungavan, & Boerger, 1987), sociocultural-ists (Anderson et al., 2001; Schoultz,S ¨alj¨o, & Wyndhamn, 2001; Vygotsky, 1978; Wertsch & Kanner, 1992), cognitive- evolutionist researchers (Donald, 1991; Geary, 2005; Pinker,2002; Plotkin, 1998), and situativists (Cobb, 1994; Cole & Engstr ¨om, 1993; Greeno & van de Sande, 2007), among others, give us an invaluable but limited view of learning’ slandscape 94 21 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 48, 'PRON': 3, 'X': 1, 'VERB': 8, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 32, 'ADJ': 7, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 14, 'CCONJ': 7} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, X, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ...] {'advmod': {'quite', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', '.', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'views', 'researchers', 'we', 'differences'}, 'appos': {'1979', 'Anderson', 'Donald', '1992', 'Geary', '2005', '1994', '1987', '1993', 'son', '2001', 'at-', 'Cobb', '1977', 'Ander-', '1978', 'Bransford', '1926'}, 'ROOT': {'tempt', 'give'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'demonstrate'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ccomp': {'arise'}, 'prep': {'of', 'within', 'among', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'landscape', 'de-', 'contextualists', 'others'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'fending'}, 'amod': {'invaluable', 'Such', 'sociocultural', 'different', 'learning', 'evolutionist', 'limited', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'slandscape', 'view', 'locales'}, 'det': {'cognitive-', 'an', 'the'}, 'acl': {'espoused'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'conj': {'Schoultz', 'Piaget', '¨om', 'Wertsch', 'Schmitz', 'Cole', 'Wyndhamn', '.', 'situativists', 'Vispoel', 'Boerger', 'Plotkin', '¨alj¨o', 'Sande', 'ists', 'Pinker,2002', 'Greeno', 'Engstr', 'Spiro', 'Kanner', 'Samarapungavan', 'Vygotsky'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '1998', 'et', '2007', '1991'}, 'compound': {'van', 'S'}, 'nmod': {'de'}, 'dative': {'us'}} Long High High
3956 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Specifically, our approach is to propose a topo- graphical framework for the learning system that allows us to pinpoint more accurately contemporary theories and modelson the basis of their attention to essential dimensions of learn- ing 36 16 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'accurately', 'Specifically', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'nsubj': {'us', 'approach', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'propose'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nmod': {'topo-'}, 'amod': {'learn-', 'graphical', 'essential', 'contemporary'}, 'dobj': {'framework', 'basis', 'theories'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'pobj': {'ing', 'dimensions', 'system', 'attention'}, 'relcl': {'allows'}, 'ccomp': {'pinpoint'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'modelson'}} Long High Low
3957 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Once positioned within this multidimensional space, we can then undertake a more thoughtful analysis of the theories and models not only in terms of their conceptualization of learning but also their ability to capture particular facets ofthe learning system in valid and reliable ways 44 23 {'ADV': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 2} [ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'then', 'Once', 'more'}, 'advcl': {'positioned'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'ofthe', 'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'valid', 'particular', 'thoughtful', 'multidimensional'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'terms', 'learning', 'conceptualization', 'theories', 'space'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'undertake'}, 'dobj': {'analysis', 'system'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'models', 'ability', 'reliable'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'acl': {'capture'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'facets'}} Long High Low
3958 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered FINDING COMMON GROUND When the three of us began our analysis, we were aware that through a long history of involvement in this domain, almost a century cumulatively, we had developed affinities for theo-retical perspectives that perceive learning from diverse, and sometimes even seemingly incommensurate, vantage points 47 24 {'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADJ, PROPN, SCONJ, DET, NUM, ADP, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'advcl': {'learning', 'FINDING', 'began'}, 'compound': {'vantage', 'COMMON'}, 'dobj': {'affinities', 'analysis', 'GROUND'}, 'advmod': {'sometimes', 'When', 'almost', 'cumulatively', 'even', 'seemingly'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'three', 'we', 'that'}, 'prep': {'through', 'from', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'history', 'domain', 'involvement', 'us'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'retical', 'perceive', 'diverse', 'long'}, 'npadvmod': {'century', 'points', 'theo'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'ccomp': {'developed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'incommensurate'}} Long High High
3959 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Despite good intentions to set aside personal agendas andtheoretical perspectives and to achieve a shared understand- ing, we found that differences in our conceptualizations of learning quickly asserted themselves and became barriers toprogress, even threatening to scuttle the enterprise 39 15 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 9, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADP': 2} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, VERB, PRON, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'of', 'Despite', 'in'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'personal', 'good', 'andtheoretical'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'intentions', 'conceptualizations'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'set'}, 'prt': {'aside'}, 'nmod': {'agendas'}, 'dobj': {'enterprise', 'ing', 'perspectives', 'themselves'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'became', 'achieve'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'understand-', 'barriers'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'differences'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'advmod': {'quickly', 'even'}, 'ccomp': {'asserted'}, 'attr': {'toprogress'}, 'advcl': {'threatening'}, 'xcomp': {'scuttle'}} Long High High
3960 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For that reason, we determined that any hope for success required that we first seek common ground, a basis from which subsequentdelineations could emerge 24 12 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'for', 'For', 'from'}, 'det': {'any', 'a', 'that'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'success', 'reason'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'subsequentdelineations', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'determined'}, 'dobj': {'hope', 'ground', 'that'}, 'acl': {'required'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'first'}, 'ccomp': {'seek'}, 'amod': {'common'}, 'appos': {'basis'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'relcl': {'emerge'}} Long High High
3961 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In essence, we sought consilience , a term introduced by Whewell (1840) and used by Wilson (1998) to describe unity of knowledge across varied disci-plines 25 10 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'across', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'essence', 'knowledge', 'Whewell', 'Wilson', 'plines'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'dobj': {'consilience', 'unity', 'term'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'acl': {'introduced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'appos': {'1840', '1998'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'used'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'describe'}, 'amod': {'varied'}, 'compound': {'disci'}} Long High Low
3962 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We appropriated the term to refer to our efforts to find commonality across varied perspectives on learning in the same field 21 11 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'appropriated'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'term'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'refer'}, 'prep': {'on', 'across', 'to', 'in'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'efforts', 'field', 'commonality'}, 'amod': {'same', 'find', 'varied'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
3963 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Throughout, we focused expressly on human learning, acknowledging that aspects of the common ground we were seeking might well apply to other living organisms 24 12 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'well', 'expressly', 'Throughout'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'aspects', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'other', 'living', 'common', 'human'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'organisms', 'ground'}, 'advcl': {'acknowledging'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'aux': {'might', 'were'}, 'relcl': {'seeking'}, 'ccomp': {'apply'}} Long High Medium
3964 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered A surprising by-product of this initial theoretical compact was that the common ground we sought took the form of principles and, more important, principles foundational tothe nature of human learning 30 13 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'the', 'this', 'tothe'}, 'nsubj': {'surprising', 'ground', 'we', 'principles'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'compact', 'learning', 'principles', 'product'}, 'amod': {'important', 'initial', 'theoretical', 'common'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'sought'}, 'ccomp': {'took'}, 'dobj': {'nature', 'form'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'conj': {'foundational'}, 'compound': {'human'}} Long High Medium
3965 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We appreciate that the sim- plicity of the language we use and the brevity of the points expressed may unintentionally mask the significance of theprinciples we forward 27 14 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADV] {'nsubj': {'plicity', 'We', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'appreciate'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'sim-'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'theprinciples', 'points', 'language'}, 'relcl': {'use'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'brevity'}, 'ccomp': {'mask', 'expressed'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'advmod': {'forward', 'unintentionally'}, 'dobj': {'significance'}, 'appos': {'we'}} Long High Medium
3966 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered It is conceivable that those long en- gaged in the study of learning may be tempted to dismiss 18 10 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PART': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, X, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'conceivable'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'those'}, 'amod': {'long'}, 'dep': {'en-'}, 'acl': {'gaged'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'study'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'tempted'}, 'xcomp': {'dismiss'}} Medium High Medium
3967 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered 178 ALEXANDER, SCHALLERT, REYNOLDS this collection of principles as givens, or as commonsense or well-established axioms of learning 18 8 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2} [NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'nummod': {'178'}, 'ROOT': {'ALEXANDER'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'appos': {'SCHALLERT', 'collection'}, 'conj': {'as', 'REYNOLDS'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'axioms', 'principles', 'givens'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'nmod': {'commonsense'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'amod': {'established'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Low
3968 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered First, for all our years and investment in this domain, we are not aware of any explication of the nature of learning that captures all thepoints articulated herein 28 18 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'First'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'years', 'nature', 'explication'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'investment'}, 'det': {'any', 'all', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'ccomp': {'captures'}, 'dobj': {'thepoints', 'herein'}, 'amod': {'articulated'}} Long High Low
3969 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Further, what may seem common- sense to experts in learning and learning theory cannot be treated as such by those who are either new to the domainor whose expertise does not fall directly under the banner of learning 38 25 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'directly', 'either', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'expertise', 'what', 'who'}, 'aux': {'can', 'may', 'does'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'compound': {'common-'}, 'dobj': {'sense'}, 'prep': {'under', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'banner', 'domainor', 'theory', 'experts', 'those'}, 'nmod': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'treated'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'relcl': {'are', 'fall'}, 'acomp': {'new'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
3970 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Finally, to those who would see our principles as self-evident, we point to the late Nate Gage’s (1991) seminalessay titled “The Obviousness of Social and Educational Re- search Results,” in which such impressions were frequently shown to be untrustworthy 39 20 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 6, 'PART': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ] {'advmod': {'frequently', 'Finally'}, 'punct': {'-', '’s', ')', '(', '”', 'seminalessay', ',', '“'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'Results', 'Gage', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'who'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'see', 'shown'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'dobj': {'principles'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'amod': {'Social', 'such', 'evident', 'late'}, 'ROOT': {'point'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'compound': {'Educational', 'Nate', 'search'}, 'appos': {'1991'}, 'acl': {'titled'}, 'oprd': {'Obviousness'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Re-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'impressions'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'untrustworthy'}} Long High Low
3971 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered With this caveat in place, we now turn to the resulting nine principles: rPrinciple 1 Learning is changerPrinciple 2 Learning is inevitable, essential, and ubiqui- tousrPrinciple 3 Learning can be resistedrPrinciple 4 Learning may be disadvantageousrPrinciple 5 Learning can be tacit and incidental as well as conscious and intentionalrPrinciple 6 Learning is framed by our humannessrPrinciple 7 Learning refers to both a process and a prod- uctrPrinciple 8 Learning is different at different points in timerPrinciple 9 Learning is interactional Principle 1: Learning Is Change A fundamental characteristic of what it means for humans to learn is that change happens 101 43 {'ADP': 9, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 22, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'NUM': 11, 'PROPN': 5, 'AUX': 13, 'ADJ': 12, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, AUX, AUX, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, AUX, AUX, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NUM, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NUM, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, ...] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'at', 'With'}, 'det': {'this', 'uctrPrinciple', 'a', 'A', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'timerPrinciple', 'caveat', 'points', 'process', 'place', 'Learning', 'principles'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'humans', 'change', 'it', 'Learning', 'we'}, 'advmod': {'now', 'as', 'well'}, 'ccomp': {'turn', 'be', 'is', 'happens'}, 'amod': {'interactional', 'prod-', 'different', 'fundamental', 'resulting'}, 'nummod': {'1', '2', '6', '3', '4', '8', '9', '5', 'nine', '7'}, 'nmod': {'changerPrinciple', 'rPrinciple'}, 'acomp': {'inevitable', 'different', 'tacit'}, 'conj': {'framed', 'refers', 'essential', 'is', 'be', 'incidental', 'conscious', 'ubiqui-'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'compound': {'disadvantageousrPrinciple', 'humannessrPrinciple', 'intentionalrPrinciple', 'resistedrPrinciple', 'tousrPrinciple'}, 'aux': {'can', 'may', 'to'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Learning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'attr': {'Principle', 'characteristic', 'Change'}, 'ROOT': {'Is'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'csubj': {'means'}, 'mark': {'for', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'learn'}, 'pcomp': {'is'}} Long High High
3972 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered This notion of change ap- plies whether the focus is on simpler learning of physical movements (e.g., skipping on one foot) or more complexlearning of abstract principles (e.g., understanding the al- legorical nature of the American classic Moby-Dick ) 39 15 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, X, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'notion', 'focus'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'change'}, 'dep': {'ap-'}, 'ROOT': {'plies'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'advcl': {'is', 'skipping'}, 'amod': {'legorical', 'American', 'classic', 'abstract', 'physical', 'simpler', 'more'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'Dick', 'foot', 'movements', 'principles'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'complexlearning'}, 'acl': {'understanding'}, 'nmod': {'al-'}, 'dobj': {'nature'}, 'compound': {'Moby'}} Long High Medium
3973 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For instance, change may be seen as the development of socialpractices in individuals or groups, or change may be regarded as altered conceptions that arise from person–environment interactions 28 14 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'from', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'conceptions', 'socialpractices', 'development', 'interactions', 'individuals'}, 'punct': {',', '–'}, 'nsubjpass': {'change'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'seen'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'regarded', 'groups'}, 'amod': {'altered'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'arise'}, 'nmod': {'person'}, 'compound': {'environment'}} Long High Low
3974 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Alternatively, change might be understood asarising from the evolved, innate processing capacities of the human brain/mind and the adaptive nature inherent in human beings or as being driven by stages of physiological matu- ration 34 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'SYM': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Alternatively'}, 'punct': {',', '/'}, 'nsubjpass': {'change'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'being'}, 'ROOT': {'understood'}, 'oprd': {'asarising'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'matu-', 'evolved', 'physiological', 'adaptive', 'inherent', 'human', 'innate'}, 'compound': {'processing'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'stages', 'beings', 'ration', 'capacities'}, 'nmod': {'brain'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'nature', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'driven'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
3975 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Indeed, there are no current conceptions of learning that do not include the notion of change, either explicitly orimplicitly 19 11 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'explicitly', 'either', 'orimplicitly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'amod': {'current'}, 'attr': {'conceptions'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'change'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'include'}, 'dobj': {'notion'}} Medium High Low
3976 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered First, the change that happens can range from the dramatic to the almost imperceptible 14 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ] {'advmod': {'almost', 'First'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'change', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'happens'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'range'}, 'prep': {'to', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'imperceptible', 'dramatic'}} Medium High Low
3977 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Second, change canoccur over infinite scales of time; it can occur in an instant or transpire over expanses of time 20 9 {'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Second'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}, 'advcl': {'change'}, 'dobj': {'canoccur'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'over'}, 'amod': {'infinite'}, 'pobj': {'instant', 'scales', 'time', 'expanses'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'occur'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'transpire'}} Long High Low
3978 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In effect, just as a river sculpts aspects of thelandscape, even as aspects of the landscape shape the river, change that happens in the learner, be it dramatic or imper-ceptible, or immediate or gradual, exerts a reciprocal effect on the learner’s surroundings 42 22 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'aspects', 'shape', 'effect', 'thelandscape', 'learner', 'surroundings'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'even'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'landscape', 'sculpts', 'river'}, 'dobj': {'effect', 'river'}, 'nsubj': {'change', 'it', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'happens'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'dramatic'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'immediate', 'ceptible', 'gradual', 'imper'}, 'ROOT': {'exerts'}, 'amod': {'reciprocal'}, 'poss': {'learner'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High Low
3979 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Principle 2: Learning Is Inevitable, Essential, and Ubiquitous Being alive means being a learner 14 5 {'NOUN': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN] {'dep': {'Principle'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'Learning'}, 'ROOT': {'Is'}, 'acomp': {'Inevitable'}, 'conj': {'Ubiquitous', 'Essential'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advcl': {'Being'}, 'amod': {'alive'}, 'attr': {'means', 'learner'}, 'acl': {'being'}, 'det': {'a'}} Medium High Low
3980 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Being alive for humans brings with it the inevitability of learning, as well as its ne- cessity 17 10 {'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 2} [AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'csubj': {'Being'}, 'acomp': {'alive'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'nsubj': {'humans'}, 'ROOT': {'brings'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'it'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'inevitability', 'cessity'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'compound': {'ne-'}} Medium High Medium
3981 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In effect, one cannot prevent learning from occurring(inevitable), nor can one hope to survive unless learning hap- pens (essential) 19 10 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, NUM, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'occurring(inevitable', 'effect'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'one'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'prevent'}, 'xcomp': {'learning', 'survive'}, 'cc': {'nor'}, 'conj': {'hope'}, 'mark': {'unless'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}, 'amod': {'hap-', 'essential'}, 'dobj': {'pens'}} Medium High Medium
3982 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Moreover, learning is not relegated to any singular physical or cultural environment, but unfolds wher-ever humans move in the world (ubiquitous) 21 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'ever'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'learning'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'relegated'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'amod': {'wher', 'singular', 'physical'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'conj': {'unfolds', 'cultural'}, 'pobj': {'world', 'environment'}, 'nsubj': {'humans'}, 'ccomp': {'move'}, 'parataxis': {'ubiquitous'}} Long High Low
3983 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Indeed, learning is a biological imperative for human beings; so much so that most of learning happens automatically and is not under theconscious control of the learner (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Norman, 1968; Reber, 1989) 35 16 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, ADP, VERB, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, AUX, PART, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'automatically', 'much', 'so'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'most'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'theconscious', 'biological', 'human'}, 'attr': {'imperative'}, 'prep': {'under', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'control', 'beings', 'learner'}, 'mark': {'that', 'so'}, 'advcl': {'happens'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Norman', 'is', 'Chartrand'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'appos': {'1989', 'Reber', '1968', 'Bargh'}, 'npadvmod': {'1999'}} Long High High
3984 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In his commentary on human memory, Flavell (1971) asserted that children do not need tobe taught how to remember; memory happens 21 8 {'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'In'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'commentary', 'memory'}, 'amod': {'human'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'1971', 'Flavell'}, 'ccomp': {'taught', 'asserted', 'need'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'tobe', 'children', 'memory'}, 'aux': {'to', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'xcomp': {'remember'}, 'ROOT': {'happens'}} Long High High
3985 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Humans are evolved learners, and through matu- ration and experience, certain aspects of learning becomeseemingly effortless and below the level of consciousness, whereas other aspects become more complex, differentiated, and demand conscious effort (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999) 38 14 {'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 10, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Humans'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'evolved'}, 'dobj': {'learners', 'effort', 'effortless'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'through', 'differentiated', 'Cocking', 'demand', 'experience', 'Brown'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'conscious', 'other', 'matu-'}, 'pobj': {'level', 'consciousness', 'ration'}, 'npadvmod': {'aspects', '1999'}, 'prep': {'of', 'below'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'advmod': {'becomeseemingly', 'more'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'nsubj': {'aspects'}, 'advcl': {'become'}, 'acomp': {'complex'}, 'appos': {'Bransford'}} Long High Medium
3986 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Although educational researchers and practitioners regularly invest attention on forms of higher order learning,it is important to remember that learning also encompasses these less apparent, yet critical, forms of learning (Reynolds, 2000) 32 13 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'educational'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'researchers', 'these', 'it'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practitioners', 'forms', 'critical'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'regularly', 'also', 'yet'}, 'advcl': {'invest'}, 'dobj': {'attention'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'forms'}, 'compound': {'order'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'remember'}, 'ccomp': {'encompasses'}, 'oprd': {'apparent'}, 'npadvmod': {'2000', 'Reynolds'}} Long High High
3987 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Although the learning of nonhuman animals has received much atten- tion from researchers, particularly in the first half of the 20thcentury, it is not difficult to gain consensus on the point that humans are fascinating examples of learning systems (es- pecially to other humans) 44 21 {'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 2} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'humans', 'it'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'to', 'in', 'of'}, 'amod': {'nonhuman', 'other', 'atten-', 'fascinating', 'first'}, 'pobj': {'systems', 'humans', 'half', 'point', 'researchers', 'animals', '20thcentury'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'received'}, 'advmod': {'pecially', 'much', 'particularly'}, 'dobj': {'tion', 'consensus'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'difficult', 'examples'}, 'xcomp': {'gain'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'appos': {'es-'}} Long High High
3988 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered What makes humans fascinatingas learners is that they enter the world in such a helpless state but possess innate abilities that avail them of the op- portunity to acquire understandings and procedures over arelatively short period 36 16 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'humans', 'they', 'possess', 'learners', 'What', 'that'}, 'csubj': {'makes'}, 'compound': {'fascinatingas'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'enter'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'world', 'understandings', 'them', 'abilities'}, 'prep': {'over', 'of', 'in'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'amod': {'short', 'op-', 'helpless'}, 'pobj': {'period', 'state', 'portunity'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'innate', 'procedures'}, 'relcl': {'avail'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'acquire'}, 'advmod': {'arelatively'}} Long High Medium
3989 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Such innate capacities coupled with environmental and contextual affordances permit humans to navigate even arduous social and physical terrains 19 6 {'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'arduous', 'Such', 'social', 'environmental', 'innate'}, 'nsubj': {'capacities'}, 'acl': {'coupled'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'contextual', 'physical'}, 'pobj': {'affordances'}, 'ROOT': {'permit'}, 'dobj': {'humans', 'terrains'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'navigate'}, 'advmod': {'even'}} Medium High Low
3990 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Learning is ubiquitous, applying in all sorts of situations and in all sorts of environments 15 8 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Learning'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'ubiquitous'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'applying'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'all'}, 'pobj': {'sorts', 'situations', 'environments'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'in'}} Medium High Low
3991 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Even though we are prone to conceive of learning as nested in schools and associate it with formal educational systems and procedures, learningwill not be so delimited 27 15 {'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'advmod': {'so', 'Even'}, 'mark': {'as', 'though'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'advcl': {'nested', 'are'}, 'acomp': {'delimited', 'prone'}, 'aux': {'learningwill', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'conceive'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'schools', 'systems'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'procedures', 'associate'}, 'dobj': {'it'}, 'amod': {'formal', 'educational'}, 'punct': {','}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}} Long High High
3992 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The processes of learning are in operation whenever and wherever humans are situated 13 8 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'processes'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'operation'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'whenever'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'wherever'}, 'nsubjpass': {'humans'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'situated'}} Medium High High
3993 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Principle 3: Learning Can Be Resisted As inevitable, essential, and ubiquitous as learning is, a curi- ous corollary is that there are instances when humans resistlearning (and the change it implies), even finding it painful 35 17 {'NOUN': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, SCONJ, VERB, AUX, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADJ] {'dep': {'Principle'}, 'nummod': {'3'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Learning'}, 'aux': {'Can'}, 'auxpass': {'Be'}, 'advcl': {'resistlearning', 'Resisted', 'finding', 'is'}, 'prep': {'As'}, 'amod': {'inevitable', 'ous'}, 'conj': {'ubiquitous', 'change', 'essential'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'corollary', 'humans', 'it'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nmod': {'curi-'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'painful', 'are'}, 'attr': {'instances'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'even'}, 'relcl': {'implies'}, 'dobj': {'it'}} Long High High
3994 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered LEARNING TOPOGRAPHY 179 there are many times when we learn in spite of ourselves 14 8 {'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [VERB, PROPN, NUM, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON] {'advcl': {'LEARNING'}, 'dobj': {'TOPOGRAPHY'}, 'nummod': {'179'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'many'}, 'attr': {'times'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'relcl': {'learn'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'ourselves', 'spite'}} Medium High Medium
3995 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Why are we sometimes so reluctant to engage in the effort required to learn a new way of thinking or acting even when the goal is desirable 27 16 {'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, AUX, PRON, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'advmod': {'when', 'sometimes', 'Why', 'so', 'even'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'nsubj': {'goal', 'we'}, 'acomp': {'reluctant', 'desirable'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'engage', 'learn'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'effort', 'thinking'}, 'acl': {'required'}, 'amod': {'new'}, 'dobj': {'way'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'acting'}, 'advcl': {'is'}} Long High High
3996 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered It could well be that the effort required is judged as too great, or the rewardstoo small (Kahneman, 1973; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000), or the likelihood of success deemed too risky for learning to be pursued 36 18 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'Kahneman', 'It'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'too', 'rewardstoo'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'effort'}, 'acl': {'required'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'ccomp': {'judged'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'great', 'small'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'appos': {'2000', '1973'}, 'conj': {'Eccles', 'Wigfield', 'likelihood', 'deemed'}, 'pobj': {'success'}, 'oprd': {'risky'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'xcomp': {'pursued'}} Long High Medium
3997 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Or it is possible that the attainment of the desiredgoal might create dissonance within the individual or par- ticular social system that cannot be tolerated 25 15 {'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1} [CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB] {'cc': {'or', 'Or'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'attainment'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'possible'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'individual', 'desiredgoal'}, 'aux': {'can', 'might'}, 'ccomp': {'tolerated', 'create'}, 'dobj': {'dissonance'}, 'nmod': {'par-'}, 'amod': {'social', 'ticular'}, 'conj': {'system'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Medium
3998 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Thus, it often happens that opportunities for changing deeply held or ha-bitual ways of interacting with the world are sometimes, at least initially, circumvented, resisted, or denied 27 14 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'INTJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, INTJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'least', 'initially', 'sometimes', 'often', 'deeply', 'at'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'opportunities'}, 'ROOT': {'happens'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'with', 'for', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'interacting', 'changing'}, 'amod': {'held', 'bitual'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'circumvented', 'ha', 'denied', 'resisted'}, 'dobj': {'ways'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'world'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}} Long High Medium
3999 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Conceived in this manner, this principle of learning embraces much of thetheoretical and empirical work within the literatures on con- ceptual change (e.g.,V osniadou, 2003) and epistemic beliefs (e.g., Murphy & Mason, 2006) 33 11 {'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'NUM': 2} [VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Conceived'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'manner', 'learning', 'work', 'literatures'}, 'punct': {',', '(', 'e.g.', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'principle'}, 'ROOT': {'embraces'}, 'dobj': {'much'}, 'amod': {'thetheoretical', 'epistemic', 'ceptual'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Mason', 'Murphy', 'beliefs', 'empirical'}, 'nmod': {'con-'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'compound': {',V'}, 'appos': {'osniadou'}, 'npadvmod': {'2003', '2006'}} Long High Low
4000 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Principle 4: Learning May Be Disadvantageous It seems clear that learning results in changes that are not always advantageous to self or others.Y et, because the con- struct of learning has such positive connotations, it may be important to make this principle explicit 43 24 {'NOUN': 10, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'AUX': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ] {'dep': {'Principle'}, 'nummod': {'4'}, 'punct': {',', '.', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'It', 'that', 'struct', 'et', 'it', 'principle', 'Learning'}, 'aux': {'May', 'may', 'to'}, 'acl': {'Be'}, 'acomp': {'advantageous', 'Disadvantageous', 'important'}, 'ROOT': {'be', 'seems'}, 'oprd': {'clear'}, 'mark': {'that', 'because'}, 'advcl': {'learning', 'has'}, 'dobj': {'results', 'connotations'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'self', 'changes'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'always'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'others'}, 'compound': {'Y', 'con-'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'such'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}, 'ccomp': {'explicit'}} Long High High
4001 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We cannot limit learning only to what is valued, accepted, or acceptable 12 8 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'limit'}, 'dobj': {'learning'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'valued'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'acceptable', 'accepted'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Medium High Low
4002 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Here we must clarify that the notion of advantageous or disadvantageous that we posit has two valid interpreta- tions 19 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, VERB, NUM, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here'}, 'nsubj': {'notion', 'we'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'clarify'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'advantageous'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'disadvantageous'}, 'relcl': {'posit'}, 'ccomp': {'has'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'amod': {'valid', 'interpreta-'}, 'dobj': {'tions'}} Medium High High
4003 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered On one hand, there is the learning that happens whensomeone has learned something that he or she wishes had never been learned (e.g., smoking or howp ˆat´ed efo i egr as is made) 33 20 {'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 7, 'VERB': 8, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, PRON, PRON, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, AUX, VERB, PUNCT] {'prep': {'On'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'hand'}, 'punct': {',', 'ˆat´ed', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'efo', 'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'learning'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'i', 'that', 'whensomeone'}, 'relcl': {'happens', 'wishes', 'learned'}, 'aux': {'has', 'had'}, 'nsubjpass': {'something'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'smoking', 'she', 'howp'}, 'neg': {'never'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'been'}, 'ccomp': {'learned'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'oprd': {'egr'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'made'}} Long High Medium
4004 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered On the other hand, there is the learning that is utile and satisfying to the person (and perhaps a group of like- minded individuals), but disadvantageous and undesirable tosome broader social group (e.g., excessive online gaming) 36 17 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 10, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'On', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'disadvantageous', 'broader', 'minded', 'like-', 'other', 'social', 'excessive', 'online'}, 'pobj': {'hand', 'individuals', 'person'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'learning'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'utile'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'group', 'undesirable', 'satisfying'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'perhaps'}, 'npadvmod': {'tosome'}, 'appos': {'gaming'}} Long High Low
4005 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Although the more positive and advantageous outcomes of learning are what may be sought, the learning system doesnot discriminate 19 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [SCONJ, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'amod': {'positive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'advantageous'}, 'nsubj': {'system', 'outcomes'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'aux': {'may', 'doesnot'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'sought'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'ROOT': {'discriminate'}} Medium High Medium
4006 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Principle 5: Learning Can Be Tacit and Incidental as Well as Conscious and Intentional Much (perhaps most) learning happens outside the realm of conscious control or intentionality (Epstein, 2001; Polanyi,1966); hence, much of learning is tacit and incidental 38 18 {'NOUN': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 8, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'dep': {'Principle'}, 'nummod': {'5'}, 'punct': {':', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'Learning', 'much'}, 'aux': {'Can'}, 'ROOT': {'Be'}, 'acomp': {'Tacit', 'tacit'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Intentional', 'Much', 'happens', 'Incidental', 'intentionality', 'incidental', 'Conscious', 'is'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'perhaps', 'Well', 'hence'}, 'parataxis': {'most'}, 'prep': {'outside', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'control', 'realm'}, 'amod': {'conscious'}, 'appos': {'Polanyi,1966', 'Epstein'}, 'npadvmod': {'2001'}} Long High Low
4007 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Often learners cannot give an explicit rendering of when learningoccurred, how learning happened, or how they were changed 18 12 {'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'when', 'Often', 'how'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'learners'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'give'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'amod': {'explicit'}, 'dobj': {'rendering'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learningoccurred'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'changed', 'happened'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}} Medium High High
4008 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Even in the classroom where academic development is the business at hand, much of learning lives in the water table be- low the surface 24 12 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'X': 1} [ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, X, ADJ, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'where', 'Even'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'hand', 'table', 'classroom'}, 'amod': {'academic'}, 'nsubj': {'much', 'development'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'business'}, 'punct': {','}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'surface', 'lives'}, 'compound': {'water'}, 'ROOT': {'be-', 'low'}} Long High Medium
4009 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered What proportion of learning is tacit remains open to debate; Bargh and Chartrand (1999) suggested thatas much as 90% of all learning is implicit 24 10 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 1} [PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'det': {'What', 'all'}, 'nsubj': {'%', 'Bargh', 'proportion'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'debate'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'remains'}, 'acomp': {'tacit', 'implicit', 'open'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ')'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Chartrand'}, 'appos': {'1999'}, 'ROOT': {'suggested'}, 'dobj': {'thatas'}, 'amod': {'much'}, 'quantmod': {'as'}, 'nummod': {'90'}} Long High Low
4010 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Whatever the pro- portion is, we would agree that, just as in the physical world, there is much below the surface of learning’s landscape 24 17 {'PRON': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PART, NOUN] {'attr': {'Whatever'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'pro-'}, 'nsubj': {'portion', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'agree'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'much'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'below', 'in'}, 'amod': {'physical'}, 'pobj': {'world', 'surface', 'landscape'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'poss': {'learning'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High Medium
4011 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For example, a student learning the concept of solving for an unknown in an algebraic equation is learning mathemat- ical ideas, and we would say this is the student’s intentionaltask 30 17 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'equation', 'unknown', 'example'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'this', 'student'}, 'acl': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'ideas', 'concept'}, 'pcomp': {'solving'}, 'amod': {'algebraic', 'ical'}, 'aux': {'would', 'is'}, 'ROOT': {'learning'}, 'nummod': {'mathemat-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'say'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'poss': {'student'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'attr': {'intentionaltask'}} Long High Low
4012 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered However, at the same time, the student is learning the language of algebra with its peculiar vocabulary, symbolic representations, and syntactic constructions, as well as thesocial practices that this algebra classroom prefers, such as how solutions should look on paper or how homework pages should be stapled 47 25 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 15, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'However', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of', 'at', 'as'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'peculiar', 'symbolic', 'thesocial', 'syntactic', 'same', 'such'}, 'pobj': {'algebra', 'time', 'paper', 'vocabulary'}, 'nsubj': {'solutions', 'student'}, 'aux': {'should', 'is'}, 'ROOT': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'language'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'conj': {'pages', 'constructions', 'practices', 'representations'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as', 'or'}, 'compound': {'algebra', 'homework', 'classroom'}, 'nsubjpass': {'prefers'}, 'pcomp': {'look'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'stapled'}} Long High High
4013 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Turning to out-of-school examples, wewant to point to the largely unconscious and incidental na- ture of first language acquisition and of motor development, where in both domains the interaction of environment and in- nate human wiring results in particularly suitable outcomes (Chomsky, 1957; Clark, 1994; Wells, 1987) 47 17 {'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 8, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 11, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADJ': 6, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [VERB, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, X, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'Turning'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'nmod': {'out', 'in-'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'pobj': {'interaction', 'school', 'domains', 'development', 'acquisition', 'outcomes', 'examples', 'ture', 'environment'}, 'advmod': {'wewant', 'where', 'particularly', 'largely'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'point'}, 'det': {'both', 'the'}, 'amod': {'suitable', 'human', 'first', 'unconscious'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Wells', 'incidental', 'nate', 'of', 'na-'}, 'compound': {'wiring', 'motor', 'language'}, 'relcl': {'results'}, 'appos': {'1987', 'Clark', '1994', 'Chomsky'}, 'npadvmod': {'1957'}} Long High Medium
4014 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Moreover, evenwhen acquisition was initially effortful and conscious, subse- quent use of that learning can be unconscious and automatic 19 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'advmod': {'initially', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'evenwhen'}, 'nsubj': {'acquisition', 'use'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'effortful', 'unconscious'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'be', 'conscious', 'automatic'}, 'npadvmod': {'subse-'}, 'amod': {'quent'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'that'}, 'pobj': {'learning'}, 'aux': {'can'}} Medium High Low
4015 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Language is again a great example as when individuals auto-matically deploy what they know about words and the syntax of their language even as their conscious focus is on how to express what they want to say 37 23 {'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2} [NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB] {'nsubj': {'individuals', 'focus', 'they', 'Language'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'matically', 'even', 'again', 'how'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'great', 'conscious'}, 'attr': {'example'}, 'prep': {'about', 'on', 'as', 'of'}, 'npadvmod': {'auto'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pcomp': {'express', 'deploy'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'ccomp': {'know', 'want'}, 'pobj': {'words', 'language'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'syntax'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'say'}} Long High High
4016 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Principle 6: Learning Is Framed by Our Humanness Our humanness plays a critical role in how we learn and what we learn 22 11 {'NOUN': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, PROPN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB] {'dep': {'Principle'}, 'nummod': {'6'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Learning'}, 'auxpass': {'Is'}, 'nsubj': {'humanness', 'Framed', 'we'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'Our'}, 'pobj': {'Humanness'}, 'ROOT': {'plays'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'critical'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'what'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'pcomp': {'learn'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ccomp': {'learn'}} Long High Medium
4017 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Here we are primarily referring to the contri- bution of the particular neurobiological architecture humans have developed 17 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3} [ADV, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Here', 'primarily'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have', 'are'}, 'ROOT': {'referring'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'neurobiological', 'contri-'}, 'pobj': {'humans', 'bution'}, 'compound': {'architecture'}, 'conj': {'developed'}} Medium High Low
4018 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Spock, we are “carbon-based” life-forms whose neurological structures shape the nature of how the world is experienced and whose senses are conduits for interacting with the world and withothers who populate that world 33 17 {'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'carbon', 'Spock'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'structures', 'senses', 'we', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'based', 'neurological'}, 'compound': {'life'}, 'attr': {'forms', 'conduits'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'relcl': {'populate', 'shape'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'world', 'nature'}, 'prep': {'with', 'for', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubjpass': {'world'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'experienced', 'interacting'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'are', 'withothers'}, 'pobj': {'world'}} Long High Medium
4019 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Those senses are particu- lar in structure for our species and limited in range 14 7 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'Those'}, 'nsubj': {'senses'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'particu-'}, 'amod': {'lar'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'range', 'structure', 'species'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'limited'}} Medium High Low
4020 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Their evolved structure and the environment that has surroundedthem across time restrict our senses and cognitive processes 17 8 {'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'Their', 'our'}, 'amod': {'evolved', 'cognitive'}, 'nsubj': {'structure', 'that'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'processes', 'environment'}, 'relcl': {'has'}, 'dobj': {'surroundedthem', 'senses'}, 'prep': {'across'}, 'pobj': {'time'}, 'ROOT': {'restrict'}} Medium High Low
4021 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Consequently, the colors we see, the tones we hear, the smells we can detect, and the nature of our reasoning are all con- strained by our evolved biology 28 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Consequently'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'colors'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'relcl': {'detect', 'see', 'hear'}, 'appos': {'tones', 'smells'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'nature'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'reasoning', 'biology'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'dep': {'all'}, 'attr': {'con-'}, 'ROOT': {'strained'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'evolved'}} Long High Low
4022 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered It is not just that our neurological and biological bases frame the processes and products of learning 17 10 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'nsubj': {'bases', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'just'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'neurological'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'biological', 'products'}, 'ccomp': {'frame'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'processes'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Medium
4023 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Even within the range of human possibilities, there is variability with which we must contend 15 10 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Even'}, 'prep': {'with', 'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'range', 'which', 'possibilities'}, 'amod': {'human'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'variability'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'relcl': {'contend'}} Medium High Low
4024 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Just as some of us are taller orfaster than others, some of us have greater visual acuity, or memory capacity, or facility with language than others 26 17 {'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Just'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'some'}, 'prep': {'with', 'than', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'us', 'language', 'others'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'amod': {'greater', 'taller', 'visual'}, 'attr': {'orfaster'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'acuity'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'memory'}, 'conj': {'capacity', 'facility'}} Long High Medium
4025 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Indeed, there can be significant differences among individ-uals with regard to any cognitive or noncognitive factor 16 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'amod': {'significant', 'cognitive'}, 'attr': {'differences'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'among'}, 'compound': {'individ'}, 'pobj': {'uals', 'regard', 'factor'}, 'det': {'any'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'noncognitive'}} Medium High Low
4026 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered 180 ALEXANDER, SCHALLERT, REYNOLDS boundaries within which learning may be constrained in the human system 15 6 {'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'180'}, 'ROOT': {'ALEXANDER'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'SCHALLERT'}, 'compound': {'REYNOLDS'}, 'conj': {'boundaries'}, 'prep': {'within', 'in'}, 'det': {'which', 'the'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'constrained'}, 'amod': {'human'}, 'pobj': {'system'}} Medium High Low
4027 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Thus, just as our evolved biology—that which makes us human—must be embraced in any model or theory of learning, so too must the differences that manifest at the level of the individual be recognized 34 23 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, AUX, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'just', 'too', 'so'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'evolved'}, 'nsubjpass': {'biology', 'differences'}, 'appos': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'us', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'makes', 'manifest'}, 'ccomp': {'human'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'embraced'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'level', 'model', 'individual'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'theory'}, 'ROOT': {'recognized'}} Long High Medium
4028 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Principle 7: Learning Refers to Both a Process and a Product Descriptions of learning frequently toggle between portray- ing learning as a process, as a set of operations progressing through time, and depicting it as an end-product of that pro-cess, much like a chemical substance is produced when ele- ments are combined 52 24 {'NOUN': 15, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'dep': {'Principle'}, 'nummod': {'7'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ':'}, 'csubj': {'Learning'}, 'dobj': {'it', 'Refers'}, 'prep': {'through', 'to', 'of', 'as', 'between'}, 'preconj': {'Both'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'that'}, 'pobj': {'-', 'Process', 'set', 'pro', 'operations', 'learning', 'process', 'time', 'product'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'ing', 'chemical', 'Product', 'end'}, 'conj': {'produced', 'depicting', 'Descriptions'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'frequently', 'much'}, 'ROOT': {'toggle'}, 'amod': {'ele-', 'cess', 'portray-'}, 'acl': {'progressing'}, 'mark': {'like'}, 'nsubjpass': {'substance', 'ments'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'are'}, 'advcl': {'combined'}} Long High High
4029 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered When we think of learning as a process, we are focusing on the time course of operations resultingin relatively durable changes 21 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'relatively'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'advcl': {'think'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'course', 'process', 'operations'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'focusing'}, 'compound': {'time'}, 'dep': {'resultingin'}, 'amod': {'durable'}, 'dobj': {'changes'}} Long High Medium
4030 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered When we consider learning as product, we are referring to the relatively durable change that results when learning has occurred, as when new ideas orprocedures have been internalized or memories accumulated as a result of experiences in the physical world or in the world of the mind 47 25 {'SCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'DET': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'relatively', 'when'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'that', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'internalized', 'occurred', 'consider'}, 'xcomp': {'learning'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'change', 'world', 'experiences', 'result', 'product'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'has', 'have', 'are'}, 'ROOT': {'referring'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'durable', 'physical', 'new'}, 'relcl': {'results'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'compound': {'ideas'}, 'nsubjpass': {'orprocedures'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'memories', 'in'}, 'acl': {'accumulated'}} Long High High
4031 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Where learning as process refers to the change as it is taking place, learning as product refers to the outcome of that process 23 12 {'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Where'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'it'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'process', 'outcome', 'product'}, 'ROOT': {'refers'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'taking'}, 'dobj': {'place'}, 'punct': {','}, 'csubj': {'learning'}, 'conj': {'refers'}} Long High High
4032 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Formal measures of learning are almost always about learning as product—the consequences of learning 14 8 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'amod': {'Formal'}, 'nsubj': {'measures'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'product'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'almost', 'always'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'punct': {'—'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dep': {'consequences'}} Medium High Low
4033 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Although it is perhaps unfortunate that the same word refersto a progressive action and a gerundial noun and may lead to misinterpretations that pivot exactly on this difference, it is our contention that any comprehensive rendering of learn-ing must regard this construct as both process and product 47 27 {'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'rendering', 'word', 'it', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'perhaps', 'exactly'}, 'acomp': {'unfortunate'}, 'det': {'this', 'a', 'any', 'both', 'the'}, 'amod': {'comprehensive', 'same', 'gerundial', 'progressive'}, 'ccomp': {'refersto', 'regard'}, 'dobj': {'construct', 'action'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'product', 'lead', 'noun'}, 'aux': {'may', 'must'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'-', 'misinterpretations', 'difference', 'ing', 'process', 'learn'}, 'relcl': {'pivot'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'attr': {'contention'}} Long High High
4034 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Indeed, research in which the focus is only on learning as a product may oversimplify our conception of the learningprocess 20 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'only'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'research', 'focus'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'learningprocess', 'product'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'oversimplify'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'dobj': {'conception'}} Long High Low
4035 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The same applies to research in which process is all that is considered 13 9 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2} [DET, ADJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'which', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'same', 'process'}, 'ROOT': {'applies'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'research'}, 'relcl': {'considered', 'is'}, 'attr': {'all'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}} Medium High Low
4036 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Principle 8: Learning Is Different at Different Points in Time Because learning is a process, change transpires in time and over time, and leads one to focus on the dynamic flux of factors affecting the beginning, middle, and late stages of learning 42 18 {'NOUN': 12, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'dep': {'Principle'}, 'nummod': {'8'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'Learning'}, 'ROOT': {'Is'}, 'acomp': {'Different'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'late', 'dynamic', 'Different'}, 'pobj': {'Time', 'factors', 'flux', 'Points', 'time'}, 'mark': {'Because'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'process', 'transpires'}, 'compound': {'change'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'leads', 'stages', 'middle', 'over'}, 'dobj': {'one', 'beginning'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'focus'}, 'acl': {'affecting'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Medium
4037 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The learning process itself is affected by where thelearner is in a progression to increasing expertise and acqui- sition of knowledge in a domain 24 13 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'nsubjpass': {'process'}, 'appos': {'itself'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'affected'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'nsubj': {'thelearner'}, 'pcomp': {'is', 'increasing'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'knowledge', 'progression', 'sition'}, 'dobj': {'expertise'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'acqui-'}} Long High Medium
4038 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered This developmental view of learning is tied in part to the neurological and biological changes that come with age (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, 2002) 23 10 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'neurological', 'developmental'}, 'nsubjpass': {'view'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'age', 'changes', 'part'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'tied'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'biological', 'Pellegrini'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'come'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Bjorklund'}, 'npadvmod': {'2002'}} Long High Low
4039 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We learn differently at different ages, and the process oflearning changes, reflecting the accumulation of experiences that give rise to more complex understandings and more intri- cate relationships among individuals or the relations betweenperson and environment (Bereiter, 2002; Wentzel, 1999) 40 16 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'that', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'learn'}, 'advmod': {'differently', 'more'}, 'prep': {'at', 'among', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'different', 'oflearning', 'more', 'complex'}, 'pobj': {'ages', 'understandings', 'experiences', 'individuals'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'betweenperson', 'relationships', 'process', 'environment'}, 'appos': {'1999', 'Wentzel', 'Bereiter', 'changes', '2002'}, 'acl': {'reflecting'}, 'dobj': {'accumulation', 'rise'}, 'relcl': {'give'}, 'compound': {'relations', 'intri-', 'cate'}} Long High Low
4040 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered As mature individuals, we cannot draw aside the veil of life ex- periences to see the world as we did in our childhood 23 14 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'As', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'mature'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'childhood'}, 'punct': {',', 'ex-'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'draw', 'periences'}, 'advmod': {'aside'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'world', 'veil'}, 'compound': {'life'}, 'relcl': {'see'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'did'}, 'poss': {'our'}} Long High Medium
4041 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Wemay seek to “remember” what we thought or felt, but those memories are never replications or duplications.This phenomenon occurs in part because of the recursive and iterative nature of learning; processes result in prod- ucts that in turn influence subsequent processes 41 20 {'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4} [PROPN, VERB, PART, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Wemay', 'processes', 'memories', 'phenomenon', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'result', 'seek'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'punct': {'.', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'xcomp': {'remember'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'ccomp': {'thought', 'occurs'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'conj': {'felt', 'are', 'duplications', 'iterative'}, 'det': {'This', 'the', 'those'}, 'neg': {'never'}, 'attr': {'replications'}, 'prep': {'because', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'processes', 'ucts', 'part', 'learning', 'turn', 'influence', 'nature'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'amod': {'recursive', 'prod-', 'subsequent'}, 'mark': {'that'}} Long High High
4042 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered An often- cited example can be found in the Matthew effect (Stanovich, 1986), which, simply stated, refers to when a learning prod-uct (e.g., graphophonemic knowledge that underlies rapid and accurate word recognition) interacts with the process of learning (e.g., comprehending), what Stanovich called a re- ciprocal causation effect 48 16 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 9, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 14, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, PROPN, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'An', 'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'cited', 'often-', 'graphophonemic', 're-', 'rapid', 'ciprocal'}, 'nsubjpass': {'example'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'found'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'prod', 'word', 'Matthew', 'causation'}, 'pobj': {'process', 'effect', 'learning'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'Stanovich', 'learning', 'knowledge', 'that'}, 'npadvmod': {'1986'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'simply', 'when'}, 'relcl': {'called', 'stated', 'underlies'}, 'ROOT': {'refers'}, 'dobj': {'recognition', 'what', 'uct'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'accurate'}, 'pcomp': {'interacts'}, 'advcl': {'comprehending'}, 'oprd': {'effect'}} Long High Medium
4043 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Those with decoding facility read more and hence acquire more background knowledge, which in turn leads to better understanding of future informationand more reading, and so on 27 14 {'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 2} [PRON, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADP] {'nsubj': {'which', 'Those'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'decoding', 'more', 'better'}, 'pobj': {'turn', 'future', 'facility', 'understanding'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'advmod': {'hence', 'so', 'more'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'on', 'acquire'}, 'compound': {'background'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'reading'}, 'punct': {','}, 'relcl': {'leads'}, 'advcl': {'informationand'}} Long High Low
4044 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Principle 9: Learning Is Interactional When we assert that learning is interactional, we are high- lighting that learning engages an intermutual sequence of op- erations that are shaped by human culture and biology, amonga host of such influences, and by how humans act and react to a dynamically changing world 50 22 {'NOUN': 13, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'dep': {'Principle'}, 'nummod': {'9'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'humans', 'Learning', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'Is'}, 'acomp': {'interactional', 'Interactional'}, 'advmod': {'When', 'dynamically', 'how'}, 'advcl': {'assert', 'are'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'compound': {'high-'}, 'attr': {'lighting'}, 'relcl': {'shaped', 'engages'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'amod': {'amonga', 'human', 'intermutual', 'op-', 'such', 'changing'}, 'dobj': {'sequence'}, 'prep': {'by', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'world', 'erations', 'influences', 'culture'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'react', 'biology'}, 'appos': {'host'}, 'pcomp': {'act'}} Long High High
4045 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered All serious discussions of learning would agree that the world “out there” matters tohow learning takes place, although there might be debate in how to construe that world (Bereiter, 1994; Stanovich, 2000) 32 16 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'All', 'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'serious'}, 'nsubj': {'discussions', 'world', 'learning'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning'}, 'aux': {'would', 'might', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'agree'}, 'mark': {'although', 'that'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'advmod': {'out', 'there', 'how'}, 'ccomp': {'matters', 'takes'}, 'dobj': {'world', 'tohow', 'place'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'debate'}, 'pcomp': {'construe'}, 'appos': {'Stanovich', '2000', 'Bereiter'}, 'npadvmod': {'1994'}} Long High High
4046 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Moreover, any postbehaviorist learning perspective includes in its description of the interactive nature of learning, the iter- ative coinfluences between current and past constructions orrepresentations 25 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'compound': {'postbehaviorist', 'learning'}, 'nsubj': {'perspective'}, 'ROOT': {'includes'}, 'prep': {'between', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'description', 'nature', 'orrepresentations'}, 'amod': {'interactive', 'iter-', 'ative', 'current'}, 'dobj': {'coinfluences'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'constructions', 'past'}} Long High Low
4047 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In this interactional mix, continual change occurs not only to learners, but to the context in which learn- ing is embedded as well 23 13 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'interactional', 'continual'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'mix', 'learners', 'context'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'change'}, 'ROOT': {'occurs'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'as', 'well'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'embedded', 'learn-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ing'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}} Long High Low
4048 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Learners are influenced by, and atthe same time push back, take from, change, control, and create the environment in which learning is situated 23 12 {'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'nsubjpass': {'learning', 'Learners'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'are'}, 'ROOT': {'influenced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'which', 'atthe', 'the'}, 'amod': {'same'}, 'nsubj': {'time'}, 'conj': {'take', 'push', 'create', 'change', 'control'}, 'advmod': {'back'}, 'prep': {'in', 'from'}, 'dobj': {'environment'}, 'relcl': {'situated'}} Long High Low
4049 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered FRAMING THE NATURE OF LEARNING Embedded in the nine principles of learning are characteris- tics that stand as salient attributes of this complex but elu- sive construct 27 12 {'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'csubj': {'FRAMING'}, 'det': {'this', 'the', 'THE'}, 'dobj': {'NATURE'}, 'prep': {'as', 'OF', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'LEARNING', 'construct', 'learning', 'attributes', 'principles'}, 'acl': {'Embedded'}, 'nummod': {'nine'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'characteris-', 'sive', 'complex'}, 'attr': {'tics'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'stand'}, 'compound': {'salient'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'elu-'}} Long High Low
4050 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The careful definition of core constructs is certainly a necessary step in any effort to formulate theory,build models, or conduct investigations; yet more is required 25 11 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'any'}, 'amod': {'necessary', 'careful'}, 'nsubj': {'definition'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'core', 'conduct', 'build'}, 'pobj': {'effort', 'constructs'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'certainly', 'yet'}, 'attr': {'step'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'formulate'}, 'dobj': {'theory'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}, 'conj': {'models', 'investigations'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'nsubjpass': {'more'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}} Long High Low
4051 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In theory and research, conceptualization and operationaliza- tion must go hand and hand 13 6 {'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'In'}, 'pobj': {'theory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'conceptualization', 'hand', 'operationaliza-', 'research'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'tion'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'go'}, 'npadvmod': {'hand'}} Medium High Low
4052 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Thus, although the principlesof learning help us answer the question “What is learning,” they cannot help us answer the question of whether an ex- isting perspective of learning is fully specified or of whether a particular attempt to engineer learning represents a viable operationalization of the construct 47 25 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 8, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, X, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADP, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'fully', 'ex-'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'mark': {'although', 'whether'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'perspective', 'they', 'attempt', 'principlesof', 'What', 'us'}, 'acl': {'learning', 'engineer'}, 'advcl': {'help'}, 'ccomp': {'learning', 'answer'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'operationalization', 'question'}, 'aux': {'can', 'is', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'help'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'isting', 'viable'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'construct'}, 'pcomp': {'represents', 'is'}, 'acomp': {'specified'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High High
4053 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered What is also requiredare criteria that will allow us to judge the manner in which core constructs are theorized, modeled, or empirically inves- tigated 24 12 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, X, VERB] {'nsubj': {'What', 'us', 'that'}, 'csubj': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'empirically'}, 'amod': {'requiredare'}, 'attr': {'criteria'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'relcl': {'allow', 'theorized'}, 'ccomp': {'judge'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'manner'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'which'}, 'compound': {'core'}, 'nsubjpass': {'constructs'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'modeled'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'dep': {'inves-'}, 'ROOT': {'tigated'}} Long High Low
4054 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Toward that end, we offer the dimensions of learningas components in an interactive framework 14 7 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'Toward', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'framework', 'components', 'end'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'dobj': {'dimensions'}, 'compound': {'learningas'}, 'amod': {'interactive'}} Medium High Low
4055 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Specifically, we assert that any comprehensive theoretical perspective of learning should be constituted of at least fourdimensions that are continuously interwoven and interactive, represented by the what ,where ,who, and when of learning. 33 20 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, PRON, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADP, VERB, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'least', 'when', 'continuously', 'Specifically', 'at'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'assert'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'amod': {'comprehensive', 'theoretical'}, 'nsubjpass': {'perspective', 'that'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'fourdimensions', 'what'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'ccomp': {'constituted'}, 'relcl': {'interwoven'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interactive', 'of', 'where', 'who'}, 'acl': {'represented'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High High
4056 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered LEARNING TOPOGRAPHY 181 As we seek to demonstrate, although there may well be other features to the learning system that merit consideration in a specific instantiation of learning, these four dimensions should be viewed as primary (i.e., necessary) 38 20 {'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'X': 1} [VERB, PROPN, NUM, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'LEARNING', 'be', 'seek'}, 'dobj': {'TOPOGRAPHY', 'consideration'}, 'nummod': {'four', '181'}, 'mark': {'As', 'although'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'should', 'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'demonstrate'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'well'}, 'amod': {'other', 'primary', 'necessary'}, 'attr': {'features'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'specific'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'system', 'instantiation'}, 'relcl': {'merit'}, 'nsubjpass': {'dimensions'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'viewed'}} Long High High
4057 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Although we describe each dimension separately, the interactional per-spective represented by Principle 9 holds that learning in- volves the continual interplay of multiple dimensions at any point or under any circumstance 31 14 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NUM, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, X, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'spective'}, 'advcl': {'describe'}, 'det': {'any', 'the', 'each'}, 'dobj': {'dimension', 'interplay'}, 'advmod': {'separately'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'interactional', 'continual', 'multiple'}, 'compound': {'per'}, 'acl': {'represented'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'Principle', 'circumstance', 'dimensions', 'point'}, 'nummod': {'9'}, 'ROOT': {'holds'}, 'csubj': {'learning'}, 'dep': {'in-'}, 'ccomp': {'volves'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'under'}} Long High High
4058 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Indeed, we describe ourrendering of this emergent framework for learning as topo- graphical precisely because we think the interplay among these four dimensions results in a shape to learning that isfluid and dynamic, but that also gives rise to discernible and predictable patterns that are multiply determined 47 24 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'graphical', 'also', 'multiply', 'precisely'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'interplay', 'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'describe'}, 'dobj': {'isfluid', 'rise', 'ourrendering'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'among', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'det': {'this', 'a', 'these', 'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'discernible', 'emergent'}, 'pobj': {'dimensions', 'shape', 'framework', 'patterns', 'topo-'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'think'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'ccomp': {'results'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'gives', 'dynamic', 'predictable'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'determined'}} Long High High
4059 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We acknowledge that current contrasting views of learn- ing attend to one or more of these dimensions, however tac- itly.Y et it is also our contention that no existing perspective of which we are aware has explicitly addressed all four ofthese dimensions in any systemic manner 46 25 {'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 3} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, X, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'perspective', 'We', 'it', 'views', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'acknowledge', 'et'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'learn-', 'existing', 'contrasting', 'systemic', 'current', 'ofthese'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'dimensions', 'manner', 'ing', 'one'}, 'ccomp': {'attend', 'addressed'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'more'}, 'det': {'any', 'no', 'all', 'these'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly', 'itly', 'also', 'however'}, 'dep': {'tac-'}, 'compound': {'Y'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'attr': {'contention'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'dobj': {'dimensions'}} Long High High
4060 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Rather, what we have determined is that current theoretical orientations cen- ter on certain dimensions, such as the who and what or the who and where dimensions, without due consideration for other equally important facets 35 22 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 6, 'X': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, X, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, PRON, CCONJ, PRON, CCONJ, DET, PRON, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'equally', 'that', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', 'cen-'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'csubj': {'determined'}, 'ROOT': {'ter', 'is'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'important', 'certain', 'other', 'such', 'current', 'due'}, 'attr': {'orientations'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'without', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'facets', 'dimensions', 'who', 'consideration'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'where', 'dimensions', 'what', 'who'}} Long High High
4061 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Certainly, extant theoreticalperspectives on learning have not dealt with the time di- mension, the when , in the innovative way that we do 23 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, SCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX] {'advmod': {'Certainly', 'the', 'when'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'extant', 'innovative'}, 'nsubj': {'theoreticalperspectives', 'we'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'mension', 'way'}, 'aux': {'have', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'dealt'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'time'}, 'dep': {'di-'}, 'mark': {'that'}} Long High Medium
4062 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We support this contention by demonstrating how seemingly op-positional views can be subsumed within our broader four- dimensional framework largely because they are seeking to explain learning from different vantage points within thismultidimensional space 34 14 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'support'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'dobj': {'contention', 'learning'}, 'prep': {'by', 'within', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'demonstrating'}, 'advmod': {'seemingly', 'largely', 'how'}, 'nmod': {'op'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'positional', 'broader', 'thismultidimensional', 'dimensional', 'different', 'four-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'views'}, 'aux': {'can', 'are', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'subsumed'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'framework', 'points', 'space'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'seeking'}, 'xcomp': {'explain'}, 'compound': {'vantage'}} Long High High
4063 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Moreover, because much of the emphases within existing theoretical perspectives resides at the juncture of person–environment (i.e., the who–where connection), we have cho- sen to begin discussion with the what of learning and con- clude with the when of learning, dimensions of seemingly less import in extant accounts 48 27 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 10, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'VERB': 6, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, DET, PRON, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, PRON, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, SCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'i.e.', 'Moreover', 'where', 'seemingly'}, 'punct': {',', '–', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'nsubj': {'much', 'we'}, 'prep': {'within', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'at'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'juncture', 'perspectives', 'when', 'what', 'emphases', 'accounts', 'import', 'learning', 'person'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'existing', 'extant', 'less', 'cho-'}, 'advcl': {'resides'}, 'appos': {'environment'}, 'dep': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'connection'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'discussion', 'dimensions', 'sen'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'begin'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'clude', 'con-'}} Long High High
4064 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In our presentation of the interactive framework, we consider how distinctions among orientations that might be seen as incommensurate outsidethe purview of our topographical framework can more accu- rately be depicted as differential positions within the vector space created by the what ,where ,who, and when dimensions 47 26 {'ADP': 8, 'PRON': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PRON, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'among', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'purview', 'presentation', 'what', 'orientations', 'framework', 'space', 'positions'}, 'det': {'outsidethe', 'the'}, 'amod': {'topographical', 'interactive', 'differential', 'incommensurate'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'distinctions'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'rately', 'more', 'how'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can', 'might'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'seen'}, 'ccomp': {'depicted', 'accu-'}, 'compound': {'vector'}, 'acl': {'created'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'conj': {'dimensions', 'where', 'who'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High High
4065 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Dimension 1: The What of Learning A comprehensive rendering of learning must give due consid- eration to the objects or foci of that dynamic system (Gius- sani, 1995) 28 13 {'NOUN': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, DET, PRON, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'npadvmod': {'1995', 'Dimension'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'punct': {'(', ':', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'A', 'The', 'the', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'What'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'Learning'}, 'amod': {'comprehensive', 'dynamic'}, 'dobj': {'rendering', 'eration'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'system', 'objects'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'give'}, 'dative': {'due'}, 'compound': {'consid-', 'Gius-'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'foci'}, 'appos': {'sani'}} Long High Low
4066 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered There is always a what that is being learned or that is in the process of change 17 14 {'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADV, PRON, PRON, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'always'}, 'attr': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'ccomp': {'learned'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'conj': {'is'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'process'}} Medium High Low
4067 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Further, there is am- ple evidence that the objects of learning are distinguishable and classifiable, and that those differences are significantin how the process of learning unfolds 27 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'Further', 'how'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'am-', 'ple'}, 'attr': {'evidence'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'process', 'objects', 'differences'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'distinguishable', 'significantin'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'are', 'classifiable'}, 'ccomp': {'unfolds'}} Long High High
4068 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For our purposes, we propose that the whats of learning can be well repre- sented as different levels ranging from acquired habits andconditioned responses, to spontaneous concepts and action sequences learned in everyday informal interactions with the FIGURE 1 A representation of interactive complexification as per- taining to the what of learning 52 24 {'ADP': 11, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NUM, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PRON, ADP, VERB] {'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'For'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'what', 'per-', 'concepts', 'purposes', 'levels', 'complexification', 'interactions', 'learning', 'FIGURE', 'habits', 'representation'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'s', 'what', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'propose'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'attr': {'repre-'}, 'acomp': {'sented'}, 'amod': {'interactive', 'acquired', 'spontaneous', 'different', 'informal', 'everyday'}, 'acl': {'ranging', 'learned'}, 'conj': {'sequences', 'andconditioned'}, 'dobj': {'responses'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'action'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'advcl': {'taining'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Medium
4069 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered world, to scientific concepts and practices that are often the result of formal education, as illustrated in Figure 1 19 9 {'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NUM] {'nsubj': {'world', 'that'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'scientific'}, 'pobj': {'concepts', 'Figure', 'education'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practices'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'result'}, 'amod': {'formal'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'ROOT': {'illustrated'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Medium High Medium
4070 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered These levels are formed from the interplay of various fac- tors implicated in the learning process 16 8 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubjpass': {'levels'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'formed'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'interplay', 'process', 'tors'}, 'amod': {'various'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'fac-'}, 'acl': {'implicated'}} Medium High Low
4071 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Those factors, which can systemically vary in degree (e.g., intensity, frequency, ormagnitude), include but are not limited to the degree to which enculturation into a particular social practice is required, or the degree to which conscious effort is needed, or the degreeof abstraction or complexity involved 46 22 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 4} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB] {'det': {'which', 'Those', 'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'intensity', 'factors', 'degree', 'abstraction'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'systemically'}, 'relcl': {'required', 'vary', 'needed'}, 'prep': {'into', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'degree', 'practice'}, 'conj': {'complexity', 'frequency', 'involved', 'are'}, 'appos': {'ormagnitude'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'limited'}, 'nsubjpass': {'enculturation', 'effort'}, 'amod': {'social', 'particular', 'conscious', 'degreeof'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}} Long High Low
4072 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered What distinguishes the levels of learning to which we refer is the extent to which their attainment depends on a particular interplay of thesesalient factors 25 14 {'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PART, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'What', 'attainment', 'we'}, 'csubj': {'distinguishes'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'levels'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'interplay', 'factors'}, 'relcl': {'refer', 'depends'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'extent'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'thesesalient'}} Long High Low
4073 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Because we feared that using an existing term from the field might carry with it inappropriate connotations, we coined the term interactive complexification to refer to the confluence of factors that give rise to the increasing intricacy of any given aspect of the products or processes (i.e., the whats ) of learning 52 28 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 11, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, VERB] {'mark': {'Because', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'the', 'that', 'we', 'what'}, 'advcl': {'feared'}, 'csubj': {'using'}, 'det': {'any', 'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'interactive', 'given', 'existing', 'increasing', 'inappropriate'}, 'dobj': {'complexification', 'rise', 'term', 'connotations'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'confluence', 'field', 'intricacy', 'aspect', 'factors', 'it', 'products'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'carry'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'coined'}, 'xcomp': {'refer'}, 'relcl': {'give'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'processes'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'parataxis': {'s'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High High
4074 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We appreciate that there may be other systems of clas- sifying the what of learning that rely on other features or mechanisms than our own interactive complexification; wit- ness Spiro’s (with Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson, 1992) insightful identification of important differences betweenwell-structured and ill-structured domains 45 21 {'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 10, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, DET, PRON, ADP, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADJ, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'that', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'appreciate'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'be', 'rely'}, 'amod': {'structured', 'interactive', 'important', 'ness', 'own', 'insightful', 'other', 'clas-'}, 'attr': {'systems'}, 'prep': {'with', 'on', 'than', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'sifying'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'pobj': {'differences', 'Feltovich', 'complexification', 'features'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'structured', 'mechanisms', 'Jacobson', 'Coulson'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'dep': {'wit-'}, 'npadvmod': {'Spiro', 'betweenwell'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'appos': {'1992', 'identification', 'domains'}, 'advmod': {'ill'}} Long High Medium
4075 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We do not view these alternatives as problematic, provided that they are jus- tified and defensible 16 9 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'We', 'they'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'view'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'dobj': {'alternatives'}, 'prep': {'provided', 'as'}, 'amod': {'problematic', 'jus-'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'pcomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'tified'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'defensible'}} Medium High Medium
4076 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Rather, our critical point here is thattheoretical perspectives must take account of the differing objects of learning in some manner and not treat learning as a unitary process or outcome 30 16 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'here', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'unitary', 'differing', 'thattheoretical', 'critical'}, 'nsubj': {'perspectives', 'point'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ccomp': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'account'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'manner', 'process', 'objects'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'treat', 'outcome'}} Long High Low
4077 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For instance, it is not our goalto support or refute behaviorism as a theory of learning but rather to argue that certain premises underlying a behavior 26 14 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'instance', 'theory'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'goalto'}, 'attr': {'support'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'refute'}, 'conj': {'behaviorism'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'argue'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'dobj': {'behavior', 'premises'}, 'acl': {'underlying'}} Long High Medium
4078 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered 182 ALEXANDER, SCHALLERT, REYNOLDS theory perspective are easier to understand and apply if one stays within the realm of acquired habits 21 8 {'NUM': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [NUM, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, NUM, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'nummod': {'182'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'ALEXANDER', 'perspective'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'SCHALLERT'}, 'compound': {'REYNOLDS', 'theory'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'easier'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'understand'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'apply'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'advcl': {'stays'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'habits', 'realm'}, 'amod': {'acquired'}} Long High Medium
4079 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered When behaviorism meanders away from this familiar terrain, it is far less sustain- able, as the history of psychology has so clearly demonstrated (Robins, Gosling, & Craik, 1999) 28 11 {'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'clearly', 'so', 'When', 'away', 'less', 'far'}, 'nsubj': {'behaviorism', 'history', 'it'}, 'advcl': {'meanders', 'demonstrated'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'familiar'}, 'pobj': {'psychology', 'terrain'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'sustain-', 'able'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'npadvmod': {'Robins'}, 'conj': {'Gosling', 'Craik'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'appos': {'1999'}} Long High High
4080 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Of course, the same ar-gument can be directed toward any other theory of learning 14 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'amod': {'other', 'same'}, 'compound': {'ar'}, 'nsubjpass': {'gument'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'directed'}, 'prep': {'of', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'theory'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Low
4081 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Our contention is that certain conflicts between stances on learning rest on their disregard of this very concern 18 10 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'Our', 'their'}, 'nsubj': {'contention'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'very'}, 'attr': {'conflicts'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'stances', 'disregard', 'concern'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'rest'}, 'det': {'this'}} Medium High Medium
4082 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Given this understanding and prior to describing attributes and characteristics of the first level, acquired habits and con- ditionings, we want to acknowledge that all learning has as itsfoundation a biological and neurological basis (as represented by the base of the helix in Figure 1) 45 21 {'VERB': 7, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, X, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'Given'}, 'det': {'a', 'all', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'Figure', 'helix', 'ditionings', 'level', 'understanding', 'itsfoundation', 'habits', 'base'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'con-', 'neurological', 'prior', 'characteristics'}, 'pcomp': {'describing'}, 'dobj': {'basis', 'attributes'}, 'amod': {'biological', 'acquired', 'first'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'acknowledge'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'ccomp': {'has'}, 'acl': {'represented'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Long High High
4083 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Inborn reflexes, abilities, and capacities are initiating points for future physical, cog-nitive, and psychosocial development 15 4 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'future', 'Inborn', 'psychosocial', 'physical'}, 'nsubj': {'reflexes'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'conj': {'capacities', 'nitive', 'abilities'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'initiating'}, 'dobj': {'points'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'npadvmod': {'cog'}, 'pobj': {'development'}} Medium High Low
4084 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Whereas such inborn reflexes, abilities, and capacities are not themselves learned, they represent the primordial matter from which learningemerges over time and space and, in fact, remain influential across the levels 31 16 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 4} [SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'Whereas'}, 'amod': {'primordial', 'such', 'inborn'}, 'nsubj': {'reflexes', 'themselves', 'they'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'capacities', 'space', 'abilities'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'learned'}, 'ROOT': {'represent'}, 'det': {'which', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'matter'}, 'prep': {'over', 'across', 'in', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'learningemerges'}, 'pobj': {'time', 'levels', 'fact'}, 'relcl': {'remain'}, 'acomp': {'influential'}} Long High Medium
4085 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered This continuing influence is depicted as the axis of the helix in Figure 1 14 7 {'DET': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'continuing'}, 'nsubjpass': {'influence'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'depicted'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'helix', 'Figure', 'axis'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Medium High Low
4086 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Consider, for example, what might qualify as inborn re- flexes, abilities, and capacities for the domain of reading—adomain with which we are intimately familiar 24 12 {'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'advcl': {'Consider'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'prep': {'with', 'for', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'reading', 'example', 'flexes', 'domain'}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'we'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'csubj': {'qualify'}, 'amod': {'inborn'}, 'compound': {'re-'}, 'conj': {'capacities', 'abilities'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'ROOT': {'adomain'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'intimately'}, 'acomp': {'familiar'}} Long High Low
4087 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For one, we might regard certain perceptual and visual processes, such as the ability to discriminate light and dark areas or to dis-cern objects in the visual field (Gibson, 1966), as among the hard-wired abilities that support children’s later literacy de- velopment 42 19 {'ADP': 6, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 9, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'among', 'as', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'ability', 'field', 'objects', 'abilities', 'one'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'we'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'regard'}, 'amod': {'perceptual', 'wired', 'later', 'light', 'certain', 'such', 'visual'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'dark', 'visual'}, 'dobj': {'velopment', 'areas', 'processes'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'discriminate'}, 'compound': {'dis', 'literacy', 'de-', 'cern'}, 'appos': {'Gibson', '1966'}, 'advmod': {'hard'}, 'relcl': {'support'}, 'poss': {'children'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High Low
4088 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The ability to see light and dark or shapes comeswith the human system and is, clearly, not reading in itself 20 11 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'ability'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'see', 'reading', 'comeswith'}, 'dobj': {'system', 'light'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'is', 'dark', 'shapes'}, 'amod': {'human'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'clearly'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'itself'}} Long High Low
4089 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Similarly, the human capacity to find commonalities acrossexperiences, to form categories out of what is perceived, and to make cause and effect judgments supports and interacts with learning at all levels of interactive complexification 34 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Similarly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'amod': {'interactive', 'find', 'human'}, 'ROOT': {'capacity'}, 'prep': {'out', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'at'}, 'compound': {'commonalities', 'judgments'}, 'pobj': {'acrossexperiences', 'levels', 'complexification'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'form'}, 'dobj': {'cause', 'categories'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'perceived'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'make', 'effect', 'interacts'}, 'ccomp': {'supports'}} Long High Low
4090 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The first level of the “what” dimension comprises ac- quired habits and conditionings representing simpler learned responses to the world that are often more concrete, are lesssocialized, and may require conscious awareness for a shorter period than other levels 39 18 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'X': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, X, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'what'}, 'amod': {'shorter', 'quired', 'other', 'learned', 'first', 'simpler', 'conscious'}, 'nsubjpass': {'level'}, 'prep': {'than', 'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'compound': {'dimension'}, 'nmod': {'comprises'}, 'dep': {'ac-'}, 'pobj': {'world', 'period', 'habits', 'levels'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'require', 'conditionings'}, 'acl': {'representing'}, 'dobj': {'responses', 'awareness'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'concrete'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'lesssocialized'}, 'aux': {'may'}} Long High Low
4091 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Returning to our literacy example, within a matter of months, most infants gain the ability to hear and pronounce a range of phonemes representative of the lan- guage around them, even as they learn to hold a book, graspthe corner of a page, and turn to the next 48 26 {'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 8, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ] {'advcl': {'Returning', 'learn'}, 'prep': {'around', 'within', 'to', 'of'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'graspthe', 'literacy', 'phonemes'}, 'pobj': {'representative', 'them', 'guage', 'matter', 'example', 'page', 'months', 'next'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'lan-', 'most'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'infants'}, 'ROOT': {'gain'}, 'dobj': {'range', 'book', 'ability'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'hear'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'turn', 'pronounce'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'xcomp': {'hold'}, 'dep': {'corner'}} Long High Medium
4092 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered These acquired habits and conditionings will continue to support reading even as it progresses across levels 16 8 {'DET': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'These'}, 'amod': {'acquired'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'habits'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'conditionings'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'ROOT': {'continue'}, 'xcomp': {'support'}, 'dobj': {'reading'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'progresses'}, 'prep': {'across'}, 'pobj': {'levels'}} Medium High Medium
4093 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered At the next level of the what model are the spontaneous concepts that humans acquire from the extraordinary num- ber of different learning opportunities they encounter, infor-mally or incidentally, over the course of a lifetime—from dressing one’s self to engaging in appropriate conversation, from cooking a meal to learning how to parent 52 28 {'ADP': 11, 'DET': 8, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, NUM, PART, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, PART, NOUN] {'prep': {'from', 'At', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'over'}, 'det': {'a', 'what', 'the'}, 'amod': {'spontaneous', 'different', 'extraordinary', 'num-', 'appropriate', 'next'}, 'pobj': {'opportunities', 'course', 'ber', 'lifetime', 'model', 'level', 'conversation'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'nsubj': {'concepts', 'humans', 'they'}, 'dobj': {'self', 'meal', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'encounter', 'acquire'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—'}, 'dep': {'infor'}, 'advmod': {'mally', 'how'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'incidentally'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'cooking', 'dressing', 'engaging'}, 'poss': {'one'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'parent'}} Long High Medium
4094 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Such sponta-neous concepts, with their associated actions and emotions, can acquire the status of scientific concepts and practices, the next level, as when one realizes a love for and interestin cooking and takes up the preparation of becoming a chefor a food science expert 44 23 {'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 6, 'SCONJ': 2} [ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'amod': {'associated', 'Such', 'neous', 'sponta', 'next'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'concepts', 'one'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'concepts', 'actions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'emotions', 'interestin', 'practices', 'takes'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'acquire'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'cooking', 'status', 'preparation', 'love', 'expert'}, 'compound': {'scientific', 'science', 'food'}, 'appos': {'level'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'realizes'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'pcomp': {'becoming'}, 'attr': {'chefor'}} Long High High
4095 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The role of spontaneous concepts and actions is very evident in early literacy development, as when children begin to acquire print concepts and read- ing conventions through interactions with those that populate their environment or as a consequence of focused effort 41 19 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 3} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'role', 'children', 'that'}, 'prep': {'through', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'ing', 'early', 'spontaneous', 'focused'}, 'pobj': {'concepts', 'those', 'interactions', 'development', 'consequence', 'effort'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'read-', 'as', 'actions'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'very', 'when'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'compound': {'literacy', 'print'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'begin'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'acquire'}, 'dobj': {'concepts', 'conventions', 'environment'}, 'relcl': {'populate'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
4096 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered When it comes to the third level of the what dimension, our choice of the term scientific concept follows usage in- troduced by Vygotsky (1934/1986) not to represent conceptsabout science as a discipline (or not only about science) but to refer to “languaged” ideas that have become abstracted or generalized from human interactions and aligned with formaldisciplines or communities of practice 61 32 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 9, 'ADP': 10, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 7, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 4, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, X, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PART, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'only'}, 'nsubj': {'choice', 'it', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'comes'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'what', 'the'}, 'amod': {'third', 'languaged', 'human'}, 'pobj': {'practice', 'science', 'discipline', 'level', 'interactions', 'ideas', 'Vygotsky', 'dimension', 'concept', 'formaldisciplines'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'scientific', 'conceptsabout', 'term'}, 'ROOT': {'follows'}, 'dobj': {'usage', 'science'}, 'appos': {'1934/1986', 'in-'}, 'acl': {'troduced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'represent'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'conj': {'communities', 'refer', 'generalized', 'aligned', 'about'}, 'relcl': {'become'}, 'acomp': {'abstracted'}} Long High Medium
4097 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Thus, scientific con- cepts are often associated with intentional learning or formal knowledge (Gardner, 1991), in contrast to spontaneous con-cepts that are, in effect, less formalized understandings often acquired from everyday experiences (Vygotsky, 1934/1986) and often associated with unintended or incidental learning(Reber, 1989; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1984) 47 17 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 15, 'PROPN': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 4, 'NUM': 4, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'often', 'less'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'compound': {'scientific', 'con', 'con-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'cepts'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'associated'}, 'prep': {'with', 'from', 'to', 'in'}, 'amod': {'unintended', 'formalized', 'spontaneous', 'intentional', 'formal', 'everyday'}, 'pobj': {'cepts', 'effect', 'contrast', 'learning', 'experiences', 'learning(Reber'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'associated', 'acquired', 'Schneider', 'knowledge', 'incidental'}, 'appos': {'1934/1986', '1989', 'Gardner', 'Vygotsky', '1984'}, 'npadvmod': {'Shiffrin', '1991'}, 'nsubj': {'understandings', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'are'}} Long High Low
4098 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Thus, as one ex- amines the interactive complexification of the “what” dimen- sion, there is an increased need for the support and guidance of others to assist in one’s learning (Anderson et al., 2001; Cobb, Wood, &Y ackel, 1991) 39 19 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 8} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'complexification', 'in'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'compound': {'dimen-', 'Y', 'ex-'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'others', 'amines', 'sion'}, 'det': {'an', 'what', 'the'}, 'amod': {'interactive', 'increased'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'need'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'nsubj': {'support'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'.', 'guidance', 'ackel', 'Wood', 'Cobb'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'assist'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'npadvmod': {'1991', 'al', 'Anderson', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2001'}} Long High Medium
4099 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We represent this aspect bythe enculturation strand of the helix in Figure 1 13 5 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'represent'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'aspect'}, 'prep': {'bythe', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'enculturation'}, 'pobj': {'helix', 'Figure', 'strand'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Medium High Low
4100 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In addition, as the learning progresses across levels, there is the real possibility that a successful outcome will neces-sitate greater effort exerted across time and place (the effort strand) 29 13 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'across', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'addition', 'levels', 'time'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'neces', 'outcome'}, 'advcl': {'progresses'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'real', 'successful', 'greater'}, 'attr': {'possibility'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'acl': {'exerted', 'sitate'}, 'dobj': {'effort'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'place'}, 'appos': {'effort', 'strand'}} Long High High
4101 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Because reading development continues across the lifespan, there are many scientific concepts and practices thatcome as individuals engage in increasingly demanding, spe- cialized, and potentially more abstract print-related activities 29 11 {'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 3} [SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'mark': {'Because', 'as'}, 'csubj': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'development'}, 'advcl': {'continues', 'engage'}, 'prep': {'across', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'lifespan'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'many', 'thatcome', 'abstract', 'related'}, 'compound': {'scientific'}, 'attr': {'concepts', 'activities'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practices'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals'}, 'advmod': {'potentially', 'increasingly', 'more'}, 'pcomp': {'demanding'}, 'nmod': {'spe-'}, 'acl': {'cialized'}, 'npadvmod': {'print'}} Long High High
4102 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For instance, scientific concepts and practices come into playas individuals encounter technical or domain-specific texts or are introduced to new genres or new ways of analyzing a variety of traditional and nontraditional texts 33 12 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'For', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'instance', 'genres', 'texts'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'scientific', 'playas', 'domain'}, 'nsubj': {'concepts'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'ways', 'practices', 'introduced', 'specific', 'nontraditional'}, 'ROOT': {'come'}, 'advcl': {'encounter'}, 'amod': {'traditional', 'technical', 'new'}, 'dobj': {'variety', 'texts'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'pcomp': {'analyzing'}, 'det': {'a'}} Long High Low
4103 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Overall, Figure 1 represents our attempt to portray how certain factors implicated in learning operate at varying de- grees and how their changing nature individually and in con-cert (what we call interactive complexification ) with other significant factors constitute distinguishable levels of learn- ing’s objects or foci 47 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 9, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 12, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, VERB, ADP, VERB, X, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'individually', 'Overall', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Figure', 'we', 'factors'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'ROOT': {'represents'}, 'poss': {'our', 'ing', 'their'}, 'dobj': {'operate', 'what', 'levels', 'attempt'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'portray'}, 'amod': {'interactive', 'varying', 'learn-', 'certain', 'distinguishable', 'significant', 'other', 'changing'}, 'ccomp': {'implicated'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of', 'with', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'compound': {'con', 'de-'}, 'pobj': {'factors', 'grees', 'objects', 'cert'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'foci', 'nature', 'constitute', 'in'}, 'parataxis': {'call'}, 'oprd': {'complexification'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High High
4104 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered As we suggested, we contend that these levels and the interplay of factors they represent encom- pass the foci of a range of learning perspectives that mightotherwise appear at odds 30 15 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'X': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, X, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'levels', 'mightotherwise', 'we', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'suggested'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'contend'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interplay'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'range', 'odds', 'factors'}, 'relcl': {'represent', 'appear'}, 'appos': {'encom-'}, 'ccomp': {'pass'}, 'dobj': {'perspectives', 'foci', 'that'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High High
4105 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For instance, the whats that gar- ner much attention from behavior theorists would fit well within the acquired habits and conditionings level of our de-piction, whereas the interests of sociocultural theorists may more often nest themselves at the level of scientific con- cepts and practices 45 24 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 19, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'from', 'of', 'at', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'-', 'instance', 'cepts', 'theorists', 'level', 'de', 'habits', 'piction'}, 'punct': {',', 'gar-'}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'interests', 'attention', 'that', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'s', 'fit'}, 'nmod': {'ner'}, 'amod': {'much', 'acquired', 'sociocultural'}, 'compound': {'scientific', 'behavior', 'con-', 'conditionings'}, 'aux': {'would', 'may'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'well', 'more'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'level', 'practices'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'advcl': {'nest'}, 'dobj': {'themselves'}} Long High Medium
4106 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered What developmental theorists might em-phasize in their research, by comparison, is not the whats that fall at any one level of our representation, but rather the process by which individuals progress within and acrossthose levels 35 22 {'PRON': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'any', 'What', 'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'developmental', 'acrossthose'}, 'dobj': {'theorists'}, 'aux': {'em', 'might'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'csubj': {'phasize'}, 'prep': {'within', 'in', 'by', 'of', 'at'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'representation', 'comparison', 'level', 'research'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'what', 'the'}, 'ccomp': {'s'}, 'npadvmod': {'fall'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'conj': {'process'}, 'relcl': {'progress'}, 'attr': {'levels'}} Long High Low
4107 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Cognitive-evolutionary theorists, like develop- mental theorists, might be drawn to movement across levels, especially as it pertains to the ever-present influence of hu-mans’ inborn reflexes, abilities, and capacities on the nature 31 13 {'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'amod': {'Cognitive', 'mental', 'develop-', 'present', 'evolutionary', 'inborn'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'theorists'}, 'prep': {'on', 'like', 'to', 'of', 'across'}, 'pobj': {'reflexes', 'theorists', 'levels', 'influence', 'movement', 'nature'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'drawn'}, 'advmod': {'especially', 'ever'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'advcl': {'pertains'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'hu'}, 'nmod': {'mans'}, 'conj': {'capacities', 'abilities'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Medium
4108 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered LEARNING TOPOGRAPHY 183 FIGURE 2 A model of the interactive nature of the what, where, and who dimensions of learning at time and across time (i.e., thewhen dimension) 28 13 {'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'X': 1} [VERB, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, NUM, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PRON, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'LEARNING', 'model'}, 'dobj': {'TOPOGRAPHY', 'dimension', 'FIGURE'}, 'nummod': {'183'}, 'punct': {',', ')', '(', '2'}, 'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'prep': {'at', 'across', 'of'}, 'amod': {'interactive'}, 'pobj': {'nature', 'time', 'what'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.', 'where'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'dimensions', 'who'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'relcl': {'thewhen'}} Long High Medium
4109 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Further, just as these individual strands contin- ually interact with each other to give the what dimension its character, so too does the what dimension interact with thewhere ,who, and when dimensions to give learning its character, as we will see shortly (see Figure 2) 45 29 {'ADV': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, AUX, DET, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'too', 'when', 'Further', 'just', 'shortly', 'so', 'ually'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'det': {'the', 'what', 'these', 'each'}, 'amod': {'individual'}, 'nsubj': {'dimension', 'dimensions', 'strands', 'we'}, 'appos': {'contin-'}, 'advcl': {'see', 'interact', 'give'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'other'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to', 'will'}, 'dative': {'dimension'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'dobj': {'Figure', 'character'}, 'ROOT': {'interact'}, 'pcomp': {'thewhere'}, 'conj': {'give', 'who'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'xcomp': {'learning'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'nummod': {'2'}} Long High High
4110 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Dimension 2: The Where of Learning Learning does not happen in a vacuum 13 7 {'NOUN': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, DET, SCONJ, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'Dimension'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'punct': {':'}, 'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'Where'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'Learning'}, 'pobj': {'Learning', 'vacuum'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'happen'}} Medium High Medium
4111 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The where of learn- ing refers to the ecological context in which learning occurs 14 7 {'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, SCONJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'nsubj': {'learning', 'ing', 'The'}, 'advmod': {'where'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learn-', 'context'}, 'ROOT': {'refers'}, 'det': {'which', 'the'}, 'amod': {'ecological'}, 'pcomp': {'occurs'}} Medium High Medium
4112 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered By ecological context, we are referring to such primary as- pects as the physical environment and the social and culturalmilieu that are intertwined and interdependent in their influ- ence on learning 31 16 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'as', 'By'}, 'amod': {'primary', 'such', 'ecological', 'influ-', 'physical'}, 'pobj': {'ence', 'pects', 'environment', 'context'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'referring'}, 'compound': {'as-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'social', 'culturalmilieu', 'interdependent'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'intertwined'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
4113 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered An interesting characteristic of this ecology is that there is an intermingling of the more concrete withthe more abstract, and of the more physical with the more social, influencing the learning process at every turn 35 22 {'DET': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'this', 'every', 'An', 'the'}, 'amod': {'abstract', 'interesting'}, 'nsubj': {'characteristic'}, 'prep': {'at', 'with', 'withthe', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'ecology', 'social', 'turn', 'physical', 'concrete'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'intermingling'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advcl': {'influencing'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'process'}} Long High Medium
4114 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered As ina river system, there are physical elements and tangibles in the learning ecology that shape the flow of learning 20 9 {'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'prep': {'As', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'river', 'ina'}, 'pobj': {'ecology', 'system'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'physical'}, 'attr': {'elements'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'tangibles'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'shape'}, 'dobj': {'flow'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
4115 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered As well, there are social and cultural influences that emerge from the cultural practices and social dynamics in which the learning is taking place, especially as learning progresses toward thelevel of scientific concepts and practices 35 17 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'well', 'As', 'especially'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'social', 'cultural'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'dynamics', 'practices', 'cultural'}, 'attr': {'influences'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'taking', 'emerge'}, 'prep': {'of', 'toward', 'in', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'thelevel', 'concepts', 'practices'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'dobj': {'progresses', 'place'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}, 'compound': {'scientific'}} Long High Medium
4116 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Consider, for example, a 1-year-old who has discovered the wonders of banging a spoon on a highchair tray 18 9 {'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Consider'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'tray', 'example'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nummod': {'1'}, 'npadvmod': {'year'}, 'dobj': {'spoon', 'wonders', 'old'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'relcl': {'discovered'}, 'pcomp': {'banging'}, 'compound': {'highchair'}} Medium High Low
4117 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered At thispoint, banging requires a coordination of movement that may have begun accidentally but quickly developed into a rhyth- mic movement with its attendant cacophony of sounds 27 12 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'At', 'into', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'cacophony', 'movement', 'thispoint', 'sounds'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'banging', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'coordination'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'relcl': {'begun'}, 'advmod': {'quickly', 'accidentally'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'developed'}, 'amod': {'attendant', 'rhyth-', 'mic'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High Low
4118 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Thephysical context impinging on learning may involve the pro- cessing of the distance between hand and tray and of how the spoon fits in the child’s hand for maximum effect 30 15 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'maximum', 'Thephysical'}, 'nsubj': {'context'}, 'csubj': {'impinging'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'of', 'for', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'distance', 'effect', 'hand'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'involve'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'spoon', 'pro-'}, 'dobj': {'cessing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'tray'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'pcomp': {'fits'}, 'poss': {'child'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High Medium
4119 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Atthis point, the social/cultural context may include how adults in the family interpret, react to, and label the child’s bang- ing and the particular kind of highchair and spoon that havecome to be used in that home 37 19 {'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'SYM': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PART': 2} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, SYM, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'that', 'the', 'Atthis'}, 'npadvmod': {'point'}, 'punct': {',', '/'}, 'amod': {'social', 'particular', 'bang-', 'cultural'}, 'nsubj': {'adults', 'child', 'context'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'family'}, 'pobj': {'highchair', 'interpret', 'home'}, 'ccomp': {'react', '’s'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'spoon', 'label', 'kind'}, 'dobj': {'ing', 'havecome'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'used'}} Long High Medium
4120 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered As the child grows older, the context surrounding drumming may develop to include what it means to learn to play the drums musically, with all its related cultural practices 29 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'drumming', 'it', 'child'}, 'advcl': {'grows'}, 'acomp': {'older'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nmod': {'context'}, 'amod': {'cultural', 'related', 'surrounding'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'develop'}, 'xcomp': {'include', 'play', 'learn'}, 'dobj': {'drums', 'what'}, 'ccomp': {'means'}, 'advmod': {'musically'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'pobj': {'practices'}} Long High Medium
4121 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Reading musical notation, knowing when to quiet a drumhead, and responding to a con-ductor’s subtle direction become contextual features to which the budding percussionist must appropriately respond, even as our learner reacts conceptually, motivationally, and emo-tionally to the degree to which this new skill is appreciated by the local culture 50 24 {'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 4, 'DET': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 5} [VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, PRON, DET, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'csubj': {'Reading'}, 'amod': {'contextual', 'new', 'local', 'musical', 'budding', 'learner', 'subtle'}, 'dobj': {'notation', 'drumhead'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advcl': {'knowing'}, 'advmod': {'appropriately', 'when', 'tionally', 'conceptually', 'even', 'motivationally'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'xcomp': {'quiet'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'emo', 'responding'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to'}, 'compound': {'con'}, 'nmod': {'ductor'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'reacts', 'direction', 'culture', 'degree'}, 'ROOT': {'become'}, 'attr': {'features'}, 'nsubj': {'percussionist'}, 'relcl': {'appreciated', 'respond'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubjpass': {'skill'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
4122 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Moreover, as learning proceeds, what the learner takes the context to be changes 13 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, AUX, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'as'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'takes'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'context', 'proceeds'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'learner'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'attr': {'changes'}} Medium High Low
4123 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered This ever-changinginterpretation of what exactly is salient and relevant about the contextual ecology influences the process and products of learning 20 11 {'DET': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 2} [DET, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADV, AUX, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'contextual', 'ever'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'changinginterpretation'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'exactly'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'is'}, 'attr': {'salient'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'relevant', 'products'}, 'compound': {'ecology'}, 'ROOT': {'influences'}, 'dobj': {'process'}} Long High Low
4124 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered One of many domains in which contextual influences have been studied is reading 13 8 {'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2} [NUM, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'One'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'many', 'contextual'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'domains'}, 'nsubjpass': {'influences'}, 'aux': {'is', 'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'studied'}, 'ROOT': {'reading'}} Medium High Low
4125 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered It sometimes pertains to thetexts themselves, including their organization, structure, and features (Chambliss & Calfee, 1998; Meyer & Poon, 2001; Schallert, 1976) 22 6 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 3} [PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'advmod': {'sometimes'}, 'ROOT': {'pertains'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'thetexts'}, 'dobj': {'themselves'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'including'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'organization'}, 'conj': {'Calfee', 'Poon', 'features', 'Schallert', 'structure', 'Chambliss'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'1998'}, 'appos': {'1976', 'Meyer', '2001'}} Long High Low
4126 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Context can also refer to the physical placein which the reading occurs, such as in the home (Purcell- Gates, 2007), in the classroom (e.g., reading class or other content domains; Jetton & Alexander, 2004), or in out-of- school environments (e.g., libraries, museums, or everyday locales; Moje & O’Brien, 2001) 49 18 {'NOUN': 14, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 19, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 5} [NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Context', 'reading'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'advmod': {'out', 'e.g.', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'refer'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'other', 'everyday', 'such', 'physical'}, 'pobj': {'Gates', 'placein', 'classroom', 'environments', 'home'}, 'dobj': {'which', 'class'}, 'relcl': {'occurs'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'compound': {'content', 'Purcell-', 'school'}, 'npadvmod': {'Jetton', '2007'}, 'dep': {'of-', 'e.g.'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Moje', 'domains', 'locales', 'in', 'libraries', 'museums', 'O’Brien', 'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'2004', '2001'}} Long High Low
4127 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Or it can relate to the modeor medium of delivery, (e.g., online or hypermedia environ- ments; Leu et al., 2007) 20 7 {'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 1} [CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'cc': {'or', 'Or'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'relate'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'modeor'}, 'pobj': {'medium', 'delivery'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'amod': {'online'}, 'conj': {'hypermedia'}, 'dep': {'environ-'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'Leu', 'et', '2007', 'ments'}} Long High Low
4128 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Also, the where of reading can focus on the human resources that are present and that may serveto facilitate or inhibit the learning process or its outcomes (Allington, 2001; Almasi, 1995) 31 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, SCONJ, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Also'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'where', 'that'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'resources'}, 'aux': {'can', 'may'}, 'ROOT': {'focus'}, 'amod': {'human'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'present'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'inhibit', 'serveto', 'outcomes'}, 'dobj': {'facilitate', 'process'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'appos': {'Almasi', 'Allington', '2001'}, 'npadvmod': {'1995'}} Long High Medium
4129 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Finally, as with the other learning dimensions, the where of learning interacts with the what, who, and when (see Figure 2) 21 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, SCONJ, ADP, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'when', 'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'as'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'pobj': {'dimensions', 'what'}, 'nsubj': {'where'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'relcl': {'interacts'}, 'conj': {'see', 'who'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dobj': {'Figure'}, 'nummod': {'2'}} Long High High
4130 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered To explore just one of these interactions, we want to highlight how a learner’s relation with context changes overtime 19 11 {'PART': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PART, VERB, ADV, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'aux': {'To', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'explore'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'overtime', 'how'}, 'dobj': {'one', 'relation'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'changes', 'interactions'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'xcomp': {'highlight'}, 'poss': {'learner'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'context'}} Medium High Medium
4131 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered When one is learning something new, the particular physical environment and social/cultural setting are critical to how the learning proceeds 20 10 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SYM': 1, 'ADP': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, SYM, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'When', 'how'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'one', 'environment'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'something'}, 'amod': {'cultural', 'new', 'social', 'particular', 'physical'}, 'punct': {',', '/'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'setting'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'critical'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pcomp': {'proceeds'}} Long High High
4132 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In fact, these details of contextare so critical that often one’s initial steps in learning will 16 10 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, ADV, NUM, PART, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'contextare', 'fact', 'learning'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'details'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'so'}, 'amod': {'initial', 'critical'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'’s'}, 'conj': {'steps'}, 'ROOT': {'will'}} Medium High Medium
4133 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered 184 ALEXANDER, SCHALLERT, REYNOLDS incorporate them as essential components of the learning, leading to learning that seems tied to the situation 21 9 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1} [NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nummod': {'184'}, 'nsubj': {'REYNOLDS', 'ALEXANDER', 'that'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'SCHALLERT'}, 'ROOT': {'incorporate'}, 'dobj': {'them'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'essential'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'situation', 'components'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advcl': {'leading'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'auxpass': {'seems'}, 'conj': {'tied'}} Long High Low
4134 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Theorists of a certain persuasion might claim that all learning is like this, situated in particular contexts of practice (Greeno & van de Sande, 2007) 25 9 {'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, VERB, AUX, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Theorists', 'learning'}, 'prep': {'like', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'all'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'particular'}, 'pobj': {'practice', 'persuasion', 'this', 'contexts'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'ROOT': {'claim'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advcl': {'situated'}, 'conj': {'Greeno', 'Sande'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'compound': {'van'}, 'nmod': {'de'}, 'npadvmod': {'2007'}} Long High Medium
4135 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered However, exactly because contexts arethemselves always changing, the learner must continue to ad- just, adapt, and broaden the application of what was learned and to respond appropriately to contextual cues in the hereand now that are close enough but slightly different from the context that was in place when learning “began.” Dimension 3: The Who of Learning With the who dimension, we are pointing to how learning is influenced by characteristics of the learner along biological, cognitive, experiential (including individual and cultural ex-perience), and affective (motivation/emotion) lines 87 45 {'ADV': 8, 'PUNCT': 16, 'SCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 14, 'NOUN': 18, 'DET': 6, 'AUX': 6, 'PART': 2, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADP': 11, 'PRON': 7, 'ADJ': 8, 'NUM': 1, 'SYM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, X, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, DET, PRON, ADP, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ...] {'advmod': {'appropriately', 'when', 'just', 'now', 'slightly', 'exactly', 'always', 'enough', 'However', 'how'}, 'punct': {'.', ':', ')', '(', '”', ',', '/', '“'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'dobj': {'application', 'lines', 'contexts'}, 'nsubj': {'who', 'that', 'learning', 'learner', 'we', 'arethemselves'}, 'advcl': {'began', 'changing'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'pointing', 'continue', 'adapt'}, 'xcomp': {'ad-'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'-', 'cultural', 'broaden', 'different', 'ex', 'emotion', 'respond', 'perience'}, 'prep': {'including', 'from', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'along', 'With'}, 'nsubjpass': {'learning', 'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'was'}, 'pcomp': {'influenced', 'Learning', 'learned'}, 'amod': {'contextual', 'biological', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'characteristics', 'cues', 'hereand', 'context', 'individual', 'place', 'experiential', 'learner', 'the'}, 'relcl': {'dimension', 'are', 'was'}, 'acomp': {'close'}, 'dep': {'Dimension', 'Who'}, 'nummod': {'3'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'nmod': {'motivation', 'affective'}} Long High High
4136 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Further, we acknowledge that the particulars of all that a learner brings to a situation critically influence the process and product oflearning 22 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'critically', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'learner', 'we', 'particulars'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledge'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'situation', 'all'}, 'dobj': {'process', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'brings'}, 'ccomp': {'influence'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'product'}, 'conj': {'oflearning'}} Long High Medium
4137 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Indeed, over time humans have evolved a number of innate learning capacities that have helped them become more efficient and effective learners, thus enabling them tosurvive and prosper in their ecological niche 32 16 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'thus', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'niche', 'time', 'capacities'}, 'nsubj': {'humans', 'that', 'them'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'evolved'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'number', 'tosurvive', 'them'}, 'amod': {'innate', 'efficient', 'ecological'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'relcl': {'helped'}, 'ccomp': {'become'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'effective', 'prosper'}, 'attr': {'learners'}, 'advcl': {'enabling'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
4138 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For example, humans appear to have a capacity to distinguish between a temporal string of nonrelated stimuli and a similarly appear-ing string that displays a series of cause and effect relations (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, 2002; Kant, 1787/1963) 37 14 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'string', 'cause', 'stimuli', 'example'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubj': {'humans', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'appear'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'have'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'capacity', 'series'}, 'acl': {'distinguish'}, 'amod': {'nonrelated', 'appear', 'temporal', 'ing'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'advmod': {'similarly'}, 'conj': {'string', 'relations', 'Bjorklund', 'Pellegrini'}, 'relcl': {'displays'}, 'compound': {'effect'}, 'appos': {'1787/1963', '2002'}, 'dep': {'Kant'}} Long High Low
4139 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered As we begin to explicate this dimension, we are aware that a frequent interpretation of learner characteristics aligns itself with measuring individual differences in achievementor performance on high-stakes exams 29 13 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 4} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'interpretation', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'begin'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'explicate'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'dimension', 'itself', 'differences'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'high', 'learner', 'frequent'}, 'prep': {'on', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'exams', 'characteristics'}, 'ccomp': {'aligns'}, 'pcomp': {'measuring'}, 'compound': {'stakes', 'achievementor'}} Long High High
4140 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Because our focus is on learning, we want to make explicit the distinction be- tween learning and achievement, concepts that we think havebeen conflated in the educational and psychological litera- tures (Alexander & Riconscente, 2005) 35 14 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'Because', 'that'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubj': {'havebeen', 'we', 'focus'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'tures'}, 'punct': {',', 'be-', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'make'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'explicit'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'distinction', 'tween'}, 'dobj': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'achievement', 'concepts', 'psychological', 'litera-', 'Riconscente'}, 'ccomp': {'conflated', 'think'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2005'}} Long High Medium
4141 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Because achieve- ment test scores measure performance and not learning perse, they include measures of factors not representative of learning either as process or product 25 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'Because', 'as', 'scores', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'achieve-', 'process', 'factors'}, 'compound': {'measure', 'ment', 'test'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'measures', 'perse'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'product'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'amod': {'representative'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'preconj': {'either'}} Long High Medium
4142 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The kinds of learner characteristics that we consider im- portant are several 12 6 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'kinds', 'we'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'learner'}, 'pobj': {'characteristics'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'consider'}, 'compound': {'im-'}, 'dobj': {'portant'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'several'}} Medium High Low
4143 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We acknowledge that simply by virtue of evolved biology and how humans are wired, who the learner is plays acritical role in the learning process 25 12 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'learner', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledge'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'how'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'process', 'biology', 'virtue'}, 'amod': {'acritical', 'evolved'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubjpass': {'humans'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'conj': {'wired'}, 'punct': {','}, 'attr': {'who'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'plays'}, 'compound': {'learning'}} Long High High
4144 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The embodied conscious- ness that represents the human learner cannot help but shape the learning process (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999) 20 7 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'embodied', 'human'}, 'nsubj': {'conscious-', 'that'}, 'appos': {'ness', 'Lakoff'}, 'relcl': {'represents'}, 'dobj': {'process', 'learner'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'help'}, 'cc': {'but', '&'}, 'conj': {'Johnson', 'shape'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'1999'}} Long High Low
4145 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For example, although it is highly unlikely to find a personwith more than three times the normal working memory ca- pacity, there is always variation in working memory across humans, as well as in the capacities of the brain to processinformation efficiently 42 23 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, PROPN, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV] {'prep': {'to', 'For', 'in', 'of', 'across'}, 'pobj': {'humans', 'brain', 'example', 'capacities', 'processinformation', 'memory'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'highly', 'well', 'always', 'efficiently', 'as'}, 'acomp': {'unlikely'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'find'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'pacity', 'personwith'}, 'amod': {'normal', 'more'}, 'quantmod': {'than', 'times'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'compound': {'ca-', 'working', 'memory'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'variation'}, 'cc': {'as'}} Long High Medium
4146 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered These differences can be detected in both the processes and products of learning 13 8 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubjpass': {'differences'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'detected'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'pobj': {'processes'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'products'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Low
4147 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Readers’ fluency is associ- ated in part with the graphophonemic abilities they bring tothe text, combined with their working memory capacity and their skill at producing the desired sounds and expressions apace 32 13 {'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'poss': {'Readers', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'associ-', 'fluency'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'ated'}, 'prep': {'with', 'at', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'capacity', 'part', 'abilities'}, 'det': {'the', 'tothe'}, 'amod': {'graphophonemic', 'desired'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'bring'}, 'dobj': {'sounds', 'text'}, 'punct': {','}, 'acl': {'combined'}, 'compound': {'expressions', 'working', 'memory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'skill', 'apace'}, 'pcomp': {'producing'}} Long High Low
4148 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Another source of influence on learning is represented by learners’ motives, intentions, and general psychologicaltraits 15 6 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'Another'}, 'nsubjpass': {'source'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'motives', 'influence'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'represented'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'learners'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'intentions', 'psychologicaltraits'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'general'}} Medium High Low
4149 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered What are learners in a particular learning situation consciously or unconsciously seeking to accomplish 14 6 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1} [PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB] {'attr': {'What'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'nsubj': {'learners'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'particular'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'pobj': {'situation'}, 'advmod': {'consciously'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'unconsciously'}, 'advcl': {'seeking'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'accomplish'}} Medium High Low
4150 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Much attention has been paid to motivational and emotional differences among learners 12 6 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'amod': {'motivational', 'Much'}, 'nsubjpass': {'attention'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'paid'}, 'prep': {'to', 'among'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'emotional'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'differences'}} Medium High Low
4151 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered As this litera- ture reminds us, individuals not only manifest different goalsfor learning, but also ascribe different values to learning, have varied expectations for success (Linnenbrink & Pin- trich, 2003; Pintrich & Schrauben, 1992; Wigfield & Eccles,2000), and experience different emotions during the pro- cess (Damasio, 2005; Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002) 53 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 18, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PROPN': 12, 'NUM': 4} [SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'As'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'different', 'litera-', 'varied'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'ture'}, 'advcl': {'reminds'}, 'dobj': {'emotions', 'learning', 'values', 'us', 'expectations'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'manifest'}, 'compound': {'goalsfor', 'pro-'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', '&'}, 'conj': {'Wigfield', 'Perry', 'ascribe', 'trich', 'Pintrich', 'Schrauben', 'Pin-', 'Eccles,2000', 'Titz', 'Goetz', 'have', 'experience'}, 'prep': {'for', 'during', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'cess', 'success'}, 'appos': {'1992', 'Pekrun', 'Linnenbrink', '2002', 'Damasio'}, 'npadvmod': {'2003', '2005'}} Long High Medium
4152 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Different psychological traits (e.g., persistence or extrover-sion) influence the learning of individuals even when they find themselves more or less in the same physical context confronting the same cognitive task (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2006) 35 15 {'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'psychological', 'same', 'Different', 'physical', 'cognitive'}, 'nmod': {'traits'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'conj': {'persistence', 'sion', 'Roberts', 'less', 'Zeidner'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'compound': {'extrover'}, 'ROOT': {'influence'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'learning', 'Matthews', '2006'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'context'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'even', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'advcl': {'find'}, 'dobj': {'task', 'themselves'}, 'acl': {'confronting'}} Long High Medium
4153 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The motives, intentions, emotional states, and interests of readers have garnered increasing attention in the last decade (Guthrie & Cox, 2001; Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997) 25 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'motives'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Wigfield', 'Guthrie', 'intentions', 'interests', 'Cox', 'states'}, 'amod': {'emotional', 'last', 'increasing'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'decade'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'garnered'}, 'dobj': {'attention'}, 'npadvmod': {'Guthrie'}, 'appos': {'1997', '2001'}} Long High Low
4154 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered This grow- ing presence has illustrated that those who perform well ata given reading task or who manifest a positive learning trajectory in the domain have more than the neurophysio- logical basics 32 15 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2} [DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADV, VERB, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'the', 'This'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'neurophysio-', 'grow-', 'ing', 'logical'}, 'nsubj': {'those', 'presence', 'who'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'illustrated'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'perform'}, 'advmod': {'ata', 'well'}, 'acl': {'given'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'task', 'trajectory', 'more'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'manifest'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'prep': {'than', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'basics'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}} Long High Medium
4155 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered They also have a reported interest in read-ing generally or in the particular domain or topic of the text (Wade, 2001) 21 11 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'They'}, 'advmod': {'generally', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'have'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'reported'}, 'dobj': {'interest'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'read'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'ing', 'text'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'topic', 'in'}, 'appos': {'Wade'}, 'npadvmod': {'2001'}} Long High Low
4156 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered They are more likely to report an orien- tation toward learning about the domain/topic than towardsimply doing adequately on the task (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000) 25 12 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SYM, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'They'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'more', 'adequately'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'report', 'doing'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'orien-'}, 'dobj': {'tation'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'toward'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'nmod': {'domain'}, 'punct': {'(', '/', ',', ')'}, 'pobj': {'task', 'topic'}, 'mark': {'than'}, 'advcl': {'towardsimply'}, 'appos': {'Hidi'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Harackiewicz'}, 'npadvmod': {'2000'}} Long High Medium
4157 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered They are also more apt to hold beliefs about them- selves as readers and about reading that will sustain themand promote their cognitive and affective engagement (Dai & Wanga, 2007) 30 13 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'They', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'apt'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'xcomp': {'hold'}, 'dobj': {'engagement', 'beliefs', 'themand'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as'}, 'compound': {'them-'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'reading', 'selves'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'relcl': {'sustain'}, 'conj': {'Wanga', 'promote', 'affective'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'cognitive'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Dai'}, 'npadvmod': {'2007'}} Long High Low
4158 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Another example of learner characteristics that come into play in descriptions of learning is individuals’ previous learn- ing, the relevant knowledge they have acquired that they bring to bear in a particular learning situation (Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert, & Goetz, 1977) 40 15 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'Another', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'that', 'example'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'relevant', 'learner', 'previous'}, 'pobj': {'characteristics', 'learning', 'situation', 'play', 'descriptions'}, 'relcl': {'acquired', 'come', 'bring'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'individuals'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'learn-'}, 'appos': {'ing', '1977', 'Anderson', 'knowledge'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'xcomp': {'bear'}, 'conj': {'Goetz', 'Schallert', 'Reynolds'}, 'cc': {'&'}} Long High Medium
4159 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We point to the extremely prolific research on how prior knowledge influences learning 13 5 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'nsubj': {'influences', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'point'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'extremely', 'how'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'prolific'}, 'pobj': {'research'}, 'amod': {'prior'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Medium
4160 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Theparticular interface between what one knows and what one is learning intimately influences what is understood from the interaction and what one takes away from it 26 16 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON] {'amod': {'Theparticular'}, 'ROOT': {'interface'}, 'prep': {'from', 'between'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'influences'}, 'nsubj': {'one'}, 'pcomp': {'knows'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'what', 'the'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'takes'}, 'advmod': {'away', 'intimately'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'understood'}, 'pobj': {'interaction', 'it'}} Long High Low
4161 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In an interesting study that combined two of these ways of differentiating learners, Walker (1987) compared army en- listed personnel who were either high or low in aptitude tolearn (based on scores on a standardized ability measure) and high or low in knowledge of baseball (based on responses to factual questions about the game) on how well they remem-bered an oral play-by-play of a half inning of a fictitious baseball game 71 33 {'ADP': 15, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 23, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, SCONJ, ADV, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'based', 'by', 'of', 'about', 'In'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'these', 'the'}, 'amod': {'standardized', 'factual', 'fictitious', 'interesting', 'differentiating', 'listed', 'oral'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'scores', 'game', 'questions', 'tolearn', 'learners', 'measure', 'knowledge', 'play', 'inning', 'baseball', 'responses', 'study'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'who', 'personnel', 'en-', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'combined', 'were'}, 'dobj': {'two', 'play'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'Walker', 'high', 'low'}, 'appos': {'1987'}, 'ROOT': {'compared'}, 'compound': {'baseball', 'ability', 'aptitude', 'army'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'acomp': {'high'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'how'}, 'npadvmod': {'remem'}, 'pcomp': {'bered'}, 'quantmod': {'a'}, 'nummod': {'half'}} Long High Medium
4162 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Results indicated that participants with high baseball knowledge did better than those with low baseballknowledge whether they came from the high- or low-ability 23 11 {'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'they', 'Results', 'participants'}, 'ROOT': {'indicated'}, 'mark': {'that', 'whether'}, 'prep': {'than', 'with', 'from'}, 'amod': {'high', 'low'}, 'compound': {'baseball'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'baseballknowledge', 'ability', 'those'}, 'ccomp': {'did'}, 'advmod': {'better'}, 'advcl': {'came'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'high-'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'low'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Long High High
4163 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In fact, within the high-knowledge groups, low- ability recruits recalled as much of the play-by-play account as high-ability learners, and the low-ability/high-knowledge group outperformed the high-ability/low-knowledge group 27 12 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 11, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SYM': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, SYM, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, SYM, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'by', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'account', 'play', 'groups', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '/'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'high', 'low-', 'low'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'ability'}, 'nsubj': {'group', 'recruits'}, 'ROOT': {'recalled'}, 'advmod': {'as'}, 'dobj': {'group', 'much'}, 'nmod': {'ability', 'play'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'outperformed'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}} Long High Low
4164 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Walker’s study is interesting in the context of our con- sideration of the importance of learner characteristics be- cause it juxtaposed two different ways of thinking of how learners can differ from one another 34 18 {'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'X': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PART, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, X, VERB, PRON, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, DET] {'poss': {'our', 'Walker'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'learners', 'it', 'study'}, 'ROOT': {'juxtaposed', 'is'}, 'acomp': {'interesting'}, 'prep': {'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'another', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'sideration', 'characteristics', 'context', 'thinking', 'one', 'importance'}, 'compound': {'con-'}, 'amod': {'different', 'learner'}, 'punct': {'be-'}, 'mark': {'cause'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'dobj': {'ways'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'pcomp': {'differ'}} Long High Medium
4165 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered There are many otherstudies, some to which we have been intimately connected, that have demonstrated the clear impact that prior knowledge can have on learning something new (Alexander & Murphy,1998; Anderson et al., 1977; Goetz, Schallert, Reynolds, & Radin, 1983; Reynolds, Taylor, Steffensen, Shirey, & Ander- son, 1982) 48 17 {'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 17, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 15, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 3} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PART, PRON, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'many', 'clear', 'prior', 'new'}, 'attr': {'otherstudies'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'al', '.', 'some', 'et', '1982', 'Goetz', '1977', '1983'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'which'}, 'nsubjpass': {'we'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advmod': {'intimately'}, 'relcl': {'have', 'connected', 'demonstrated'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'something', 'impact', 'Alexander', 'that'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Shirey', 'Schallert', 'Taylor', 'Steffensen', 'son', 'Reynolds', 'Radin', 'Murphy,1998', 'Ander-'}, 'dep': {'Anderson', 'Reynolds'}} Long High Medium
4166 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In a review of the theoretical and empirical liter-ature on knowledge, Alexander, Schallert, and Hare (1991) offered a synthesis of the myriad of constructs associated with prior knowledge and showed how these interacted witheach other 35 16 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADJ] {'prep': {'on', 'with', 'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'myriad', 'review', 'ature', 'constructs'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'interacted', 'prior'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'showed', 'Schallert', 'Hare', 'empirical'}, 'compound': {'liter'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'witheach', 'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'1991'}, 'ROOT': {'offered'}, 'dobj': {'synthesis'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'ccomp': {'other'}} Long High Medium
4167 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We close our discussion of this dimension with a point we have made in our descriptions of the what andwhere dimen- sions 22 14 {'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'We', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'close'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'dobj': {'discussion'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'point', 'descriptions', 'dimension', 'sions'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'made'}, 'nmod': {'what'}, 'amod': {'andwhere'}, 'conj': {'dimen-'}} Long High Low
4168 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered As we depict in Figure 2, the who dimension interacts with all other dimensions so that particular characteristicsof the learner are emphasized or deemphasized through in- teraction with what is being learned, in what context, and at different points in time 41 23 {'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'As', 'that', 'so'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'depict'}, 'prep': {'through', 'in', 'with', 'characteristicsof', 'at'}, 'pobj': {'Figure', 'dimensions', 'points', 'context', 'teraction', 'time'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dobj': {'the', 'interacts'}, 'relcl': {'dimension'}, 'det': {'all', 'what', 'the'}, 'amod': {'other', 'particular', 'different', 'in-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'learner', 'what'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'being'}, 'advcl': {'emphasized'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'deemphasized'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'learned'}} Long High High
4169 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In effect, because people as learnersdiffer greatly, different facets of the who are instantiated or become more salient as the particulars of the what andwhen of learning unfold in time and space 32 18 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'effect', 'andwhen', 'time', 'the', 'particulars'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'nsubj': {'people'}, 'advcl': {'learnersdiffer'}, 'advmod': {'greatly'}, 'amod': {'different', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'facets'}, 'nsubjpass': {'who'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'relcl': {'instantiated'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'space', 'become'}, 'attr': {'salient'}, 'det': {'what', 'the'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'unfold'}} Long High Medium
4170 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Dimension 4: The When of Learning Others have recognized, in their way, the what ,who, and where dimensions of human learning (Jenkins, 1974) 23 13 {'NOUN': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, DET, SCONJ, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'ROOT': {'Dimension'}, 'nummod': {'4'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ':', ')'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'When', 'where'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'Learning'}, 'nsubj': {'Others'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'acl': {'recognized'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'way'}, 'dep': {'what'}, 'conj': {'dimensions', 'who'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'human'}, 'appos': {'Jenkins'}, 'npadvmod': {'1974'}} Long High High
4171 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered How- ever, the fourth dimension in our topography has received less consideration especially in interaction with the afore- mentioned learning dimensions.Y et just as learning does notoccur in a vacuum, there is always a temporal nature to learn- ing 39 19 {'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NUM, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'dep': {'How-'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'especially', 'always', 'ever'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'fourth', 'temporal', 'less', 'afore-', 'mentioned'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'dimension', 'et'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'in'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'interaction', 'dimensions', 'learn-', 'topography', 'ing', 'vacuum'}, 'aux': {'has', 'does'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'received'}, 'dobj': {'consideration'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'Y'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'notoccur'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'attr': {'nature'}} Long High Medium
4172 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered As humans, our movements in the world are inevitably constrained both by time and space 15 8 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'As', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'world', 'humans', 'time'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubjpass': {'movements'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'inevitably'}, 'ROOT': {'constrained'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'space'}} Medium High Low
4173 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered With each impercepti-ble moment, the frame for learning has shifted, not merely because the place itself has changed (e.g., light refractions or creature movements), but because the learner himself orherself has changed, however inconspicuously, from Time 1 to Time 2 40 19 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PART, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, NUM, ADP, PROPN, NUM] {'prep': {'for', 'With', 'to', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'amod': {'impercepti', 'light', 'ble'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'Time', 'moment'}, 'nsubj': {'learner', 'place', 'frame'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'ROOT': {'shifted'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'merely', 'inconspicuously', 'however'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'appos': {'orherself', 'itself', 'himself'}, 'advcl': {'changed'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'dobj': {'refractions'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'compound': {'creature'}, 'conj': {'changed', 'movements'}, 'nummod': {'1', '2'}} Long High High
4174 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered It is precisely because of the invasiveness of time throughout this topography that we conceive of it as a force that must be addressed 24 17 {'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADV, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'It', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'precisely'}, 'prep': {'as', 'throughout', 'of', 'because'}, 'pcomp': {'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'force', 'topography', 'it', 'invasiveness', 'time'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'addressed', 'conceive'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Medium
4175 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We find that different renderings have in their purview, though rarely explicitly, many iterations and variations on the dimension of time, each representing different gradations inthe span of time considered or the distributions of events or the number of relevant experiences within a given interval of time 47 22 {'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 15, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 8, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 5} [PRON, ADJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'renderings', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'find'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'different', 'relevant', 'many', 'given'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'purview', 'experiences', 'time', 'interval', 'dimension', 'events'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'rarely', 'explicitly', 'though'}, 'dobj': {'gradations', 'iterations'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'number', 'variations', 'distributions'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'inthe'}, 'appos': {'span', 'each'}, 'acl': {'considered', 'representing'}} Long High High
4176 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Consider the time frames of evolutionary theories vis- `a-vis sociocultural, cognitive-contextual, developmental, and situated perspectives on learning 17 5 {'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'X': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, X, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, X, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'ROOT': {'Consider'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'time'}, 'dobj': {'perspectives', 'frames'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'amod': {'cognitive', 'evolutionary', 'sociocultural'}, 'pobj': {'theories'}, 'intj': {'vis-'}, 'punct': {',', '`', 'a', '-'}, 'advmod': {'vis'}, 'oprd': {'contextual'}, 'conj': {'situated', 'developmental'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Low
4177 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For evolutionary theorists,the course of time that is of importance can be millennia or eras, as their primary concern is the mental adaptation and the consequent development of the human species as a result of mutation and natural selection 39 21 {'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'For', 'of'}, 'amod': {'primary', 'consequent', 'mental', 'human', 'natural', 'evolutionary'}, 'pobj': {'theorists', 'mutation', 'species', 'importance', 'time', 'result'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'course', 'that', 'concern'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'adaptation', 'millennia'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'selection', 'eras', 'development'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'is'}} Long High Medium
4178 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Thus, one might study aspects of learning that are biologically primary (numeracy)or secondary (reading) or the role of evolved adaptation in human development (Ellis & Bjorklund, 2005; Geary, 2005; Pinker, 2002; Reynolds & Sinatra, 2005) 35 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 13, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'NUM': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'biologically'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'that'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'ROOT': {'study'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'aspects'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'adaptation', 'development'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'amod': {'secondary', 'primary', 'evolved', 'human'}, 'nmod': {'numeracy)or'}, 'attr': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'Geary', 'Bjorklund', 'Reynolds', 'Sinatra', 'Ellis', 'Pinker'}, 'npadvmod': {'2005'}, 'appos': {'2005', '2002'}} Long High Low
4179 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered From sociocultural perspectives, time is framed by the his- tory of a particular group, which could encompass months, years, or even centuries 22 10 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, NOUN] {'prep': {'From', 'of'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'his-', 'sociocultural'}, 'pobj': {'tory', 'perspectives', 'group'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'time'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'framed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'relcl': {'encompass'}, 'dobj': {'months'}, 'conj': {'years', 'centuries'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'advmod': {'even'}} Long High Low
4180 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Thus, one might study the cookie-selling practices of Girl Scouts (Rogoff, 1990), the ways in which graduate students come to adopt the proper stances, idiom, and understandings of a discipline (Fox, 1994), or themeaning and import of literacy to individuals born at different points in the 20th century (Brandt, 2001) 50 20 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 15, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'one'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'study'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'1990', 'ways', '1994', 'cookie', '2001'}, 'amod': {'different', '20th', 'selling', 'proper'}, 'dobj': {'stances', 'practices'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'graduate', 'Girl'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'century', 'discipline', 'Scouts', 'points', 'literacy', 'individuals'}, 'appos': {'Rogoff', 'Fox', 'Brandt'}, 'relcl': {'come'}, 'advcl': {'adopt'}, 'conj': {'import', 'themeaning', 'understandings', 'idiom'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'acl': {'born'}} Long High Low
4181 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The time perspec- tive of developmental psychologists, by comparison, is thehuman life span and the predictable neurobiological, motor, cognitive, socioemotional changes that come with matura- tion and experience 28 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'time', 'that', 'tive'}, 'amod': {'neurobiological', 'socioemotional', 'perspec-', 'developmental', 'predictable', 'matura-', 'cognitive'}, 'prep': {'by', 'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'comparison', 'tion', 'psychologists'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'compound': {'life', 'thehuman'}, 'attr': {'span'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'motor'}, 'conj': {'experience', 'changes'}, 'relcl': {'come'}} Long High Low
4182 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The characteristics of young children as learners may be compared to those of older children, ado- lescents, or adults 19 9 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubjpass': {'characteristics'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'ado-', 'young', 'older'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'children', 'those'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'compared'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'adults', 'lescents'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Medium High Low
4183 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered By comparison, theoretical perspectivesconcerned with learning in situ appear more concentrated on the immediate temporal unfolding and on how words, ac- tions, or cultural artifacts are plied by individuals or groupsaround shared problems or tasks 35 14 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'with', 'By', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'unfolding', 'situ', 'words', 'comparison', 'individuals'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'theoretical'}, 'ROOT': {'perspectivesconcerned'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'conj': {'plied', 'problems', 'artifacts', 'tasks', 'appear'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'oprd': {'concentrated'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'shared', 'immediate', 'cultural', 'temporal', 'how'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'ac-', 'groupsaround'}, 'nsubjpass': {'tions'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
4184 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Time plays another role in certain orientations when learning is attributed to the fre- quency with which individuals encounter certain conditionsor are embedded in particular experiences 26 10 {'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Time', 'individuals'}, 'ROOT': {'plays'}, 'det': {'another', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'role', 'conditionsor'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'in'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'particular'}, 'pobj': {'orientations', 'quency', 'experiences', 'which'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'nsubjpass': {'learning'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'are'}, 'advcl': {'attributed'}, 'compound': {'fre-'}, 'relcl': {'encounter'}, 'conj': {'embedded'}} Long High Medium
4185 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Here, it is not time itself that matters but the flow of experiences or the avail- ability of human and nonhuman resources that come with theflow of time 28 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'time', 'flow'}, 'appos': {'itself'}, 'ccomp': {'matters'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'resources', 'experiences', 'theflow', 'time'}, 'amod': {'avail-', 'human'}, 'conj': {'nonhuman', 'ability'}, 'relcl': {'come'}} Long High Low
4186 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The intersection of these time orientations with the what , who, and where dimensions of learning can be well illus- trated in the study of expertise development within complex domains (Alexander, 2003; Spiro et al., 1992) 36 17 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'the', 'The', 'these'}, 'ROOT': {'intersection'}, 'prep': {'with', 'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'time', 'expertise'}, 'pobj': {'what', 'orientations', 'domains', 'development', 'learning', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'who'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'where'}, 'nsubj': {'dimensions'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'conj': {'be', 'al', '.'}, 'relcl': {'illus-'}, 'acl': {'trated'}, 'amod': {'complex'}, 'appos': {'1992', 'Spiro', '2003', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Medium
4187 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For one, the ability of individuals to move out of a state of acclimation ornaivet ´e in any field is predicated in part on their level of neu- rological and biological development; that is, the mind and body must be at some sufficient level of maturation or expe- rience to benefit from any potentially educative event 56 32 {'ADP': 12, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 15, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'out', 'from', 'in', 'of', 'at', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'event', 'individuals', 'acclimation', 'state', 'field', 'part', 'development', 'maturation', 'one', 'level'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'some', 'any'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ability'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'acl': {'move'}, 'compound': {'ornaivet', '´'}, 'dobj': {'e'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'predicated'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'rological', 'neu-', 'sufficient', 'educative'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'body', 'biological', 'expe-'}, 'advmod': {'potentially', 'is', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'mind'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'rience'}, 'advcl': {'benefit'}} Long High Low
4188 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Also, there are characteristics of the learner (the who) that becomerelevant in such development in that individuals may be more or less predisposed to the neurobiological, physical, cogni- tive, social, and motivational demands associated with anyparticular domain 37 21 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PRON, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Also', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'characteristics'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'demands', 'learner', 'development'}, 'appos': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'becomerelevant'}, 'amod': {'neurobiological', 'anyparticular', 'social', 'such', 'physical'}, 'mark': {'that', 'in'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'motivational', 'less'}, 'acomp': {'predisposed'}, 'nmod': {'cogni-', 'tive'}, 'acl': {'associated'}} Long High High
4189 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered That is why individuals can be positioned at significantly different points in expertise development for each and every complex domain 20 11 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'That'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'significantly', 'why'}, 'nsubjpass': {'individuals'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'positioned'}, 'prep': {'for', 'at', 'in'}, 'amod': {'different', 'complex'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'points', 'development'}, 'compound': {'expertise'}, 'det': {'each'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'every'}} Long High Medium
4190 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The same person may wellbe acclimated in physics, competent in statistics, but expert in linguistics 15 7 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'amod': {'same'}, 'nsubj': {'person'}, 'aux': {'may', 'wellbe'}, 'ROOT': {'acclimated'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'physics', 'statistics', 'linguistics'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'competent'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'expert'}} Medium High Low
4191 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Moreover, the human and nonhuman resources that in- dividuals will require will shift as they gain facility in the domain and as central principles of the domain become part of their knowledge core 33 18 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'SCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'central', 'human'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'nonhuman'}, 'nsubj': {'resources', 'principles', 'they', 'dividuals'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'facility'}, 'compound': {'knowledge', 'in-'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'relcl': {'require'}, 'ROOT': {'shift'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'gain', 'become'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'domain', 'core'}, 'attr': {'part'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
4192 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Of course, it is also assumed that thejourney toward expertise means that the objects of learning 16 9 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of', 'also'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'assumed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'thejourney'}, 'prep': {'of', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'expertise'}, 'ccomp': {'means'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'objects'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High High
4193 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered 186 ALEXANDER, SCHALLERT, REYNOLDS become increasingly more complex and that the processes and products of learning mirror that growing complexity 20 8 {'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1} [NUM, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'nummod': {'186'}, 'nsubj': {'REYNOLDS', 'ALEXANDER'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'complexity', 'SCHALLERT'}, 'ROOT': {'become'}, 'advmod': {'increasingly', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'complex'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'conj': {'processes', 'products'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'mirror'}, 'amod': {'growing'}} Long High High
4194 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Also, it is well documented that the attainment of expertise in any complex domain requires an extended period, many thousands of relevant exposures, and the tapping into theknowledge of others (either with or without their explicit support and guidance) who have likewise attained expertise in that domain (Ericsson & Smith, 1991) 51 27 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'well', 'Also', 'likewise'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'documented'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'any', 'an', 'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'attainment', 'who'}, 'prep': {'into', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'exposures', 'expertise', 'others', 'support', 'domain', 'theknowledge'}, 'amod': {'many', 'relevant', 'explicit', 'complex', 'extended'}, 'ccomp': {'requires'}, 'dobj': {'period', 'expertise'}, 'npadvmod': {'1991', 'thousands'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'tapping', 'without', 'Smith', 'guidance'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'attained'}, 'appos': {'Ericsson'}} Long High Medium
4195 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered LEARNING DEFINED Now with the principles and dimensions of learning in place, we are ready to propose a definition of learning that operatesin concert with those principles and dimensions 29 15 {'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [VERB, PROPN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'LEARNING'}, 'dobj': {'concert', 'DEFINED', 'definition'}, 'advmod': {'Now'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'place', 'principles'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'dimensions'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'ready'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'propose'}, 'compound': {'operatesin'}} Long High Low
4196 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Learning is a multidimensional process that results in a rel- atively enduring change in a person or persons, and conse- quently how that person or persons will perceive the world and reciprocally respond to its affordances physically, psy-chologically, and socially 40 18 {'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 6, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV] {'nsubj': {'Learning', 'that', 'person'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'enduring', 'multidimensional'}, 'attr': {'process'}, 'relcl': {'results'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'nmod': {'rel-'}, 'advmod': {'physically', 'quently', 'socially', 'chologically', 'atively', 'reciprocally', 'how'}, 'pobj': {'change', 'affordances', 'person'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'respond', 'persons', 'conse-'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ccomp': {'perceive'}, 'dobj': {'world'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'acl': {'psy'}} Long High Medium
4197 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The process of learning has as its foundation the systemic, dynamic, and interactive relation between the nature of the learner and the object of the learn-ing as ecologically situated in a given time and place as well as over time 40 23 {'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 4} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'process'}, 'prep': {'in', 'between', 'of', 'as', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'-', 'foundation', 'learning', 'ing', 'nature', 'time', 'learner', 'learn'}, 'ROOT': {'has'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'amod': {'given', 'systemic'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'interactive', 'place', 'object', 'dynamic'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'dobj': {'relation'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advmod': {'ecologically', 'as', 'well'}, 'advcl': {'situated'}} Long High Low
4198 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Within formal logic, it is considered essential not just to establish what a thing is, but also to note what it is not (i.e.,antinomy) 24 16 {'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, PART, ADV, PART, VERB, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PART, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, PART, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'prep': {'Within'}, 'amod': {'formal'}, 'pobj': {'logic'}, 'punct': {',', ')', '(', ',antinomy'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}, 'oprd': {'essential'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'also'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'establish'}, 'attr': {'what'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'thing'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'note'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'i.e.'}} Long High Low
4199 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Similarly, we think that our definition of learn- ing would be inadequate if we were unable to specify some aspects of what learning is not 25 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, PART] {'advmod': {'Similarly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'definition'}, 'ROOT': {'think'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'learn-'}, 'pobj': {'ing'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'inadequate', 'unable'}, 'advcl': {'were'}, 'xcomp': {'specify'}, 'det': {'what', 'some'}, 'dobj': {'aspects'}, 'csubj': {'learning'}, 'pcomp': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High High
4200 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The principles that we pre- viously proffered serve us in this endeavor because certain characteristics of “not learning” are implicitly or explicitlystated within those principles 25 13 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, X, ADV, ADJ, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, PART, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'those', 'The', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'characteristics', 'we', 'principles'}, 'dobj': {'us', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'viously', 'pre-', 'implicitly'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'proffered'}, 'ROOT': {'serve'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'endeavor', 'principles'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'punct': {'”', '“'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'explicitlystated'}} Long High Medium
4201 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered First, all innate capacities, those genetically and biologically programmed inborn as- pects of our humanness, influence learning but are in andof themselves outside the parameters of learning as we have conceptualized it 32 16 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON] {'advmod': {'genetically', 'First', 'inborn'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'all', 'we', 'those'}, 'advcl': {'innate', 'conceptualized'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'pects', 'it', 'capacities'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'are', 'biologically'}, 'ROOT': {'programmed'}, 'amod': {'as-'}, 'prep': {'outside', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'humanness', 'andof', 'parameters', 'learning'}, 'compound': {'influence'}, 'appos': {'themselves'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'aux': {'have'}} Long High Medium
4202 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Second, and related to the issue of innate- ness, the biological/neurological maturation of the humanorganism in and of itself does not constitute learning 23 13 {'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'SYM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, SYM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Second'}, 'punct': {',', '/'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'related', 'of'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'itself', 'issue', 'humanorganism', 'ness'}, 'compound': {'innate-'}, 'amod': {'neurological', 'biological'}, 'appos': {'maturation'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'constitute'}, 'dobj': {'learning'}} Long High Low
4203 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Third, the simple recall of that which was previously learned does not constitute learning per se; only when recall results insome new configuration or change does it reach the level of learning 32 16 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, X, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'per', 'only', 'Third', 'when', 'previously', 'se'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'simple', 'new'}, 'nsubj': {'recall', 'results', 'it'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'relcl': {'learned'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'constitute'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'level', 'configuration'}, 'compound': {'recall'}, 'advcl': {'insome'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'change'}, 'ROOT': {'reach'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High Medium
4204 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Finally, although as sensory beings, humans are in continual physical contact with the world around them,only when those experiences leave some relatively enduring footprint do they fall within the realm of learning as we have defined it 37 21 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON] {'advmod': {'only', 'when', 'Finally', 'relatively'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as', 'although'}, 'prep': {'within', 'around', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'amod': {'continual', 'enduring', 'sensory', 'physical'}, 'pobj': {'them', 'world', 'learning', 'beings', 'contact', 'realm'}, 'nsubj': {'experiences', 'humans', 'we', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'leave', 'defined', 'are'}, 'det': {'some', 'the', 'those'}, 'dobj': {'it', 'footprint'}, 'aux': {'have', 'do'}, 'ROOT': {'fall'}} Long High High
4205 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered TOUCHSTONE CASES It is easy when dealing with fundamental constructs that describe human functioning to remain at an abstract level that does not allow for a valid test of notions against thecomplexities that a real learning situation would bring with it 41 20 {'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 3} [NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON] {'compound': {'learning', 'TOUCHSTONE'}, 'npadvmod': {'CASES'}, 'nsubj': {'situation', 'that', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'easy'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'remain', 'dealing'}, 'prep': {'at', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'against'}, 'amod': {'valid', 'human', 'fundamental', 'real', 'abstract'}, 'pobj': {'thecomplexities', 'it', 'test', 'constructs', 'level', 'notions'}, 'relcl': {'describe', 'allow', 'bring'}, 'dobj': {'functioning', 'that'}, 'aux': {'would', 'does', 'to'}, 'det': {'a', 'an'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Medium
4206 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Learning is often so associated with formal instructional settings that it is easy to forget how ubiquitous it is 19 11 {'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, PRON, AUX] {'nsubj': {'it', 'Learning'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'so', 'how'}, 'acomp': {'ubiquitous', 'associated', 'easy'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'formal'}, 'pobj': {'settings'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'forget'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}} Medium High Medium
4207 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Testing our developing notions about learning against different kinds of real-world situations challenges us to see whether ourviews are broad, comprehensive, and justifiable 23 10 {'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ] {'csubj': {'Testing'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'different', 'developing', 'real'}, 'dobj': {'notions'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of', 'against'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'pobj': {'kinds', 'situations'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'world'}, 'ROOT': {'challenges'}, 'nsubj': {'us', 'ourviews'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'see', 'are'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'acomp': {'broad'}, 'conj': {'comprehensive', 'justifiable'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Medium
4208 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The three examples we chose involve different kinds of learners, each learning something at different levels and in different placesand times 21 9 {'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'nsubj': {'each', 'we', 'examples'}, 'relcl': {'chose'}, 'ROOT': {'involve'}, 'amod': {'different'}, 'dobj': {'kinds', 'something'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'times', 'levels'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'in'}, 'compound': {'placesand'}} Long High Low
4209 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For each case, we attempt to establish why it represents learning and how it sits at the nexus of the primary dimensions within our topographical framework 26 15 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'at', 'within', 'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'each'}, 'pobj': {'nexus', 'dimensions', 'case', 'framework'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'attempt'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'establish'}, 'advmod': {'why', 'how'}, 'ccomp': {'represents'}, 'dobj': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sits'}, 'amod': {'topographical', 'primary'}, 'poss': {'our'}} Long High High
4210 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Case 1: Biting Into a Cherry When Diane’s son, Robbie, was barely 2 years old, he had acquired some degree of experience with eating an array of“adult” foods 28 11 {'NOUN': 9, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, NUM, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'he', 'son', 'Case'}, 'nummod': {'1', '2'}, 'punct': {',', ':', '”'}, 'acl': {'Biting'}, 'prep': {'with', 'Into', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'experience', 'Cherry'}, 'advmod': {'When', 'barely'}, 'poss': {'Diane'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'appos': {'Robbie'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'npadvmod': {'years'}, 'acomp': {'old'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'ROOT': {'acquired'}, 'dobj': {'foods', 'of“adult', 'degree'}, 'pcomp': {'eating'}, 'nmod': {'array'}} Long High Medium
4211 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered One might even say that he was skilled at bringing a spoon up to his mouth and swallowing yogurt or cereal he had scooped onto it from a bowl.Y et it oftenhappened that he would face some new substance and would have to learn about it, not only whether it was edible but also such characteristics as how it looked, how one should hold itto eat it, what to do with it in the mouth, and how it tasted 79 56 {'PRON': 15, 'AUX': 7, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 13, 'SCONJ': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 9, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 3} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PART, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB] {'nsubj': {'itto', 'he', 'One', 'it', 'one'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to', 'would', 'should', 'had'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'even', 'how'}, 'ROOT': {'say', 'oftenhappened'}, 'mark': {'that', 'whether'}, 'ccomp': {'scooped', 'face', 'was', 'eat'}, 'acomp': {'edible', 'skilled'}, 'prep': {'onto', 'at', 'from', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'about', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'looked', 'bringing'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'some'}, 'dobj': {'spoon', 'substance', 'what', 'it', 'yogurt'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'bowl', 'it', 'mouth'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'conj': {'hold', 'was', 'characteristics', 'cereal', 'swallowing', 'tasted', 'have'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'compound': {'Y'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'amod': {'such', 'new'}, 'xcomp': {'do', 'learn'}, 'preconj': {'not'}} Long High High
4212 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered On a particular day, Robbie grabbed a cherry as his mother looked on, popped it into his mouth, and bit down 21 11 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP] {'prep': {'on', 'into', 'On'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'particular'}, 'pobj': {'day', 'mouth'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'Robbie', 'mother'}, 'ROOT': {'grabbed'}, 'dobj': {'it', 'cherry'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'advcl': {'looked'}, 'conj': {'bit', 'popped'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'prt': {'down'}} Long High Medium
4213 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Whatmade this otherwise insignificant step in Robbie’s knowledge acquisition of “cherry-as-foodstuff” memorable was the look of sharp surprise he displayed as his teeth met the pit of the cherry straight on 31 16 {'VERB': 3, 'DET': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV] {'advcl': {'met', 'Whatmade'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'advmod': {'straight', 'otherwise'}, 'amod': {'sharp', 'insignificant'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'teeth', 'step'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'Robbie', 'his'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'knowledge'}, 'pobj': {'surprise', 'memorable', 'acquisition', 'foodstuff', 'cherry'}, 'punct': {'-', '”', '“'}, 'nmod': {'cherry'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'look'}, 'relcl': {'displayed'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'dobj': {'pit'}} Long High Medium
4214 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered It was clear that he had not “predicted” a cherry pit and that he did not, in some essential way, knowhow to eat a cherry 25 16 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'he', 'It', 'knowhow'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'clear'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'did', 'had', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'ccomp': {'predicted'}, 'det': {'a', 'some'}, 'compound': {'cherry'}, 'dobj': {'cherry', 'pit'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'amod': {'essential'}, 'pobj': {'way'}, 'conj': {'eat'}} Long High High
4215 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Where an adult carefully, albeit often automatically, negotiates the teeth around the center of the cherry and squeezes down making sure that the juice of thefruit stays inside the lips, Robbie had bit hard into the center of the cherry and had made bright red juice spurt out down the front of hisT -shirt 54 27 {'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 9, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Where', 'carefully', 'hard', 'albeit', 'often', 'automatically'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'Robbie', 'juice', 'adult'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'negotiates'}, 'dobj': {'teeth'}, 'prep': {'down', 'around', 'inside', 'into', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'center', 'front', '-shirt', 'lips', 'cherry', 'thefruit'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'made', 'squeezes'}, 'prt': {'out', 'down'}, 'xcomp': {'making'}, 'acomp': {'sure'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'stays', 'spurt'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'ROOT': {'bit'}, 'amod': {'bright', 'red', 'hisT'}} Long High High
4216 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Even by his second cherry, he wasmore cautious in biting, more careful about the mess of the juice, and more eager to reproduce the taste of the fruit 28 16 {'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'wasmore', 'Even'}, 'prep': {'by', 'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'amod': {'second'}, 'pobj': {'juice', 'cherry', 'mess', 'fruit'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'he'}, 'ROOT': {'cautious'}, 'pcomp': {'biting'}, 'acomp': {'careful'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'eager'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'reproduce'}, 'dobj': {'taste'}} Long High Low
4217 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered He had learned how to eat cherries, or more accurately, how notto eat them, adjusting his teeth and lips so as to avoid painful effects 25 13 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'notto', 'He'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'learned'}, 'advmod': {'accurately', 'more', 'how'}, 'xcomp': {'eat'}, 'dobj': {'effects', 'teeth', 'cherries', 'them'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'lips', 'eat'}, 'advcl': {'avoid', 'adjusting'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'mark': {'as', 'so'}, 'amod': {'painful'}} Long High High
4218 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered According to our learning framework, Robbie was devel- oping a simple set of acquired actions (habits) and responding to the effect of the punishing stimulation coming from the pain of biting into a hard substance and of spoiling his fa- voriteT -shirt with red cherry juice 46 19 {'VERB': 9, 'ADP': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'DET': 5, 'CCONJ': 2} [VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, ADJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN] {'prep': {'from', 'to', 'According', 'into', 'with', 'of'}, 'poss': {'our', 'his'}, 'amod': {'simple', 'fa-', 'acquired', 'punishing', 'hard', 'learning', 'red'}, 'pobj': {'substance', 'juice', 'actions', 'effect', 'framework', 'stimulation', 'pain'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Robbie'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'devel-'}, 'advcl': {'oping'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'-shirt', 'set'}, 'appos': {'habits'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'responding', 'of'}, 'acl': {'coming'}, 'pcomp': {'biting', 'spoiling'}, 'compound': {'voriteT', 'cherry'}} Long High Low
4219 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered What he had to learn in this situation—how to chew and how to position his mouthwith this new food—could not easily be acquired by imitation as most of what needed to be discovered was hidden from view.Y et his own physical sensations could “teach” him whatto do in this case 50 32 {'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 6, 'PART': 5, 'VERB': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [PRON, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What', 'mouthwith', 'whatto', 'food'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'sensations', 'what', 'et'}, 'csubjpass': {'had'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'discovered', 'chew', 'learn'}, 'prep': {'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'situation', 'case', 'imitation', 'view'}, 'punct': {'.', '”', '—', '“'}, 'advmod': {'easily', 'how'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'position'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'amod': {'own', 'physical', 'new'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'was'}, 'ROOT': {'acquired', 'do'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubjpass': {'most'}, 'pcomp': {'needed'}, 'advcl': {'hidden'}, 'compound': {'him', 'Y'}, 'relcl': {'teach'}} Long High High
4220 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Because Robbie was learning in a particular context, rep- resented by the physical environment (e.g., the objects on thepicnic table on the family patio, the presence of his mom and dad, the smells and tastes of the food, or the pain of having 43 21 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 8, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 14, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [SCONJ, PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'mark': {'Because'}, 'nsubj': {'Robbie'}, 'aux': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'learning'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'physical'}, 'pobj': {'table', 'food', 'patio', 'mom', 'context', 'environment'}, 'punct': {',', '('}, 'dep': {'rep-'}, 'acl': {'resented'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'parataxis': {'objects'}, 'compound': {'family', 'thepicnic'}, 'dobj': {'presence'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'dad', 'tastes', 'pain'}, 'appos': {'smells'}, 'pcomp': {'having'}} Long High Medium
4221 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered LEARNING TOPOGRAPHY 187 bit into it wrong) and the social/cultural context (e.g., that his family loved cherries, that they saw them as a treat, or that they ate them directly out of a bowl) influenced whether he would want to have a cherry again, let alone know how to eat it 51 29 {'VERB': 10, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 8, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'SYM': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'SCONJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2} [VERB, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, SYM, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON] {'csubj': {'LEARNING'}, 'dobj': {'TOPOGRAPHY', 'them', 'it', 'cherry', 'cherries'}, 'nummod': {'187'}, 'npadvmod': {'bit'}, 'prep': {'into', 'as', 'out', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'bowl', 'it', 'treat'}, 'advmod': {'directly', 'alone', 'wrong', 'again', 'how'}, 'punct': {'(', '/', ',', ')'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'social', 'cultural'}, 'nsubj': {'family', 'they', 'he', 'context'}, 'appos': {'e.g.'}, 'mark': {'that', 'whether'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'relcl': {'loved', 'saw'}, 'conj': {'influenced', 'let', 'ate'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'want'}, 'xcomp': {'have', 'eat'}, 'ROOT': {'know'}} Long High High
4222 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered His learning was shaped by who he was as a learner ofcherry eating, his motives and likes, his ability to figure out how to position body parts so as to avoid pain and gain tasty sensations, his current level of maturation and knowledgedevelopment about this small domain, his favored status in his indulgent parents’ eyes, and a host of other characteris- tics that made him learn as he did on that particular occasion.Finally, because of his age and the number of times he had previously eaten a cherry, a trajectory to his learning could be envisioned even then 98 55 {'PRON': 14, 'NOUN': 25, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 11, 'ADP': 11, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 9, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PART': 3, 'SCONJ': 5, 'ADV': 4} [PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ...] {'poss': {'His', 'his', 'parents'}, 'nsubjpass': {'learning', 'trajectory'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'was'}, 'ROOT': {'eaten', 'shaped'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'attr': {'who'}, 'nsubj': {'him', 'he', 'that'}, 'pcomp': {'was', 'of'}, 'prep': {'on', 'because', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'favored', 'tasty', 'current', 'other', 'characteris-', 'indulgent', 'small', 'particular', 'learner'}, 'compound': {'ofcherry', 'body'}, 'pobj': {'age', 'tics', 'learning', 'eyes', 'times', 'occasion', 'maturation', 'eating', 'domain'}, 'punct': {',', '.', '’'}, 'conj': {'likes', 'host', 'knowledgedevelopment', 'envisioned', 'ability', 'number', 'motives', 'gain'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'could', 'had', 'to'}, 'acl': {'figure'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'advmod': {'previously', 'Finally', 'then', 'even', 'how'}, 'xcomp': {'position'}, 'dobj': {'pain', 'cherry', 'parts', 'sensations'}, 'mark': {'as', 'so'}, 'advcl': {'did', 'avoid'}, 'appos': {'status', 'level'}, 'relcl': {'made'}, 'ccomp': {'learn'}} Long High High
4223 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Now at the age of 30, Robbie caneat cherries with the best of them 14 8 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADP, PRON] {'intj': {'Now'}, 'prep': {'with', 'at', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'age', '30', 'best', 'them'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'Robbie', 'caneat'}, 'ROOT': {'cherries'}} Medium High Low
4224 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The acquired habit and conditioned response this child had learned would be immediately understood by a learningtheorist coming from a behaviorist perspective, although the details of context, personal motives, and interpretations of the experience would likely be seen as unnecessary and distract- ing 43 20 {'DET': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 12, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'conditioned', 'acquired', 'unnecessary'}, 'nsubjpass': {'details', 'habit'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'distract-', 'motives', 'interpretations', 'response'}, 'nsubj': {'child'}, 'aux': {'would', 'had'}, 'relcl': {'learned'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'immediately', 'likely'}, 'ROOT': {'understood'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'perspective', 'context', 'ing', 'learningtheorist', 'experience'}, 'acl': {'coming'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'from'}, 'compound': {'behaviorist'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'advcl': {'seen'}} Long High Medium
4225 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Such a view might even downplay the importance of the maturational level of the learner even as it placed emphasison the feedback loop created by the pain sensations (and in less restrictive versions of the theory, the frustration of hav- ing spoiled a favorite shirt) on the acquisition of the properbehavioral production routines 53 27 {'DET': 12, 'NOUN': 18, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'predet': {'Such'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'frustration', 'it', 'view'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'even'}, 'ROOT': {'downplay'}, 'dobj': {'loop', 'importance', 'shirt', 'emphasison'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'properbehavioral', 'favorite', 'maturational', 'restrictive'}, 'pobj': {'versions', 'theory', 'learner', 'ing', 'acquisition', 'routines', 'level', 'sensations'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'placed'}, 'compound': {'pain', 'hav-', 'feedback', 'production'}, 'acl': {'created'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'spoiled'}} Long High Medium
4226 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered By contrast, a sociocultural view might emphasize the meaning of a family picnic as a context to a child being introduced to a new food while over-looking, perhaps, the working out of the proper lip, teeth, and tongue movements required in eating a cherry properly 45 23 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 9, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV] {'prep': {'out', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'By'}, 'pobj': {'food', 'contrast', 'context', 'picnic', 'child', 'lip'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'proper', 'new', 'sociocultural'}, 'nsubj': {'view'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'ROOT': {'emphasize'}, 'dobj': {'cherry', 'meaning'}, 'compound': {'family', 'tongue'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'acl': {'required', 'introduced'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advmod': {'perhaps', 'properly', 'over'}, 'advcl': {'looking', 'working'}, 'conj': {'teeth', 'movements'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pcomp': {'eating'}} Long High Medium
4227 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered A cognitive-constructivist, on the other hand, might employthis case to illustrate the manner in which Robbie’s lack of experience and his still emerging schema for fruit-eating led to the undesired event and how this particular experiencewould likely add salient information to his mental model for cherry consumption 47 23 {'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'employthis', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'emerging', 'mental', 'other', 'undesired', 'salient', 'cognitive'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'particular', 'constructivist'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'event', 'consumption', 'hand', 'model', 'eating', 'experience'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to', 'experiencewould'}, 'appos': {'case'}, 'acl': {'illustrate'}, 'dobj': {'manner', 'information'}, 'poss': {'Robbie', 'his'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'relcl': {'lack'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'how', 'likely', 'still'}, 'conj': {'add', 'schema'}, 'compound': {'cherry', 'fruit'}, 'ROOT': {'led'}} Long High Medium
4228 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Case 2: Crossing the Via dei Fori Imperiali in Rome In the second case, we describe what happened when Ralph, on a first visit to Rome, had the occasion to cross one of themajor streets in Rome 37 17 {'NOUN': 7, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NUM, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN] {'dep': {'Case'}, 'nummod': {'2'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'acl': {'Crossing', 'cross'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'themajor', 'Fori', 'Via'}, 'dobj': {'dei', 'one', 'occasion', 'Imperiali'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'case', 'Rome', 'visit', 'streets'}, 'amod': {'second', 'first'}, 'nsubj': {'Ralph', 'what', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'describe'}, 'ccomp': {'happened'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'advcl': {'had'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Medium
4229 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Taking off on foot from his hotel, he had already spent several hours navigating the ruins of the old Forum when he decided to visit the Piazza Campo de Fiori designed by Michelangelo 33 16 {'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PROPN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, ADP, PROPN] {'advcl': {'Taking', 'decided'}, 'prt': {'off'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'Forum', 'hotel', 'Michelangelo', 'foot'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'he'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'already', 'when'}, 'ROOT': {'spent'}, 'amod': {'several', 'old'}, 'dobj': {'ruins', 'hours', 'Fiori'}, 'xcomp': {'navigating', 'visit'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'Campo', 'de', 'Piazza'}, 'acl': {'designed'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
4230 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Nothing particularly remarkable happened as he crossed several smaller streets on his waybut then he came to an extremely large street, Via dei Fori Imperiali, six lanes wide with vehicles crowding every lane and moving at a daunting rate of speed 41 18 {'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, ADV, ADJ, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADV, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'he', 'Nothing'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'particularly', 'extremely'}, 'amod': {'remarkable', 'smaller', 'daunting', 'large', 'several'}, 'ROOT': {'happened'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'crossed', 'wide'}, 'dobj': {'streets', 'lane'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'at'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'waybut', 'vehicles', 'speed', 'rate', 'street'}, 'conj': {'moving', 'came'}, 'det': {'every', 'a', 'an'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'dei', 'Fori', 'Via'}, 'dep': {'Imperiali'}, 'nummod': {'six'}, 'npadvmod': {'lanes'}, 'acl': {'crowding'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Medium
4231 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Although critical elements of Ralph’s well-learned, Amer- ican street-crossing schema did not seem to apply, they did guide his attention in the search for a solution, a process thatin this rendering may seem much more protracted and analyt- ical than it actually was 43 25 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 3, 'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'AUX': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, AUX] {'mark': {'than', 'Although'}, 'amod': {'crossing', 'ican', 'learned', 'critical'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'process', 'elements', 'they'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'Ralph', 'his'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'advmod': {'analyt-', 'much', 'well', 'actually', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nmod': {'Amer-'}, 'npadvmod': {'street'}, 'pobj': {'solution', 'search', 'schema'}, 'aux': {'did', 'may', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'seem', 'was'}, 'xcomp': {'apply'}, 'ccomp': {'guide'}, 'dobj': {'rendering', 'attention'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'csubj': {'thatin'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'oprd': {'protracted'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ical'}} Long High High
4232 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered First, he looked for a streetlight thatwould stop the traffic, immediately ascertaining that there were none in sight 18 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'immediately', 'First'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'he'}, 'ROOT': {'looked'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'streetlight', 'sight'}, 'aux': {'thatwould'}, 'advcl': {'ascertaining', 'stop'}, 'dobj': {'traffic'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'attr': {'none'}} Medium High Medium
4233 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Next, he looked for a corner from which to cross, only to discover that, although some corners did in- deed have pedestrian crossing markings, the people driving the cars seemed to pay no attention to them, never stoppingor even reducing speed 41 23 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'even', 'Next', 'in-'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'corners', 'he', 'people'}, 'ccomp': {'looked'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'no', 'the', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'them', 'corner'}, 'aux': {'did', 'deed', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'cross'}, 'advcl': {'have', 'discover'}, 'dobj': {'speed', 'cars', 'markings', 'attention', 'that'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'compound': {'crossing', 'pedestrian'}, 'acl': {'driving'}, 'ROOT': {'seemed'}, 'xcomp': {'reducing', 'pay'}, 'neg': {'never'}, 'dep': {'stoppingor'}} Long High High
4234 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Hesitating as to what to do next, he noticed that the native Romans were crossing the street, albeit quickly and with great agility, by simply wading intothe traffic, crossing one lane at a time whenever even the smallest traffic gap occurred, standing on the lane marker when their progress stalled, and moving ahead when anotheropening came 56 26 {'VERB': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'SCONJ': 5, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, ADP, ADP, PRON, PART, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, PROPN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, VERB, DET, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADV, DET, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB] {'advcl': {'stalled', 'came', 'crossing', 'Hesitating', 'standing'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'to', 'by', 'as'}, 'dobj': {'lane', 'what', 'traffic', 'street'}, 'aux': {'to', 'were'}, 'pcomp': {'wading', 'do'}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'when', 'whenever', 'albeit', 'even', 'ahead', 'quickly', 'next'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'gap', 'Romans', 'progress', 'anotheropening', 'he'}, 'ROOT': {'noticed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'intothe', 'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'native', 'great', 'smallest'}, 'ccomp': {'crossing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'with', 'moving'}, 'pobj': {'marker', 'time', 'agility'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'compound': {'lane', 'traffic'}, 'relcl': {'occurred'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
4235 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered He watched for another minute, launched into the traffic crossing as the natives had crossed, and soon foundhimself on the other side of the street 25 15 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'natives', 'He'}, 'ROOT': {'watched'}, 'prep': {'into', 'for', 'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'another', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'crossing', 'minute', 'side', 'street'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'launched', 'crossed'}, 'compound': {'traffic'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'soon'}, 'conj': {'foundhimself'}, 'amod': {'other'}} Long High Medium
4236 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Some of the same well-learned motor and sensory- perceptual skills acquired as part of his American street-crossing schema had served him well 22 13 {'PRON': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADV] {'nsubj': {'Some'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'perceptual', 'American', 'crossing', 'same', 'learned'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'nmod': {'motor'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sensory-'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'schema', 'part'}, 'acl': {'acquired'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'npadvmod': {'street'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'ROOT': {'served'}, 'dobj': {'him'}} Long High Low
4237 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered However, Ralph had learned a host of new things about crossing a street from his experience in Rome, changes in how he should propel him- self, staccato-style, across the street, attitudes about stepping into traffic, signs that it was acceptable to force himself intotraffic in this way, and appreciation of the drivers’ intentions to maneuver around pedestrians 57 29 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADP': 11, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'intotraffic', 'how'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'it', 'Ralph'}, 'aux': {'should', 'had', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'learned'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'self', 'street', 'himself', 'host'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'into', 'of', 'about', 'across'}, 'amod': {'new'}, 'pobj': {'way', 'intentions', 'traffic', 'Rome', 'things', 'street', 'pedestrians', 'experience'}, 'pcomp': {'crossing', 'propel', 'stepping'}, 'poss': {'his', 'drivers'}, 'conj': {'changes', 'signs', 'style', 'attitudes', 'appreciation'}, 'dep': {'him-'}, 'compound': {'staccato'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'maneuver', 'was'}, 'acomp': {'acceptable'}, 'xcomp': {'force'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'prt': {'around'}} Long High High
4238 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In this new context, the how of crossing the street certainly had been changed 14 8 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, SCONJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'In', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'new'}, 'pobj': {'context'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'how'}, 'pcomp': {'crossing'}, 'dobj': {'street'}, 'advmod': {'certainly'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'changed'}} Medium High Medium
4239 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The speedwith which he had learned the new procedure was remark- able, reflecting some of his abilities as an athlete and his sangfroid in a new situation 27 15 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'speedwith'}, 'dobj': {'which', 'procedure', 'some'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'relcl': {'learned'}, 'amod': {'new'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'remark-'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'reflecting'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'situation', 'athlete', 'abilities'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sangfroid'}} Long High Low
4240 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered By the time his wife, Bonnie,joined him from the States a few days later, he had become extremely adept at crossing the street and was surprised at her reluctance when he tried to take her hand and help hercross the street, Roman style 43 24 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'PRON': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, PROPN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'at', 'By', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'States', 'time', 'reluctance'}, 'poss': {'his', 'her'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'wife'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'Bonnie'}, 'ROOT': {'joined'}, 'dobj': {'him', 'hand', 'street'}, 'amod': {'few', 'Roman'}, 'npadvmod': {'days', 'style'}, 'advmod': {'later', 'when', 'extremely'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'conj': {'help', 'was', 'become'}, 'acomp': {'surprised', 'adept'}, 'pcomp': {'crossing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advcl': {'tried'}, 'xcomp': {'take', 'hercross'}} Long High Medium
4241 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered She reacted by pulling her hand out of his with a look of alarm and resolutely remained stuck to the curb watching him show off his newly acquiredskill 28 16 {'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADV, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'She', 'him'}, 'ROOT': {'reacted'}, 'prep': {'out', 'to', 'by', 'with', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'pulling'}, 'poss': {'his', 'her'}, 'dobj': {'hand'}, 'pobj': {'alarm', 'curb', 'his', 'look'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'resolutely'}, 'conj': {'remained'}, 'acomp': {'stuck'}, 'acl': {'watching'}, 'ccomp': {'show'}, 'prt': {'off'}, 'amod': {'newly'}, 'npadvmod': {'acquiredskill'}} Long High Low
4242 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered With all the differences between them relative to this particular learning occasion, it is perhaps not surprising that Bonnie resisted somewhat longer in adopting the “Roman”street-crossing routine, but soon came to see this response as necessary and not as life-threatening as she initially thought 44 24 {'SCONJ': 3, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 5, 'PART': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, DET, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, PART, ADJ, SCONJ, PROPN, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, PART, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB] {'mark': {'as', 'With', 'that'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'she', 'it', 'Bonnie', 'differences'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'in', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'threatening', 'them', 'occasion'}, 'advcl': {'thought', 'see', 'relative'}, 'amod': {'crossing', 'particular', 'necessary'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'Roman”street'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '“'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'initially', 'somewhat', 'longer', 'soon', 'perhaps'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'surprising'}, 'ccomp': {'resisted'}, 'pcomp': {'adopting'}, 'dobj': {'routine', 'response'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'came'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'npadvmod': {'life'}} Long High High
4243 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered To us, this case is a useful illustration of learning for multiple reasons 13 7 {'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, PRON, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'To', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'reasons', 'us'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'case'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'useful'}, 'attr': {'illustration'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Low
4244 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We see that the what of the learning has many of the features of spontaneous concepts and actionsdiscussed earlier 19 13 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADV] {'nsubj': {'what', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'concepts', 'features'}, 'ccomp': {'has'}, 'dobj': {'many'}, 'amod': {'spontaneous'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'actionsdiscussed'}, 'advmod': {'earlier'}} Medium High Medium
4245 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Being nested in the current physical and cultural context of Rome and heeding the movements and behaviors of those around him proved sufficient for Ralph—an experienced traveler—to master the art of Roman street crossing 34 17 {'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PROPN': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1} [AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'auxpass': {'Being'}, 'ROOT': {'nested'}, 'prep': {'for', 'around', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'experienced', 'Roman', 'physical', 'current'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'behaviors', 'heeding', 'proved', 'cultural'}, 'pobj': {'him', 'Ralph', 'crossing', 'context', 'those', 'Rome'}, 'dobj': {'movements', 'art'}, 'oprd': {'sufficient'}, 'punct': {'—'}, 'appos': {'traveler'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'master'}, 'compound': {'street'}} Long High Low
4246 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered No formal instruction in this process was sought, and none was required 12 7 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'No', 'this'}, 'amod': {'formal'}, 'nsubjpass': {'none', 'instruction'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'process'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'required'}} Medium High Low
4247 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In terms of the where dimension, it is quite evident that these pedestrian conventions were not broadly generalizable but rather more closely tied to a given local context 28 16 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'dimension', 'terms', 'context'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'given', 'where', 'local'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'conventions', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'broadly', 'rather', 'quite', 'closely', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'generalizable', 'evident'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'pedestrian'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'tied'}} Long High High
4248 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Ralph and Bonnie knew immediately that totry crossing a street in Los Angeles, NewY ork, or London in the Roman way would lead to the disaster anticipated by Bonnie on her first attempt in Rome 35 14 {'PROPN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'ork', 'Ralph'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Bonnie', 'London'}, 'ROOT': {'knew'}, 'advmod': {'immediately'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'Los', 'NewY', 'totry'}, 'acl': {'crossing', 'anticipated'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'street'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'disaster', 'way', 'attempt', 'Angeles', 'Bonnie', 'Rome'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'Roman', 'first'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'lead'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'her'}} Long High Medium
4249 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Still, there is everyreason to assume that Ralph and Bonnie will not soon forget 14 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'soon', 'Still'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'everyreason'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'relcl': {'assume'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'Ralph'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Bonnie'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'forget'}} Medium High Medium
4250 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered 188 ALEXANDER, SCHALLERT, REYNOLDS the routine they had acquired, and this durability is further evidence that learning had, indeed, taken place 21 10 {'NUM': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, AUX, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'nummod': {'188'}, 'ROOT': {'ALEXANDER'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'SCHALLERT', 'routine'}, 'conj': {'is', 'REYNOLDS'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'they', 'durability'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'relcl': {'acquired'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'further'}, 'attr': {'evidence'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'had', 'taken'}, 'advmod': {'indeed'}, 'dobj': {'place'}} Long High Medium
4251 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Different aspects of this case would likely be appealing to those holding to diverse perspectives on learning 17 8 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'amod': {'Different'}, 'nsubj': {'aspects'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'case', 'those'}, 'aux': {'would', 'be', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'likely'}, 'ROOT': {'appealing'}, 'acl': {'holding'}, 'advcl': {'diverse'}, 'dobj': {'perspectives'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Medium High Low
4252 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For in- stance, situated cognitivists would find intriguing Ralph’ sreading of the immediate context and of the affordances it provided and would focus on how and why Ralph responded as he did at that given moment 36 19 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 3} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'at', 'For', 'of'}, 'amod': {'situated', 'immediate', 'in-', 'given'}, 'pobj': {'stance', 'moment', 'affordances', 'context'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'it', 'Ralph', 'cognitivists'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'advmod': {'find', 'why', 'how'}, 'ROOT': {'intriguing'}, 'nmod': {'Ralph'}, 'dobj': {'sreading'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'of', 'focus'}, 'relcl': {'provided'}, 'pcomp': {'responded'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'did'}} Long High High
4253 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Conversely, a sociocultur-alist might be drawn to the street crossing routine that a “foreigner” might need to adopt in order to function within this environment, focusing on the coregulations occurringbetween walkers and drivers navigating the Via dei Fori Im- periali at the same time 44 21 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 14, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Conversely'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'crossing', 'dei', 'Im-', 'Via', 'sociocultur', 'street', 'Fori'}, 'nsubjpass': {'alist'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'drawn'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to', 'in', 'at'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'coregulations', 'routine', 'time', 'environment'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'foreigner'}, 'acl': {'navigating', 'function', 'need'}, 'xcomp': {'adopt'}, 'advcl': {'focusing'}, 'amod': {'occurringbetween', 'same'}, 'dobj': {'periali', 'walkers'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'drivers'}} Long High Medium
4254 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered A cognitive-constructivist might be interested in the knowledge that Ralph and Bonnie ac-quired from this experience, and how each of their existing conceptions of street crossing interacted with the new expe- rience and was changed, either moderately or radically, as aresult of this memorable occasion 45 24 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2} [DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'memorable', 'new', 'expe-', 'cognitive'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'Ralph', 'each', 'constructivist'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'interested'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'conceptions', 'crossing', 'knowledge', 'aresult', 'occasion', 'rience', 'experience'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'changed', '-', 'ac', 'radically', 'Bonnie', 'interacted'}, 'relcl': {'quired'}, 'advmod': {'moderately', 'how'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'street'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'preconj': {'either'}} Long High Medium
4255 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered A cognitive-evolutionist, by comparison, might be fascinated with the way in which Ralph, as representative of his species, had the capability to deal with the myriad of stimuli bombarding him in this mod- ern urban setting, to discern a sophisticated pattern withinthat myriad of stimuli, and to respond adroitly to the causal implications suggested by the emerging pattern in a manner that ensured his survival and achieved his goals 69 35 {'DET': 9, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 17, 'ADP': 12, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 10, 'PRON': 7, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'representative', 'urban', 'emerging', 'ern', 'mod-', 'sophisticated', 'cognitive'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'evolutionist'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'by', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'way', 'manner', 'stimuli', 'implications', 'species', 'setting', 'comparison', 'pattern'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'fascinated'}, 'nsubj': {'withinthat', 'that', 'Ralph', 'myriad'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'relcl': {'had', 'ensured', 'myriad'}, 'dobj': {'him', 'goals', 'capability', 'survival', 'pattern'}, 'acl': {'suggested', 'deal'}, 'pcomp': {'bombarding'}, 'advcl': {'discern'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'respond', 'achieved'}, 'advmod': {'adroitly'}, 'compound': {'causal'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
4256 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Case 3: Learning to Write an Academic Paper in a New Discipline In our third case, we focus on a critical task that students face when admitted to graduate school, learning how to write in ways deemed acceptable to the field 41 18 {'NOUN': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 9, 'PART': 3, 'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 2} [NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'students', 'we', 'Case'}, 'nummod': {'3'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'appos': {'Learning'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'graduate', 'Write', 'write'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'New', 'Academic'}, 'dobj': {'Paper', 'that', 'school'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'Discipline', 'field', 'task', 'case'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'third', 'critical'}, 'ROOT': {'focus'}, 'relcl': {'face'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'how'}, 'advcl': {'learning', 'admitted'}, 'acl': {'deemed'}, 'oprd': {'acceptable'}} Long High High
4257 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Patricia’s office at the University of Maryland is normally full of activity, with stu-dents and colleagues dropping by frequently to ask questions and share observations and insights 27 13 {'PROPN': 4, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 2} [PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'Patricia'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'dents', 'office'}, 'prep': {'with', 'at', 'by', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'University', 'Maryland', 'activity'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'normally', 'frequently'}, 'acomp': {'full'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'share', 'stu'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'observations', 'colleagues', 'insights'}, 'pcomp': {'dropping'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'ask'}, 'dobj': {'questions'}} Long High Low
4258 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered However, this apparentinformality belies the serious nature of the learning taking place 12 6 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'apparentinformality'}, 'ROOT': {'belies'}, 'amod': {'serious'}, 'dobj': {'nature', 'place'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning'}, 'acl': {'taking'}} Medium High Low
4259 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Like many doctoral students elsewhere, Patricia’s stu- dents must learn to write for publication in their field and, forthose involved more closely in assisting her in her editorial duties, they must develop the skills and insights about aca- demic writing that come from being involved in the complexrole of editorial assistant 51 25 {'ADP': 9, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'PRON': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'X': 1} [ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, X, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'from', 'for', 'in', 'of', 'Like', 'about'}, 'amod': {'many', 'demic', 'editorial', 'doctoral'}, 'pobj': {'publication', 'complexrole', 'writing', 'assistant', 'students', 'field', 'duties'}, 'advmod': {'closely', 'elsewhere', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'Patricia', 'their', 'her'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'stu-'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'forthose', 'dents', 'they'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'advcl': {'learn'}, 'xcomp': {'write'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'involved', 'insights'}, 'pcomp': {'involved', 'assisting'}, 'dobj': {'skills', 'her'}, 'ROOT': {'develop'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'aca-'}, 'relcl': {'come'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}} Long High Low
4260 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered What Patricia’s students are required to master include the syntactic and stylistic conventions and regulations of pub- lishing in their field (i.e., AP A style) 25 11 {'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'X': 1} [PRON, PROPN, PART, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'dobj': {'conventions', 'What'}, 'poss': {'Patricia', 'their'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubjpass': {'students'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'csubj': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'master'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'amod': {'syntactic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'stylistic', 'regulations'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'field', 'pub-'}, 'acl': {'lishing'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'nmod': {'AP'}, 'appos': {'style'}} Long High Low
4261 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Learning to write for these doctoral students takes the form of frequent interac-tions around issues of publication, writing, and the selec- tion of appropriate publication outlets in an interactive cy- cle of generating ideas, interpreting research findings, draft-ing manuscripts, jointly critiquing and editing papers, and producing publication-ready manuscripts 48 15 {'VERB': 8, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 20, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'csubj': {'Learning'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'write'}, 'prep': {'for', 'around', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'interactive', 'cy-', 'ready', 'ing', 'appropriate', 'frequent', 'doctoral'}, 'pobj': {'publication', 'cle', 'students', 'issues', 'tions', 'outlets'}, 'ROOT': {'takes'}, 'dobj': {'findings', 'form', 'papers', 'ideas', 'manuscripts'}, 'compound': {'publication', 'draft', 'interac', 'selec-', 'research'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'conj': {'writing', 'tion', 'interpreting', 'editing', 'producing', 'manuscripts'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pcomp': {'generating'}, 'advmod': {'jointly'}, 'dep': {'critiquing'}, 'npadvmod': {'publication'}} Long High Low
4262 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered This cycle reoc- curs frequently as Patricia’s students learn the skills andconcepts necessary to help her in her editorial enterprises 20 8 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, SCONJ, PROPN, PART, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'compound': {'cycle'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'skills', 'reoc-'}, 'ROOT': {'curs'}, 'advmod': {'frequently'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'poss': {'Patricia', 'her'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'advcl': {'help', 'learn'}, 'ccomp': {'andconcepts'}, 'acomp': {'necessary'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'dobj': {'her'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'amod': {'editorial'}, 'pobj': {'enterprises'}} Long High Medium
4263 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Learning in this situation is the product of active participa-tion in the editorial process 14 7 {'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'csubj': {'Learning'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'situation', 'process', 'tion'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'product'}, 'amod': {'active', 'editorial'}, 'compound': {'participa'}, 'punct': {'-'}} Medium High Low
4264 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Students learn the imperative of meeting all editorial and production deadlines, the value of conceptual precision and writing clarity in their own and others’ manuscripts, and the importance of using appropri- ate methodological treatments of data 36 17 {'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Students'}, 'ROOT': {'learn'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'clarity', 'imperative', 'editorial', 'treatments'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'using', 'meeting'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'production'}, 'conj': {'deadlines', 'importance', 'writing', 'others'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'dep': {'value'}, 'amod': {'own', 'conceptual', 'appropri-', 'ate', 'methodological'}, 'pobj': {'precision', 'data', 'manuscripts'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
4265 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Even 1st-year studentslearn as they apprentice in the process, and they gain the finer nuances of these general practices as they advance in their studies and participate in discussion, critique, and productioncycles 32 17 {'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Even'}, 'amod': {'1st', 'finer', 'general'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'year'}, 'ROOT': {'studentslearn'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'advcl': {'advance', 'apprentice'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'discussion', 'process', 'practices'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'critique', 'gain', 'productioncycles', 'participate'}, 'dobj': {'nuances'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
4266 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We included this case because the learning involved is different from that described in the first two cases, cases thatdealt with learning at the levels of acquired habits and con- ditionings and of spontaneous concepts and actions 37 18 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'X': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, X, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'learning', 'cases', 'We'}, 'ccomp': {'included'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'case'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'acl': {'described', 'involved'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'different'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'at'}, 'pobj': {'concepts', 'levels', 'cases', 'that', 'habits'}, 'amod': {'spontaneous', 'acquired', 'first'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'thatdealt'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'con-'}, 'conj': {'ditionings', 'actions', 'of'}} Long High Medium
4267 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered In the cherry pit and crossing the street cases, the learning occurredrather quickly, was more concrete than abstract, and required conscious effort for only a short to moderate duration 29 13 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, DET, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'than', 'In'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'cherry', 'street'}, 'pobj': {'pit', 'duration'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'crossing', 'required'}, 'dobj': {'cases', 'effort'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'learning'}, 'advmod': {'occurredrather', 'only', 'quickly', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'concrete'}, 'amod': {'abstract', 'conscious', 'short', 'moderate'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Low
4268 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The learning described in this case fits best into our third learninglevel, scientific concepts and practices 16 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'learning'}, 'acl': {'described'}, 'prep': {'into', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'learninglevel', 'case'}, 'ROOT': {'fits'}, 'advmod': {'best'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'amod': {'third'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'scientific'}, 'conj': {'concepts', 'practices'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
4269 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Hence, it illustrates learning that occurs over a long period requires considerable effort and involves a relatively high level of abstraction 21 8 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Hence', 'relatively'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'illustrates'}, 'xcomp': {'learning'}, 'ccomp': {'requires', 'occurs'}, 'prep': {'of', 'over'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'high', 'considerable', 'long'}, 'pobj': {'period', 'abstraction'}, 'dobj': {'effort', 'level'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'involves'}} Long High Low
4270 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Also, whereas learning in the first two cases could be viewed as primarily individual and experiential, this level of learning isbest accomplished with the involvement of more knowledge- able others who can mentor the beginner across what may at times be very large gaps in knowledge 46 26 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 8, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Also', 'very', 'primarily', 'isbest', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'whereas'}, 'nsubjpass': {'learning'}, 'prep': {'at', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'across'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'knowledge-', 'individual', 'large', 'first', 'able'}, 'nummod': {'two'}, 'pobj': {'others', 'knowledge', 'times', 'cases', 'involvement'}, 'aux': {'can', 'could', 'may'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'viewed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'experiential'}, 'npadvmod': {'level'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'be'}, 'acl': {'accomplished'}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'mentor'}, 'dobj': {'beginner'}, 'attr': {'gaps'}} Long High Medium
4271 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered What Patricia’s students experience in the Disciplined Reading and Disciplined Learning Research Laboratory, the ways that emerging scholars learn to write for their disci-plinary community, has in fact been described frequently in the composition literature 35 15 {'PRON': 3, 'PROPN': 7, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, PROPN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What', 'that'}, 'poss': {'Patricia', 'their'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'scholars'}, 'nsubjpass': {'experience'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'plinary', 'Disciplined', 'composition', 'Learning', 'Research'}, 'pobj': {'literature', 'community', 'fact', 'Reading'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Laboratory'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'npadvmod': {'ways'}, 'amod': {'emerging', 'disci'}, 'relcl': {'learn'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'write'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'advmod': {'frequently'}} Long High Low
4272 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered For example, in a classic piece, Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) described thehistory of a doctoral student as he experienced the sometimes painful transformation of losing the style of his English lit- erature undergraduate major and acquiring appropriate waysof conceiving of evidence and presenting it adequately for a social science academic journal 52 20 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 8, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'piece', 'journal', 'example', 'evidence', 'student', 'erature'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate', 'classic', 'social', 'painful', 'appropriate', 'doctoral', 'academic'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'Berkenkotter'}, 'conj': {'Ackerman', 'acquiring', 'Huckin', 'presenting'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'1988'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'dobj': {'thehistory', 'transformation', 'conceiving', 'it', 'style'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'experienced'}, 'advmod': {'major', 'sometimes', 'adequately'}, 'pcomp': {'losing'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'nmod': {'English', 'science'}, 'compound': {'lit-', 'waysof'}} Long High Medium
4273 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered As the student reported, there was a period during that 1st year of his academic stud-ies when he felt that he was losing himself even as he was learning what to attend to and how to write about it that made up his new discipline 45 31 {'SCONJ': 5, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 8, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'as', 'As', 'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'he', 'that', 'student'}, 'advcl': {'learning', 'felt', 'reported'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'period'}, 'prep': {'about', 'during', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'1st', 'academic', 'new'}, 'pobj': {'it', 'year', 'ies'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'compound': {'stud'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'even', 'how'}, 'aux': {'was', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'losing', 'attend'}, 'dobj': {'discipline', 'what', 'himself'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'write'}, 'relcl': {'made'}, 'prt': {'up'}} Long High High
4274 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Similarly, reporting on years of intensive observation and disciplined analysis, Fox (1994) delineated the difficultiesthat international students experienced as they learned not only to adopt the style appropriate to their discipline but also the ways that feedback about writing was provided inthis country, self-assured, direct, even abrupt 47 19 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ] {'advmod': {'only', 'Similarly', 'also', 'even'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'csubj': {'reporting'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'discipline', 'years', 'observation', 'writing'}, 'amod': {'international', 'intensive', 'appropriate', 'disciplined', 'assured'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'Fox', 'analysis', 'direct'}, 'appos': {'1994'}, 'ROOT': {'delineated'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'difficultiesthat'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'experienced'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'learned'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'adopt'}, 'dobj': {'style', 'country'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'npadvmod': {'ways', 'self'}, 'relcl': {'provided', 'abrupt', 'feedback'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'compound': {'inthis'}} Long High Medium
4275 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Prior (1995) documented the processes in which a new graduate student engaged as she learned to write a conference proposal withher major advisor, at first simply taking every suggestion as a sign that her advisor knew so much more than she did about what to say and how to say it in the proposal 54 31 {'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 9, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 4, 'PART': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, PART, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'she', 'Prior', 'advisor', 'student'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'advisor', '1995'}, 'ROOT': {'documented'}, 'det': {'every', 'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'suggestion', 'processes', 'what', 'it', 'proposal', 'more'}, 'prep': {'about', 'at', 'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'proposal', 'sign'}, 'amod': {'major', 'withher', 'new'}, 'compound': {'graduate', 'conference'}, 'relcl': {'engaged'}, 'mark': {'than', 'as', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'did', 'learned'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'write'}, 'pcomp': {'taking', 'say', 'first'}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'much', 'so', 'how'}, 'poss': {'her'}, 'acl': {'knew'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'say'}} Long High High
4276 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Slowlyas she continued to work with her advisor, she acquired the knowledge of current issues in the field, the language ap- propriate to their expression, and the confidence to resist atleast some of the advisor’s suggestions as she came to know 41 22 {'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, X, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB] {'npadvmod': {'Slowlyas'}, 'nsubj': {'she', 'language'}, 'ccomp': {'continued'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'work'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'advisor', 'their', 'her'}, 'pobj': {'expression', 'field', 'issues', 'advisor', 'suggestions'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'acquired'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'some'}, 'amod': {'current'}, 'appos': {'propriate', 'ap-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'confidence'}, 'relcl': {'resist'}, 'advmod': {'atleast'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'know', 'came'}} Long High Medium
4277 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered LEARNING TOPOGRAPHY 189 and care more about what was being said and how it was being said 17 11 {'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 1} [VERB, PROPN, NUM, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'ROOT': {'LEARNING'}, 'dobj': {'TOPOGRAPHY', 'more'}, 'nummod': {'189'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'care'}, 'prep': {'about'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it', 'what'}, 'aux': {'was'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'said'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'ccomp': {'said'}} Medium High Medium
4278 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We consider this progression in graduate students to be learning because students’ abilities to write are significantly transformed over the span of a few years 25 13 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'progression', 'We'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'prep': {'over', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'graduate', 'few'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'years', 'span'}, 'aux': {'be', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'learning'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubjpass': {'abilities'}, 'acl': {'write'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'significantly'}, 'advcl': {'transformed'}} Long High Medium
4279 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Learning seemsclearly evident when graduate students move from turning in their first course paper to the point of writing a first- authored or sole-authored publication 25 10 {'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [VERB, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Learning'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'seemsclearly'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'amod': {'sole', 'first-', 'authored', 'graduate', 'first'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'advcl': {'move'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'turning', 'writing'}, 'prt': {'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'course'}, 'dobj': {'publication', 'paper'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'point'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'conj': {'authored'}} Long High Medium
4280 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered When they graduate,they eventually find they can use the knowledge they have acquired in graduate school to guide their own students in the process of academic writing even as they continue tolearn their craft 34 19 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 7, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, ADJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'When', 'eventually', 'find', 'even'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'advcl': {'continue', 'graduate', 'guide'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'can', 'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'use'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'knowledge', 'craft'}, 'relcl': {'acquired'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'graduate', 'own'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'process', 'school'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'xcomp': {'tolearn'}} Long High High
4281 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered What it is that a graduate student is learning about writing includes some aspects that may be relatively simple to master (e.g., style of citation format) as well asmore subtle and difficult conventions for deciding how to frame an argument, whom to cite when doing so, which stance to indicate vis- `a-vis a particular finding, and when to deem any particular section of a paper as “done.” In essence, Patricia’s students have to learn how to deploy the scientific concepts and practices of their field in their own writing 89 50 {'PRON': 7, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 6, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 25, 'VERB': 12, 'ADP': 8, 'ADV': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 8, 'PUNCT': 11, 'CCONJ': 3, 'X': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, PRON, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, NOUN, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PART, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, X, NOUN, X, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PART, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ...] {'attr': {'What'}, 'nsubj': {'whom', 'which', 'students', 'it', 'student', 'that'}, 'csubj': {'is'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'det': {'an', 'some', 'a', 'any', 'the'}, 'compound': {'scientific', 'graduate', 'citation'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to', 'may'}, 'ccomp': {'learning'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'a', 'of', 'about', 'for', 'In', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'field', 'essence', 'master', 'paper', 'format', 'style'}, 'ROOT': {'have', 'includes'}, 'dobj': {'section', 'aspects', 'concepts', 'vis-', 'conventions', 'argument'}, 'relcl': {'cite', 'be', 'stance'}, 'advmod': {'relatively', 'when', 'so', 'well', 'how'}, 'acomp': {'simple'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', '”', ',', '`', '“'}, 'dep': {'e.g.'}, 'npadvmod': {'asmore'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'own', 'subtle'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'vis', 'practices', 'finding', 'difficult', 'deem'}, 'pcomp': {'deciding'}, 'xcomp': {'deploy', 'frame', 'learn'}, 'advcl': {'done', 'indicate', 'doing'}, 'poss': {'Patricia', 'their'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High High
4282 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered These practices reflect historically situated and continually evolving conventions and standards for scholarly writings 14 4 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'These'}, 'nsubj': {'practices', 'reflect'}, 'advmod': {'historically', 'continually'}, 'ROOT': {'situated'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'standards', 'evolving'}, 'dobj': {'conventions'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'amod': {'scholarly'}, 'pobj': {'writings'}} Medium High Low
4283 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered It is hard to imagine what facets of our third case a behav- iorist would find informative or appealing, except perhaps to focus on the relation between the feedback students receiveand the accolades given (e.g., coauthorship) as critical rein- forcement that would sustain their efforts over the years 48 24 {'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'facets', 'that', 'It', 'iorist'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'hard'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'imagine'}, 'det': {'a', 'what', 'the'}, 'prep': {'over', 'on', 'except', 'of', 'as', 'between'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'amod': {'behav-', 'third', 'rein-', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'forcement', 'students', 'years', 'relation', 'case', 'coauthorship'}, 'advmod': {'perhaps', 'find'}, 'ccomp': {'informative'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'appealing', 'receiveand'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'pcomp': {'focus'}, 'compound': {'feedback'}, 'dobj': {'accolades', 'efforts'}, 'acl': {'given'}, 'intj': {'e.g.'}, 'relcl': {'sustain'}} Long High Medium
4284 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered To a cognitive-contextualist, a student’s journey toward expertiseas a writer would prove especially compelling, particularly in terms of the transformations in knowledge, problem solving, and motivations that would unfold over the developmentalcourse 32 16 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'To', 'in', 'of', 'toward', 'over'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'cognitive'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'developmentalcourse', 'transformations', 'expertiseas', 'terms', 'knowledge', 'contextualist'}, 'poss': {'student'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'journey', 'writer', 'that'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'prove'}, 'advmod': {'especially', 'particularly'}, 'oprd': {'compelling'}, 'compound': {'problem'}, 'conj': {'motivations', 'solving'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'relcl': {'unfold'}} Long High Low
4285 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered A socioculturalist would be interested in describing how students had appropriated the cultural practices of the field (i.e., became enculturated), even as they changed notonly the local culture of the program but also, eventually, the wider culture as they achieved greater status within their field 45 23 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'X': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ] {'det': {'A', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'socioculturalist'}, 'aux': {'would', 'had'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'enculturated', 'interested'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'describing'}, 'advmod': {'eventually', 'notonly', 'also', 'i.e.', 'even', 'how'}, 'ccomp': {'appropriated'}, 'amod': {'wider', 'greater', 'local', 'cultural'}, 'dobj': {'status', 'practices', 'culture'}, 'pobj': {'program', 'field'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'parataxis': {'became'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'changed', 'achieved'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
4286 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Perhaps for the social-constructivist, the scaffoldinginvited by students and provided by Patricia and more ad- vanced students during the graduate school experience would be the point of analysis in this learning case 32 17 {'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'X': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, ADV, X, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Perhaps'}, 'prep': {'for', 'during', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'social', 'scaffoldinginvited', 'vanced', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'Patricia', 'analysis', 'constructivist', 'case', 'experience'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'provided', 'ad-'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'graduate', 'school'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'point'}} Long High Low
4287 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered To the cognitive- evolutionist, areas of interest would include students’ ability to adapt productively to this new situation, to set viable goals,and engage in activities to achieve them, to use background knowledge and innate capacities to understand and instanti- ate what they are learning 44 19 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 10, 'PART': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 3} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'To', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'cognitive-', 'background'}, 'pobj': {'evolutionist', 'situation', 'interest', 'activities'}, 'punct': {',', '’'}, 'nsubj': {'areas', 'they'}, 'aux': {'would', 'are', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'dobj': {'goals', 'what', 'them', 'ability', 'knowledge', 'capacities'}, 'acl': {'adapt'}, 'advmod': {'productively'}, 'amod': {'viable', 'new'}, 'conj': {'set', 'engage', 'ate', 'innate', 'instanti-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advcl': {'use', 'achieve'}, 'xcomp': {'understand'}, 'ccomp': {'learning'}} Long High Low
4288 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Of course, the outcomes of thislearning and their success in their new field would enhance their ability to procure the necessities of survival, within a suitable academic institution 28 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'course', 'Of'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'outcomes'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'survival', 'institution', 'thislearning', 'field'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'success'}, 'amod': {'suitable', 'academic', 'new'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'enhance'}, 'dobj': {'necessities', 'ability'}, 'acl': {'procure'}} Long High Low
4289 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered CONCLUDING THOUGHTS Our overarching intention in this analysis was to consider deeply the notion of learning and, in so doing, to advance a fresh perspective on this foundational construct as well asto offer a criterial framework against which theoretical per- spectives and empirical investigations on learning can be as- sessed 50 24 {'VERB': 9, 'ADV': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'X': 1} [VERB, ADV, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, X, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'ROOT': {'CONCLUDING', 'was'}, 'npadvmod': {'THOUGHTS'}, 'poss': {'Our'}, 'csubj': {'overarching'}, 'dobj': {'perspective', 'notion', 'intention', 'spectives', 'framework'}, 'prep': {'on', 'against', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'analysis', 'construct', 'learning'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'advmod': {'so', 'as-', 'well', 'deeply', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'doing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advcl': {'advance'}, 'amod': {'foundational', 'per-', 'criterial', 'empirical', 'fresh', 'asto'}, 'conj': {'investigations', 'offer'}, 'relcl': {'theoretical'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'sessed'}} Long High Low
4290 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Throughout the discussion, we adopted the metaphor of a river system as a clear reminder that learning, like the river, operates as part of a dynamic system that is continu-ously and reciprocally transformed through the interactions of its constituent parts 40 21 {'ADP': 8, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'through', 'like', 'Throughout', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'system', 'part', 'river', 'interactions', 'discussion', 'parts', 'reminder'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'learning', 'that', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'adopted'}, 'dobj': {'metaphor'}, 'compound': {'river'}, 'amod': {'constituent', 'clear', 'dynamic'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'transformed', 'operates'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'continu'}, 'advmod': {'reciprocally', 'ously'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High Medium
4291 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Thus, understanding the essence of human learning demands a consideration of its primary di-mensions not as independent contributors to the products and processes of learning but as inseparable aspects of an intri- cate and fluid system 36 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 7, 'ADJ': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'csubj': {'understanding'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'essence', 'consideration'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'inseparable', 'primary', 'independent', 'human'}, 'pobj': {'aspects', 'contributors', 'mensions', 'system', 'learning', 'products'}, 'ROOT': {'demands'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'compound': {'di'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'fluid', 'processes'}, 'nmod': {'intri-', 'cate'}} Long High Low
4292 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered We represented our understanding ofthe human learning in a topographical framework, a quad- rangulation based on the convergence of the what ,where , who, and when dimensions of learning 29 15 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PRON, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'nsubj': {'We'}, 'ROOT': {'represented'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'rangulation', 'understanding'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'ofthe'}, 'amod': {'topographical', 'human'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'framework', 'convergence', 'what'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'quad-'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'where'}, 'conj': {'dimensions', 'who'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High High
4293 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Along with these in- teractive dimensions, our topographical mapping has as its legend nine principles of learning that are arguably core to all manner of perspectives, even those that consider distinct lev-els of learning (the whats ) for diverse individuals (the who) learning at markedly different places (the where ) and times (the when ) 55 29 {'ADP': 9, 'DET': 5, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PRON': 8, 'VERB': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADP, DET, X, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, PRON, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, SCONJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, SCONJ, PUNCT] {'prep': {'at', 'for', 'Along', 'to', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'all', 'these', 'the'}, 'dep': {'the', 'in-'}, 'amod': {'topographical', 'diverse', 'teractive', 'distinct', 'different'}, 'pobj': {'dimensions', 'perspectives', 'manner', 'learning', 'places', 'legend', 'individuals'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'our', 'its'}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'that', 'mapping', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'has'}, 'nummod': {'nine'}, 'dobj': {'els', 'principles'}, 'relcl': {'are', 'consider'}, 'advmod': {'arguably', 'markedly', 'even'}, 'acomp': {'core'}, 'appos': {'when', 'where', 'those'}, 'compound': {'lev'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'parataxis': {'s'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'times'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High High
4294 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered A value of our framework is that it disturbs existing views of learning, which remains a fundamental constructwithin educational theory and practice 22 10 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB] {'det': {'A', 'a'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'it', 'value'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'framework'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'disturbs'}, 'amod': {'fundamental', 'educational', 'existing'}, 'dobj': {'views'}, 'punct': {','}, 'relcl': {'remains'}, 'nmod': {'constructwithin'}, 'attr': {'theory'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practice'}} Long High Medium
4295 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered The multidimen- sional framework we have advanced offers a different ap- proach to considering the views and assumptions of existing,even competing, perspectives on learning 24 10 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'sional', 'different', 'competing', 'multidimen-'}, 'nsubj': {'framework', 'we'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'csubj': {'advanced'}, 'ROOT': {'offers'}, 'dobj': {'views', 'proach', 'ap-'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'considering'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'assumptions'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives'}} Long High Low
4296 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered It does so by al- lowing us to position more precisely the purviews of these varied perspectives and thus appreciate better what they doand do not address about the nature of learning 32 19 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'ADV': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADV, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADV, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'nsubj': {'It', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'does'}, 'advmod': {'so', 'thus', 'better', 'precisely', 'more'}, 'prep': {'by', 'about', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'nature', 'al-'}, 'pcomp': {'lowing', 'learning'}, 'dobj': {'us', 'purviews', 'what'}, 'aux': {'do', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'position'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'varied'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'appreciate'}, 'ccomp': {'doand', 'address'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Low
4297 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Moreover, our criterial framework allows us to understand that argu- ments among different theoretical perspectives may oftenreflect their theoretical geopositioning and, thus, their inabil- ity to see learning from the vantage point of rival “camps.” Thus, one perspective may be particularly helpful at describ-ing the acquisition of scientific concepts in children new to the cultural setting of school by means of the rich interplay with more knowledgeable, sometimes more powerful, othersin the setting (sociocultural views) 75 35 {'ADV': 7, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 13, 'NOUN': 20, 'VERB': 8, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 11, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'particularly', 'sometimes', 'Moreover', 'thus', 'more'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'amod': {'rival', 'theoretical', 'rich', 'argu-', 'criterial', 'cultural', 'inabil-', 'new', 'different', 'sociocultural', 'knowledgeable'}, 'nsubj': {'perspective', 'framework', 'acquisition', 'us', 'ments'}, 'ROOT': {'be', 'allows'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'understand', 'oftenreflect'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'in', 'by', 'with', 'of', 'among', 'at'}, 'pobj': {'perspectives', 'children', 'means', 'school', 'concepts', 'powerful', 'ing', 'point', 'interplay', 'camps', 'setting'}, 'dobj': {'setting', 'geopositioning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'othersin', 'ity'}, 'acl': {'see'}, 'xcomp': {'learning'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'scientific', 'vantage'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'acomp': {'helpful'}, 'npadvmod': {'describ'}, 'appos': {'views'}} Long High Medium
4298 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered By contrast, another per- spective may prove more informative about the manner in which individuals acquire habits and conditionings through their interaction with the given environment and the stimuli it affords (behavior theory) 33 16 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, X, ADJ, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'through', 'in', 'with', 'about', 'By'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'interaction', 'manner', 'contrast', 'environment'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'another', 'more'}, 'dep': {'per-'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'it', 'spective'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'prove'}, 'oprd': {'informative'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'relcl': {'affords', 'acquire'}, 'dobj': {'habits'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'stimuli', 'conditionings'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'given'}, 'compound': {'behavior'}, 'appos': {'theory'}} Long High Low
4299 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered As stated, our intention was not simply to illustrate how varied and contrasting views of learning can coexist within the multidimensional map we constructed 24 12 {'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'stated'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubj': {'views', 'we', 'intention'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'how'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'illustrate'}, 'amod': {'varied', 'multidimensional'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'contrasting'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'map'}, 'ccomp': {'coexist'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'relcl': {'constructed'}} Long High High
4300 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Rather, we seethe resulting framework as serving an evaluative function as well 12 6 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV] {'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'seethe'}, 'amod': {'resulting', 'evaluative'}, 'dobj': {'framework', 'function'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'pcomp': {'serving'}, 'det': {'an'}} Medium High Low
4301 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered What the criterial framework reminds us is that existing perspectives differentially attend to the what ,where ,who , andwhen dimensions of learning 22 11 {'PRON': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3} [PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, AUX, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, PRON, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'dative': {'What'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'criterial'}, 'nsubj': {'framework', 'perspectives'}, 'csubj': {'reminds'}, 'dobj': {'us'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'differentially', 'where'}, 'ccomp': {'attend'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'what'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dep': {'who'}, 'compound': {'andwhen'}, 'relcl': {'dimensions'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}} Long High High
4302 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Further, to be regarded as comprehensive, we hold that some consideration of each of these dimensions is warranted 18 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'advcl': {'regarded'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'comprehensive'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'hold'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'these', 'some'}, 'nsubjpass': {'consideration'}, 'pobj': {'dimensions', 'each'}, 'ccomp': {'warranted'}} Medium High Medium
4303 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered Should the what dimension be overlooked or the when dimension disregarded, then we would consider that perspective to be underspecified and, po- tentially, nonviable 24 14 {'AUX': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'X': 1} [AUX, DET, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, PUNCT, X, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ] {'aux': {'would', 'Should', 'to'}, 'det': {'what', 'the', 'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'dimension'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'disregarded', 'overlooked'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'when', 'tentially'}, 'nsubj': {'dimension', 'perspective', 'we', 'po-'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'ccomp': {'nonviable', 'be'}, 'acomp': {'underspecified'}} Long High Medium
4304 What is Learning Anyway- A Topological Perspetive Considered What the criterial framework also servesto remind us it that no “grand theory” of learning exists and 17 9 {'PRON': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, VERB, PRON, PRON, SCONJ, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, VERB, CCONJ] {'dobj': {'theory', 'it', 'exists', 'What', 'us', 'that'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'amod': {'grand', 'criterial'}, 'nsubj': {'framework'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'csubj': {'servesto'}, 'ROOT': {'remind'}, 'punct': {'”', '“'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pcomp': {'learning'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Medium
4305 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate For example, the controversy presently circulating in educa-tional outlets (e.g., Goodwin, 2020), the popular press (Strauss, 2019), and social media (e.g., Loewus, 2019) speaks about reading and whether it should be taught by means of phonics or whole-word approaches 39 15 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 15, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'about', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'means', 'example', 'phonics', 'outlets'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'media', 'press', 'controversy'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.', 'presently'}, 'acl': {'circulating'}, 'amod': {'-', 'popular', 'educa', 'social', 'tional', 'whole'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019', 'Goodwin'}, 'appos': {'Strauss', 'Loewus', '2020'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'ROOT': {'speaks'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'conj': {'taught'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'word'}, 'dobj': {'approaches'}} Long High Medium
4306 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate The reality is that reading does not begin or end with phonics or whole-word instruction (Seidenberg, 2013) 17 9 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'reality', 'reading'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'begin'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'end', 'instruction'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'pobj': {'phonics'}, 'amod': {'whole'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'word'}, 'appos': {'Seidenberg'}, 'npadvmod': {'2013'}} Medium High Medium
4307 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Reading, broadly conceived, is any interaction between a person—be it a child, adoles-cent, or adult—and written language (Pearson & Cervetti, 2013) 21 9 {'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'it', 'Reading'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '—', '(', ','}, 'advmod': {'broadly'}, 'amod': {'written', 'conceived'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'any', 'a'}, 'attr': {'interaction', 'child'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'pobj': {'person'}, 'dep': {'be'}, 'conj': {'language', 'Cervetti', 'cent', 'adoles', 'adult'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'appos': {'2013', 'Pearson'}} Long High Low
4308 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate That interaction can involve written language at many levels, from words and sentences, to paragraphs, to entire volumes (Shanahan, 2019) 20 8 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'That'}, 'nsubj': {'interaction'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'involve'}, 'xcomp': {'written'}, 'dobj': {'language'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'from'}, 'amod': {'many', 'entire'}, 'pobj': {'volumes', 'words', 'levels', 'paragraphs'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sentences'}, 'appos': {'Shanahan'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}} Long High Low
4309 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Also, reading can be performed for many reasons, from purely personal to largely academic, and in many contexts, both in and out of school, as well as online or in print (Ito et al., 2013; Singer & Alexander, 2017) 39 20 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 10, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 8, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PART, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Also', 'purely', 'well', 'as', 'largely'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubjpass': {'reading'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'performed'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in', 'from'}, 'amod': {'many', 'personal', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'reasons', 'print', 'school', 'contexts'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as', '&', 'or'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'conj': {'online', 'out', 'Alexander', 'in'}, 'dep': {'Ito'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2013', '2017', 'Singer'}} Long High Low
4310 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate This reconceptualization of reading also requires some adjustment in what qualifies as text 13 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'some', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'reconceptualization', 'what'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'text'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'dobj': {'adjustment'}, 'pcomp': {'qualifies'}} Medium High Low
4311 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Certainly, texts still encompass many well-known, traditional forms, such as works of fiction, exposition, folk tales, picture books, biography, and poetry.Y et, for today’s students, fondly referred to as the iGeneration or iGens (Twenge, 2017), many nontraditional, nonacademic, and ever- evolving forms of text are part of their reading experi- ences 51 20 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 18, 'NOUN': 19, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'X': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, X, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'well', 'fondly', 'Certainly', 'still'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'nsubj': {'forms', 'texts', 'et'}, 'ROOT': {'referred', 'encompass'}, 'amod': {'traditional', 'many', 'known', 'such', 'nontraditional'}, 'dobj': {'forms'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'fiction', 'ences', 'works', 'iGeneration', 'text'}, 'conj': {'nonacademic', 'ever-', 'tales', 'exposition', 'are', 'iGens', 'books', 'evolving', 'poetry', 'biography'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'Y', 'folk', 'picture', 'experi-'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'poss': {'today', 'their'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'Twenge'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017'}, 'attr': {'part'}} Long High Low
4312 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Those alternative texts commonly found online and in social media include text messages, tweets, blogs, websites, memes, and podcasts.Reading Development Although I appreciate that some engaged in the ongoing “science of reading” debate have attempted to expand dis- cussion beyond the simple issue of phonics versus whole- word instruction (Shanahan, 2019; Willingham, 2017), nonetheless, the narrow conception of reading aligned to the “science of reading” controversy has also contributed to a myopic view of reading development 76 26 {'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 23, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 11, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 11, 'PUNCT': 17, 'PROPN': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'Those', 'a', 'dis-', 'the'}, 'amod': {'simple', 'whole-', 'social', 'narrow', 'myopic', 'ongoing', 'alternative'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'some', 'conception', 'texts'}, 'advmod': {'online', 'also', 'commonly', 'nonetheless'}, 'ROOT': {'found', 'contributed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'memes', 'tweets', 'in', 'Willingham', 'blogs', 'websites', 'podcasts'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'issue', 'view', 'science', 'media', 'phonics', 'controversy', 'instruction'}, 'ccomp': {'engaged', 'attempted', 'include'}, 'compound': {'word', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'messages', 'debate', 'cussion', 'development', 'Development'}, 'punct': {'.', ')', '(', '”', ',', ';', '“'}, 'advcl': {'appreciate', 'Reading'}, 'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'prep': {'versus', 'beyond', 'to', 'in', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'aux': {'has', 'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'expand'}, 'appos': {'2019', 'Shanahan', '2017'}, 'acl': {'aligned'}} Long High High
4313 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Specifically, from the tenor of the interactions found in the popular press and social media, there is the distinct impression that reading development begins when very young children first realize that linguistic symbols convey meaning and that those symbols are associated with certain sounds, making them pronounceable 47 21 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADJ] {'advmod': {'very', 'Specifically', 'first', 'when'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'press', 'sounds', 'tenor', 'interactions'}, 'acl': {'found', 'begins'}, 'amod': {'popular', 'certain', 'distinct', 'social', 'young', 'linguistic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'media', 'associated'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'impression'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'meaning', 'development'}, 'nsubj': {'symbols', 'children', 'them'}, 'advcl': {'making', 'realize'}, 'ccomp': {'convey', 'pronounceable'}, 'nsubjpass': {'symbols'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}} Long High High
4314 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Then, development is thought to end when children can process a fair amount of text fluently and with understanding 19 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'fluently', 'when', 'Then'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'development'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'thought'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'end'}, 'nsubj': {'children'}, 'ccomp': {'process'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'fair'}, 'dobj': {'amount'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'understanding', 'text'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'with'}} Medium High Medium
4315 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate The problem with that too familiar conceptualization is that it captures only some portion of the initial phase of a lifelong developmental process (Alexander, 2005) 25 13 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'some', 'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'problem'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'too'}, 'amod': {'initial', 'lifelong', 'developmental', 'familiar'}, 'pobj': {'conceptualization', 'process', 'phase'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'captures'}, 'dobj': {'portion'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2005'}} Long High Medium
4316 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate There are certainly critical neurophysiological factors involved in reading that take form in vitro, long before any informal or formal reading instruction can occur (Gabrieli, Christodoulou, O’Loughlin, & Eddy, 2010; Wolf, 2008) 32 10 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, X, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'certainly', 'long'}, 'amod': {'informal', 'vitro', 'neurophysiological', 'critical'}, 'attr': {'factors'}, 'acl': {'involved'}, 'prep': {'Gabrieli', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'instruction'}, 'relcl': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'form'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'before'}, 'det': {'any'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Eddy', 'formal', 'Christodoulou', 'O’Loughlin'}, 'compound': {'reading'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'advcl': {'occur'}, 'appos': {'2008', '2010'}, 'npadvmod': {'Wolf'}} Long High Medium
4317 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate That is not to imply that reading develop- ment can be charted solely or even primarily on the basis of structural or functional characteristics of the brain or body 29 16 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2} [PRON, AUX, PART, PART, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'That'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'imply'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'reading', 'structural'}, 'advmod': {'solely', 'even', 'develop-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ment'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'charted'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'primarily', 'body', 'functional'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'brain', 'basis', 'characteristics'}} Long High Medium
4318 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Reading is as much, if not more, a social and cul-tural phenomenon as a neurophysiological one (Gutiérrez, 2008; Ito et al., 2013; Leu et al., 2015) 26 11 {'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'PUNCT': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 3} [VERB, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Reading'}, 'ROOT': {'Ito', 'is'}, 'advmod': {'as'}, 'attr': {'much'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'cul', 'more'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'social', 'tural', '-', 'neurophysiological'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'.', 'Leu', '2015', '2013', 'phenomenon', '2008'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'pobj': {'one'}, 'npadvmod': {'.', 'al', 'Gutiérrez', 'et'}} Long High Medium
4319 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate What must also be understood is that reading devel- opment does not end in third, sixth, or even 10th grade (Alexander, 2005) 22 12 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'What'}, 'aux': {'does', 'must'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'even'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'csubj': {'reading', 'understood'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'10th', 'devel-'}, 'dobj': {'opment'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'end'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'third'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'sixth', 'grade'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2005'}} Long High Medium
4320 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Quite to the contrary, it is still ongoing among the undergraduate and graduate students I teach 16 10 {'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'Quite', 'still'}, 'prep': {'to', 'among'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'contrary'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'ongoing'}, 'amod': {'undergraduate'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'graduate'}, 'parataxis': {'teach'}} Medium High Low
4321 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate As an older adult, I am still learning to read in that I am still building word knowledge, adapting to the new forms of texts, and devising strategies for coping with declining visual acuity 34 17 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'As', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'visual', 'older', 'declining', 'new'}, 'pobj': {'acuity', 'forms', 'adult', 'texts'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'to', 'am'}, 'advmod': {'still'}, 'ROOT': {'learning'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'building'}, 'compound': {'word'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'strategies'}, 'advcl': {'adapting'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'devising'}, 'pcomp': {'coping'}} Long High Medium
4322 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate The bottom line is that as long as there are increasingly more complex or novel forms of text to be read, as long as the text-based tasks to be performed grow more difficult, and as long as the demands on readers’ time, attention, and physical capabilities expand, making it harder and harder for them to perform competently or to stay motivated and self-regulated, then reading devel- opment continues 68 34 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 5, 'ADV': 12, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 12, 'CCONJ': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 4, 'PUNCT': 9} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADV, CCONJ, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'based', 'bottom', 'physical', 'devel-', 'complex'}, 'nsubj': {'demands', 'them', 'line', 'tasks', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'for', 'as', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'increasingly', 'competently', 'long', 'then', 'as', 'more'}, 'advcl': {'perform', 'grow', 'are', 'expand', 'long'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'stay', 'harder', 'regulated', 'long', 'capabilities', 'novel', 'attention'}, 'attr': {'forms'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'readers', 'text'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'performed', 'read'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'time', 'text'}, 'acomp': {'difficult', 'motivated'}, 'csubj': {'making'}, 'ccomp': {'continues', 'harder'}, 'dep': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'opment'}} Long High High
4323 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate The Science of Reading Finally, let me turn to the very concept around which this special issue of Reading Research Quarterly is framed: the science of reading 27 13 {'DET': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1} [DET, PROPN, ADP, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'Science', 'me'}, 'prep': {'around', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'Reading'}, 'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'ROOT': {'let'}, 'ccomp': {'turn'}, 'amod': {'very', 'special'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'reading', 'Quarterly', 'concept'}, 'nsubjpass': {'issue'}, 'compound': {'Research', 'Reading'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'relcl': {'framed'}, 'dep': {'science'}} Long High Low
4324 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate As someone who has been conducting empirical studies of reading for 40 years, I see the science of reading as contributing to a vast interdisciplinary store of critical information about reading-related skills, processes, antecedents, and out- comes, representing linguistic, cognitive, social, cultural, 42 17 {'ADP': 8, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 8, 'NOUN': 10, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1} [ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, X, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'As', 'to', 'of', 'about', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'store', 'someone', 'years', 'skills', 'information'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'who', 'science'}, 'aux': {'has', 'been'}, 'relcl': {'conducting'}, 'amod': {'related', 'critical', 'vast', 'interdisciplinary', 'empirical'}, 'dobj': {'studies', 'linguistic'}, 'pcomp': {'reading', 'contributing'}, 'nummod': {'40'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'reading'}, 'conj': {'processes', 'cultural', 'social', 'antecedents', 'out-', 'cognitive'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ccomp': {'comes'}, 'advcl': {'representing'}} Long High Low
4325 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age | S91neurological, and psychological dimensions 18 7 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'nsubj': {'Research'}, 'aux': {'Has'}, 'ROOT': {'Revealed'}, 'prep': {'About', 'With', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Struggles', 'Readers', 'Comprehension', 'S91neurological'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'Age', '|', 'Digital'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'psychological'}, 'conj': {'dimensions'}} Medium High Low
4326 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Thus, to see the phrase “science of reading” used in such a limited and pejorative manner is bewildering 18 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'see'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'phrase'}, 'appos': {'science'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'manner'}, 'acl': {'used'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'amod': {'limited'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'pejorative'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'bewildering'}} Medium High Low
4327 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Regardless of what may appear in the cybersphere, the science of read-ing is not “code for intensive phonics” (Thomas, 2019, para 21 10 {'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Regardless'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'science'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'pcomp': {'appear'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'cybersphere', 'phonics', 'ing'}, 'punct': {'-', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'compound': {'read'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'code'}, 'amod': {'intensive'}, 'npadvmod': {'Thomas'}, 'appos': {'para', '2019'}} Long High Low
4328 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate 14), except perhaps for those who are intentionally or unintentionally using this phrase to fan the flames of this contentious debate 21 13 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADV, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'14'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'prep': {'for', 'except', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'perhaps', 'intentionally'}, 'pobj': {'those', 'debate'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'unintentionally'}, 'pcomp': {'using'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'phrase', 'flames'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'fan'}, 'amod': {'contentious'}} Long High Medium
4329 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate In fact, the very challenges of reading in this digital age that I will highlight have come to light as a result of scientific and interdisciplinary read- ing studies 29 15 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'reading', 'light', 'age', 'result', 'fact'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'very', 'digital', 'scientific', 'ing'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'challenges'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'have', 'will'}, 'relcl': {'highlight'}, 'ROOT': {'come'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interdisciplinary'}, 'npadvmod': {'read-'}} Long High Low
4330 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate So described, it is essential to understand that it is not the science of reading that is the problem 19 13 {'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'So'}, 'advcl': {'described'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'essential'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'understand'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'problem', 'science'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'reading'}, 'relcl': {'is'}} Medium High Medium
4331 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Rather, it is the misrepresentation and even weaponiza- tion of that term to serve some personal, pedagogical, or political agenda 20 11 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'even', 'Rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'some'}, 'attr': {'misrepresentation', 'tion'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'weaponiza-', 'pedagogical', 'political'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'term'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'serve'}, 'amod': {'personal'}, 'dobj': {'agenda'}} Long High Low
4332 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Reading Challenges in the Digital Age When I first conceived of this contribution to this special issue on the science of reading, my intention was to widen the vista on the ongoing dispute 33 18 {'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [VERB, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'conceived', 'Reading'}, 'dobj': {'Challenges', 'vista'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'Digital'}, 'pobj': {'contribution', 'reading', 'issue', 'science', 'dispute', 'Age'}, 'advmod': {'When', 'first'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'intention'}, 'amod': {'ongoing', 'special'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'widen'}} Long High Medium
4333 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Specifically, I wanted to call attention to various reading challenges that students now occupying K–20 classrooms are confronting daily 19 8 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV] {'advmod': {'now', 'Specifically', 'daily'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'I'}, 'ROOT': {'wanted'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'call'}, 'dobj': {'attention', 'that', 'classrooms'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'amod': {'various'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'K–20'}, 'pobj': {'challenges'}, 'acl': {'occupying'}, 'conj': {'confronting'}} Medium High Low
4334 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate I organized these challenges, along with the insights gar - nered from recent research, into three general areas that relate to information saturation, information seeking, and information communication and justification 30 12 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'organized'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'challenges'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'from', 'to', 'into', 'with', 'along'}, 'compound': {'gar', 'information', 'insights'}, 'pobj': {'areas', 'nered', 'research', 'saturation'}, 'amod': {'recent', 'general'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'relcl': {'relate'}, 'conj': {'seeking', 'communication', 'justification'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
4335 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Before I overview these three areas, however, let me first forward an important caveat 14 8 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Before'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'me'}, 'advcl': {'overview'}, 'det': {'an', 'these'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'dobj': {'caveat', 'areas'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'first', 'however'}, 'ROOT': {'let'}, 'ccomp': {'forward'}, 'amod': {'important'}} Medium High Medium
4336 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate I intend to touch on only a small segment of the vast body of research and the associated literacy con- cerns that have grown exponentially over the past 20 years 30 14 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'cerns', 'intend'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'touch'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'over'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'exponentially'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'associated', 'vast', 'past', 'small'}, 'pobj': {'years', 'body', 'segment', 'research'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}, 'dep': {'con-'}, 'relcl': {'grown'}, 'nummod': {'20'}} Long High Low
4337 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate The full scope of that literature is far too complex to be covered in this brief commentary 17 10 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'this', 'The', 'that'}, 'amod': {'brief', 'full'}, 'nsubj': {'scope'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'commentary', 'literature'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'too', 'far'}, 'acomp': {'complex'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'covered'}} Medium High Low
4338 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate For those who wish to pursue the subject of digital reading or digital literacy further, there are excellent overviews (e.g., Coiro, 2020; Goldman et al., 2016) and entire volumes (Braasch, Bråten, & McCrudden, 2018; McKenna, Labbo, Kieffer, & Reinking, 2013; Van Meter, List, Lombardi, & Kendeou, 2020) that would be invaluable resources 52 14 {'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 22, 'PROPN': 17, 'NUM': 5, 'AUX': 2} [ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'wish', 'be'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'pursue'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'subject'}, 'amod': {'entire', 'digital', 'excellent', 'invaluable'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'Lombardi', 'List', 'Kendeou', 'volumes', 'McKenna', 'Reinking', 'Labbo', 'literacy', 'McCrudden', 'Meter', 'Kieffer', 'Bråten'}, 'advmod': {'further', 'e.g.'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'Goldman', 'are'}, 'attr': {'resources', 'Coiro', 'overviews'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'al', '.', '2013', 'Braasch', '2020', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'compound': {'Van'}} Long High Low
4339 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Information Saturation The expression “too much of a good thing” accurately captures the world in which students currently live and learn 21 9 {'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [NOUN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'compound': {'Information'}, 'ROOT': {'Saturation', 'captures'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'expression'}, 'punct': {'”', '“'}, 'advmod': {'currently', 'accurately', 'too'}, 'appos': {'much'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'good'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'thing'}, 'dobj': {'world'}, 'relcl': {'live'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'learn'}} Long High Low
4340 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate They are truly inundated with information from a multitude of sources 24-7 (Pew Research Center, 2019) 16 6 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 3, 'SYM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 3} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM, SYM, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'They'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'truly'}, 'ROOT': {'inundated'}, 'prep': {'7', 'with', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'multitude', 'sources', 'information'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'nummod': {'24'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'Pew', 'Research'}, 'appos': {'Center'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}} Medium High Low
4341 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Paradoxically, even though students are drowning in information, they almost obsessively crave more, and they want that information delivered at lightning speed to their digital devices, which are invariably near at hand, if not in hand (Perrin & Kumar, 2019) 40 19 {'ADV': 6, 'PUNCT': 8, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Paradoxically', 'invariably', 'near', 'almost', 'even', 'obsessively'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'mark': {'though'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'which', 'they', 'information'}, 'aux': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'drowning'}, 'prep': {'if', 'at', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Perrin', 'speed', 'information', 'hand', 'devices'}, 'ROOT': {'crave'}, 'dobj': {'more'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'want', 'Kumar'}, 'det': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'delivered'}, 'compound': {'lightning'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'digital'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}} Long High High
4342 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Moreover, although these iGens appear hungry for the latest information, they prefer it to come in the form of short pithy texts such as memes and tweets 27 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'iGens', 'it', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'appear'}, 'oprd': {'hungry'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'short', 'latest', 'pithy', 'such'}, 'pobj': {'memes', 'form', 'texts', 'information'}, 'ROOT': {'prefer'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'come'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'tweets'}} Long High Medium
4343 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Indeed, many find reading more extended texts, such as textbook chapters, downright painful (Twenge, Martin, & Spitzberg, 2019) 18 5 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'downright', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'many'}, 'ROOT': {'find'}, 'xcomp': {'reading'}, 'amod': {'painful', 'such', 'extended'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'compound': {'textbook'}, 'pobj': {'chapters'}, 'intj': {'Twenge'}, 'conj': {'Martin', 'Spitzberg'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}} Medium High Low
4344 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Why read a newspaper article, for instance, when you can get news flashes on your phone or computer 18 10 {'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'Why'}, 'advcl': {'read'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'news', 'newspaper'}, 'dobj': {'flashes', 'article'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'phone', 'instance'}, 'nsubj': {'you'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'get'}, 'poss': {'your'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'computer'}} Medium High High
4345 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate These students also engage in multitasking, which permits them to attempt several tasks at once but to the detriment of comprehen- sion and overall performance quality (Foehr, 2006;E 28 14 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM] {'det': {'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'which'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'detriment', 'multitasking', 'sion'}, 'punct': {',', '('}, 'relcl': {'permits'}, 'dobj': {'tasks', 'them'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'attempt'}, 'amod': {'several', 'overall'}, 'pcomp': {'once'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'quality', 'to'}, 'compound': {'performance', 'comprehen-'}, 'appos': {'2006;E', 'Foehr'}} Long High Low
4346 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Similarly, iGens’ frequent use of short-hand in text messages has come to invade their academic writing (C 17 5 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Similarly'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '('}, 'poss': {'iGens', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'amod': {'short', 'academic', 'frequent'}, 'nsubj': {'use'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'hand', 'messages'}, 'compound': {'text'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'come'}, 'xcomp': {'invade'}, 'dobj': {'writing'}, 'appos': {'C'}} Medium High Low
4347 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate It also appears that elementary, high school, and college stu-dents’ ability to engage in quality discussions is suffering and can benefit significantly from direct intervention (Murphy et al., 2018) 29 10 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'significantly'}, 'ROOT': {'appears'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'direct', 'high', 'stu', 'elementary'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'school', 'benefit', 'ability'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nmod': {'dents', 'college'}, 'aux': {'can', 'is', 'to'}, 'acl': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in'}, 'compound': {'quality'}, 'pobj': {'discussions', 'intervention'}, 'ccomp': {'suffering'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Murphy'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Medium
4348 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate In addition, there is evidence that students’ attention spans and their perceptiveness (i.e., awareness of what is occurring in real time around them) is suffering (Graber, 2014; Richtel, 2010) 29 13 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'around', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'addition', 'them', 'time'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'evidence'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'students', 'their'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'compound': {'attention'}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'spans'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'perceptiveness', 'Richtel'}, 'advmod': {'i.e.'}, 'appos': {'awareness', '2010'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'occurring'}, 'amod': {'real'}, 'acl': {'suffering'}, 'npadvmod': {'2014', 'Graber'}} Long High Medium
4349 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Another noticeable corollary of this new age of information saturation is an orientation toward information management over knowledge build- ing in academic contexts (Alexander, 2018) 25 9 {'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'Another', 'an', 'this'}, 'amod': {'build-', 'noticeable', 'academic', 'new'}, 'nsubj': {'corollary'}, 'prep': {'over', 'in', 'of', 'toward'}, 'pobj': {'saturation', 'age', 'management', 'ing', 'knowledge', 'Alexander', 'contexts'}, 'compound': {'information'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'orientation'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2018'}} Long High Low
4350 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate By that, I mean that today’s students are less likely to engage with school texts for the purpose of retaining what they have learned in perpetuity 26 16 {'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'By'}, 'pobj': {'perpetuity', 'purpose', 'that', 'texts'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'I', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'mean'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'today'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'ccomp': {'are', 'learned'}, 'advmod': {'less'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'engage'}, 'compound': {'school'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pcomp': {'retaining'}, 'dobj': {'what'}} Long High Medium
4351 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Instead, students more often report a goal of remembering content just long enough to complete assignments, pass tests, or get good grades 22 9 {'ADV': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADV, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Instead', 'just', 'often', 'enough', 'long', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'report'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'dobj': {'goal', 'grades', 'assignments', 'tests'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'remembering', 'good'}, 'pobj': {'content'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'complete'}, 'conj': {'pass', 'get'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Low
4352 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Once those goals are met, the content can be purged from memory 12 7 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'mark': {'Once'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubjpass': {'goals', 'content'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'advcl': {'met'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'purged'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pobj': {'memory'}} Medium High Medium
4353 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Another interesting pattern documented across multiple studies is that undergraduate students over - whelmingly prefer to read texts digitally as opposed to in print (Singer & Alexander, 2017), in what Coiro (2020) referred to as digital spaces 37 13 {'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PRON': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'Another'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'undergraduate', 'interesting', 'digital'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'Coiro', 'pattern'}, 'acl': {'documented'}, 'prep': {'as', 'across', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'spaces', 'print', 'what'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'as', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'digitally', 'whelmingly', 'over'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'ccomp': {'prefer'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}, 'dobj': {'texts'}, 'advcl': {'opposed'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017', 'Singer'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'2020'}, 'pcomp': {'referred'}} Long High High
4354 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate The students also report that their performance on a comprehension test taken immediately after reading is better under the digi-tal than print condition 23 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'reading'}, 'advmod': {'immediately', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'report'}, 'dobj': {'performance', 'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'prep': {'after', 'on', 'under', 'than'}, 'compound': {'print', 'comprehension'}, 'pobj': {'condition', '-', 'tal', 'digi', 'test'}, 'acl': {'taken'}, 'pcomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'better'}} Long High Medium
4355 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Perhaps that sounds logical given that these iGens have come to see themselves as digital natives (Prensky, 2001) 18 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PRON, VERB, ADJ, VERB, SCONJ, DET, PROPN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Perhaps'}, 'nsubj': {'iGens', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'sounds'}, 'acomp': {'logical'}, 'prep': {'given', 'as'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'pcomp': {'come'}, 'advcl': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'themselves'}, 'amod': {'digital'}, 'pobj': {'natives'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Prensky'}, 'npadvmod': {'2001'}} Medium High Medium
4356 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Surprisingly, what we have consistently found is that these undergraduates’ comprehension was significantly better when they read in print rather than on a computer (Singer & Alexander, 2017) 28 14 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'when', 'consistently', 'Surprisingly', 'rather', 'significantly'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '’'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'they', 'comprehension'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'csubj': {'found'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'these'}, 'amod': {'undergraduates'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'better'}, 'advcl': {'read'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'print', 'computer'}, 'cc': {'than', '&'}, 'appos': {'Singer'}, 'conj': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017'}} Long High High
4357 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Others have reported similar outcomes for ele- mentary students, as well (Støle, Mangen, & Schwippert, 2020) 16 5 {'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Others'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'amod': {'mentary', 'similar', 'ele-'}, 'dobj': {'outcomes'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'students'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'appos': {'Støle'}, 'conj': {'Schwippert', 'Mangen'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'nummod': {'2020'}} Medium High Low
4358 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate One clue to this puzzlement may be that the students in our studies (Singer Trakhman, Alexander, & Berkowitz, 2019) read significantly faster digitally than in print 26 11 {'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 3} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADP, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'clue', 'students'}, 'prep': {'than', 'to', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'puzzlement', 'print'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'Singer'}, 'appos': {'Trakhman', '2019'}, 'conj': {'Berkowitz', 'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'ccomp': {'read'}, 'advmod': {'faster', 'digitally', 'significantly'}} Long High Medium
4359 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate In effect, although there is generally a speed– accuracy tradeoff in performance (Wickelgren, 1977), the students may have mistakenly equated faster pro-cessing with higher proficiency. 25 10 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'with', 'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'proficiency', 'performance', 'effect'}, 'punct': {'–', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'cessing', 'is', '-'}, 'advmod': {'mistakenly', 'faster', 'generally', 'pro'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'attr': {'speed'}, 'compound': {'accuracy'}, 'appos': {'1977', 'tradeoff', 'Wickelgren'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'equated'}, 'amod': {'higher'}} Long High Medium
4360 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate S92 | Reading Research Quarterly , 55(S1)Information Seeking Another familiar instructional activity for students is con- ducting online information searches 20 3 {'PROPN': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'X': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, X, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'compound': {'information', 'S92', 'Research'}, 'npadvmod': {'|'}, 'advcl': {'Reading'}, 'dobj': {'searches', 'Quarterly', 'activity'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'55(S1)Information'}, 'acl': {'Seeking'}, 'det': {'Another'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'online', 'familiar'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pobj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'is'}, 'dep': {'con-'}, 'ROOT': {'ducting'}} Long High Low
4361 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Although informa- tion searches have long been a staple in teachers’ repertoire, the current conditions have complicated this process for students in multiple ways 24 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'amod': {'informa-', 'multiple', 'current'}, 'compound': {'tion'}, 'nsubj': {'searches', 'conditions'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'long'}, 'advcl': {'been'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'attr': {'staple'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'poss': {'teachers'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'ways', 'repertoire'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'complicated'}, 'dobj': {'process'}} Long High Medium
4362 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Those complicating conditions include a universe of digital sources at students’ fingertips that can contain content authored by any person regard- less of expertise or aims (Goodwin, 2020) 28 11 {'DET': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'Those', 'a', 'any'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'complicating'}, 'nsubj': {'conditions', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'dobj': {'universe', 'less', 'content'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'fingertips', 'expertise', 'person'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'contain'}, 'acl': {'authored'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'dep': {'regard-'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'aims'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Goodwin'}, 'npadvmod': {'2020'}} Long High Low
4363 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Further, online information sources cover the spectrum in terms of their forms (e.g., websites, blogs, news articles, research arti- cles) and their credibility (Bråten, Strømsø, & Salmerón, 2011; Coiro, 2020; Coiro, Coscarelli, Maykel, & Forzani, 2015) 36 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 19, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 8, 'NUM': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'online'}, 'compound': {'arti-', 'news', 'research', 'information'}, 'nsubj': {'sources'}, 'ROOT': {'cover'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'spectrum'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'forms', 'terms'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'e.g.', 'Bråten', '2020', 'Coiro'}, 'conj': {'Strømsø', 'Salmerón', 'Coscarelli', 'Forzani', 'credibility', 'Maykel', 'cles', 'blogs', 'articles', 'websites', 'Coiro'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'2015', '2011'}} Long High Low
4364 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate There is also a surprising amount of online content that is either unintentionally misleading or purposefully deceptive, which can make the information search process a precarious undertaking (Sinatra & Lombardi, 2020) 31 15 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'purposefully', 'also', 'unintentionally'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'surprising', 'precarious', 'online'}, 'attr': {'amount'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'content'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'that', 'process'}, 'relcl': {'make', 'is'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'acomp': {'misleading'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'deceptive', 'Lombardi'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'compound': {'search', 'information'}, 'ccomp': {'undertaking'}, 'appos': {'Sinatra', '2020'}} Long High Low
4365 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Researchers who investigate online search behaviors have repeatedly reported that students often engage in case building, overrely on search engines to guide their text choices, seem unable to distinguish between more and less credible sources, and struggle with synthesizing and inte- grating content across texts (Bråten et al., 2011; List & Alexander, 2017) 53 18 {'NOUN': 15, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'X': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, X, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'students', 'Researchers', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'investigate'}, 'amod': {'online', 'more'}, 'compound': {'case', 'search', 'grating', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'behaviors', 'choices'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'repeatedly', 'overrely'}, 'ROOT': {'reported'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'with', 'across', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'building', 'sources', 'content', 'texts', 'engines'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'advcl': {'guide'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'credible', 'struggle', 'less', 'seem', 'inte-'}, 'oprd': {'unable'}, 'xcomp': {'distinguish'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'nmod': {'synthesizing'}, 'appos': {'Bråten', '2011'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', '2017', 'List', 'et'}} Long High Medium
4366 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Case building means that those who ini- tiate an information search around a controversial topic, such as the science of reading, either consciously or uncon-sciously select sources that reflect their preexisting beliefs, biases, or prejudices (List, Grossnickle, & Alexander, 2016) 40 15 {'NOUN': 13, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 10, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Case', 'information'}, 'nsubj': {'building', 'that', 'those', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'means'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'reflect', 'ini-'}, 'ccomp': {'tiate'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'beliefs', 'search'}, 'prep': {'as', 'around', 'of'}, 'amod': {'controversial', 'such', 'preexisting', 'select'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'topic', 'science'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'advmod': {'sciously', 'consciously'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'uncon'}, 'conj': {'sources', 'Grossnickle', 'biases', 'prejudices', 'Alexander'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'List', '2016'}} Long High Medium
4367 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Thus, instead of using the search as an opportunity to investigate a specific topic with a critical-analytic eye, the process becomes an exercise in supporting and even strengthening one’s existing views 31 18 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NUM, VERB, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'even', 'instead'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'with', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'using', 'supporting'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'views', 'topic', 'search'}, 'pobj': {'opportunity', 'eye'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'investigate'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'specific', 'critical'}, 'compound': {'analytic'}, 'nsubj': {'process'}, 'ROOT': {'becomes'}, 'attr': {'exercise'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'strengthening'}, 'poss': {'one'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High Low
4368 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate What literacy researchers have also found is that even mature and fluent readers’ bases for selecting online sources leave much to be desired (Coiro et al., 2015) 27 11 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PART, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'What'}, 'dobj': {'literacy', 'much', 'sources', 'Coiro'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'bases'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'even'}, 'csubj': {'found'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'online', 'mature'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'fluent', 'al', '.'}, 'dep': {'readers'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pcomp': {'selecting'}, 'ccomp': {'leave'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'desired'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'appos': {'2015'}} Long High Medium
4369 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate For instance, students at every academic level appear overly reliant on Google or other search engines to determine their source selections (List et al., 2016) 25 8 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'at', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'level', 'Google', 'instance'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'det': {'every'}, 'amod': {'other', 'academic'}, 'ROOT': {'appear'}, 'advmod': {'overly'}, 'oprd': {'reliant'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'source', 'search'}, 'conj': {'engines'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'determine'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'selections'}, 'appos': {'List', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Low
4370 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate This is evidenced by the fact that students often opt for the first sources that pop up on the search page and rarely bother to look at offerings on page 2 or beyond 33 19 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NUM, CCONJ, ADP] {'nsubjpass': {'This'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'evidenced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'offerings', 'sources', 'page', 'fact'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'rarely', 'often'}, 'acl': {'opt'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'at'}, 'amod': {'first'}, 'relcl': {'pop'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'compound': {'search'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'bother', 'beyond'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'look'}, 'nummod': {'2'}} Long High Medium
4371 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Perhaps these behaviors are indicative of some misguided notion that search engines list sources in terms of their relevance or credibility 21 10 {'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Perhaps'}, 'det': {'these', 'some'}, 'nsubj': {'engines', 'behaviors'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'indicative'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'misguided'}, 'pobj': {'relevance', 'notion', 'terms'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'search'}, 'acl': {'list'}, 'dobj': {'sources'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'credibility'}} Long High Medium
4372 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate In actuality, the algorithms that search engines use to build lists of sources are well-guarded secrets and likely involve factors unrelated to credibility 23 9 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'credibility', 'actuality', 'sources'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'engines', 'algorithms'}, 'dobj': {'lists', 'that', 'factors'}, 'compound': {'search'}, 'relcl': {'use'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'build'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'likely'}, 'amod': {'unrelated', 'guarded'}, 'attr': {'secrets'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'involve'}} Long High Low
4373 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Also, when asked how they select their sources, students’ criteria have included non-epistemic factors such as the length of the text or the catch-iness of titles (Grossnickle Peterson & Alexander, 2020) 31 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'when', 'Also', 'how'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'advcl': {'asked'}, 'nsubj': {'criteria', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'select'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'sources', 'factors'}, 'nmod': {'students'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'amod': {'epistemic', '-', 'non', 'such'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'titles', 'length', 'text'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'compound': {'catch', 'Grossnickle'}, 'conj': {'Peterson', 'Alexander', 'iness'}, 'appos': {'2020'}} Long High High
4374 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Information Communication and Justification One unwanted behavior that occurs not only in under - graduates but also in younger and older populations is a tendency to communicate complex, multifaceted, and often contentious issues in overly simplistic, black- or-white terms 39 18 {'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, ADV, ADP, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Information'}, 'nmod': {'under', 'Communication'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'conj': {'multifaceted', 'black-', 'in', 'Justification', 'white', 'older'}, 'nummod': {'One'}, 'amod': {'younger', 'contentious', 'unwanted', 'simplistic', 'complex'}, 'nsubj': {'behavior', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'occurs'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'often', 'overly', 'also'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'populations', 'graduates', 'terms'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'attr': {'tendency'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'communicate'}, 'dobj': {'issues'}} Long High Low
4375 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate This orientation leaves no room for any grays, the nuanced or nonextreme iterations that invariably lie between opposing positions 19 8 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'any', 'no', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'orientation', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'leaves'}, 'dobj': {'room', 'iterations'}, 'prep': {'for', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'grays', 'positions'}, 'punct': {','}, 'amod': {'opposing', 'nuanced'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'nonextreme'}, 'advmod': {'invariably'}, 'relcl': {'lie'}} Medium High Low
4376 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate The resulting misrepresenta- tion is referred to as a false dichotomy (Gehlbach & Roeser, 2002) 15 5 {'DET': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'amod': {'misrepresenta-', 'resulting', 'false'}, 'nsubjpass': {'tion'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'referred'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'dichotomy'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Gehlbach'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Roeser'}, 'npadvmod': {'2002'}} Medium High Low
4377 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Contrasts such as good or poor, effective or ineffec- tive, and appropriate or inappropriate may sound clean and simple on the surface, but they belie the true complex-ity of whatever is being evaluated 33 17 {'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 2} [NOUN, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, AUX, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'Contrasts', 'they'}, 'amod': {'such', 'good', 'true'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'conj': {'simple', 'belie', 'effective', 'ineffec-', 'appropriate', 'poor', 'inappropriate'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'surface', 'tive'}, 'aux': {'may', 'is'}, 'ROOT': {'sound'}, 'acomp': {'clean'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'complex'}, 'dobj': {'ity'}, 'nsubjpass': {'whatever'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'evaluated'}} Long High Low
4378 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Literacy researchers have documented such false dichotomies in written arguments that students generated after completing online searches about controversial topics such as the death penalty, corpo-ral punishment, and vaccinations (Bråten et al., 2011) 33 10 {'NOUN': 12, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'death', 'Literacy'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'that'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ROOT': {'documented'}, 'amod': {'ral', 'corpo', 'written', 'controversial', 'such', 'online', 'false'}, 'dobj': {'searches', 'dichotomies'}, 'prep': {'after', 'about', 'as', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'penalty', 'topics', 'arguments'}, 'ccomp': {'students'}, 'acl': {'generated'}, 'pcomp': {'completing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'conj': {'vaccinations', 'punishment'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'Bråten', '2011'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}} Long High Medium
4379 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Students’ written arguments more commonly took a strong pro or con stance on the issue and rarely voiced a more nuanced position (Barzilai & Weinstock, 2020) 26 8 {'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Students', 'arguments'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', ',', ')'}, 'amod': {'written', 'nuanced', 'strong', 'pro'}, 'advmod': {'rarely', 'commonly', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'took'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'compound': {'con'}, 'dobj': {'stance', 'position'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'pobj': {'issue'}, 'conj': {'voiced', 'Weinstock'}, 'appos': {'Barzilai', '2020'}} Long High Low
4380 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate The stu-dents’ actions may reflect their perception of argumenta- tion more as convincing others that their position is the only right or just one 24 15 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, NUM] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'only', 'stu', 'argumenta-'}, 'punct': {'’', '-'}, 'nmod': {'dents'}, 'nsubj': {'position', 'actions'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ROOT': {'reflect'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'perception', 'others'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'tion'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'more'}, 'pcomp': {'convincing'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'attr': {'right'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'one'}} Long High Medium
4381 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate It is interesting to note that this problem of dealing with contentious issues in black-or-white terms is what I encountered in the rhetoric surrounding the “science of reading” controversy (Hanford, 2019) 31 16 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'I', 'It', 'problem'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'interesting'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'note'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'reading', 'dealing'}, 'amod': {'contentious', 'black'}, 'pobj': {'terms', 'rhetoric', 'issues'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'white'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'encountered'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'controversy'}, 'acl': {'surrounding'}, 'nmod': {'science'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019', 'Hanford'}} Long High Medium
4382 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate I found certain writings rather polemic, where one side, be it phonics or whole language, was characterized favorably and the other described in unflattering terms 25 14 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'side', 'writings', 'it'}, 'ccomp': {'found', 'be', 'polemic'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'whole', 'unflattering'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'favorably', 'rather'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'attr': {'phonics'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'other', 'language'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'characterized'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'described'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'terms'}} Long High Medium
4383 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate This remains the case even though there is ample evidence that few indi-viduals are purists in their instructional approach but instead modulate their teaching depending on an array of learner, text, and contextual factors (Moats, 2019) 36 17 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'viduals', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'attr': {'evidence', 'case', 'purists'}, 'advmod': {'even', 'instead'}, 'mark': {'though', 'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'amod': {'contextual', 'instructional', 'few', 'ample'}, 'compound': {'indi'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'prep': {'depending', 'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'approach', 'learner', 'array'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'modulate', 'factors', 'text'}, 'dobj': {'teaching'}, 'appos': {'Moats'}, 'npadvmod': {'2019'}} Long High High
4384 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Of course, positioning oneself in the grays requires the abil-ity to ascertain when, where, or for whom instruction should intentionally lean toward one side of the issue or the other (Pearson, 2004) 32 19 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'when', 'intentionally', 'course', 'where', 'Of'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'csubj': {'positioning'}, 'dobj': {'oneself', 'ity'}, 'prep': {'for', 'toward', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'whom', 'grays', 'side', 'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'requires'}, 'compound': {'abil'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'acl': {'ascertain'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'pcomp': {'instruction'}, 'ccomp': {'lean'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'amod': {'other'}, 'conj': {'Pearson'}, 'appos': {'2004'}} Long High High
4385 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Other challenges manifest for today’s students when they attempt to consolidate information from various sources into a coherent and well-supported piece of expo- sition or argument (McNamara, Crossley, & McCarthy, 2010) 31 14 {'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Other', 'various', 'coherent'}, 'ROOT': {'challenges'}, 'acl': {'manifest'}, 'prep': {'into', 'for', 'of', 'from'}, 'poss': {'today'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'sources', 'piece', 'sition'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'when'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'advcl': {'attempt'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'consolidate'}, 'dobj': {'information'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'conj': {'argument', 'supported', 'Crossley', 'McCarthy'}, 'compound': {'expo-'}, 'appos': {'McNamara'}, 'npadvmod': {'2010'}} Long High Medium
4386 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate One problem for students in this consolidation process is determining what content is important and relevant enough to be included in the final document (Alexander & Disciplined Reading and Learning Research Laboratory [DRLRL], 2012) 34 14 {'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 7, 'X': 1} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADV, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, X, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'2012', 'One'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'content', 'problem'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'det': {'what', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'consolidation', 'Learning', 'Research'}, 'pobj': {'document', 'process'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'determining', 'DRLRL'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'important'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'relevant', 'Disciplined', 'Reading'}, 'advmod': {'enough'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'included'}, 'amod': {'final'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ']', ',', 'Laboratory'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'nmod': {'['}} Long High Low
4387 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Also, when addressing a contentious topic, students do not routinely incorporate counterpoints or strong arguments on the other side of the issue from their own (Singh, Sun, & Zhao, 2019) 30 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'routinely', 'when', 'Also'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advcl': {'addressing'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'contentious', 'other', 'own', 'strong'}, 'dobj': {'topic', 'counterpoints'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'aux': {'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'incorporate'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Sun', 'Zhao', 'arguments'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'2019', 'side', 'issue'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nmod': {'Singh'}} Long High Medium
4388 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Moreover, I was honestly surprised to find that the high- achieving students, like those in my university class, had little awareness of what it meant to justify whatever claims they made verbally or in writing (Alexander & DRLRL, 2020) 39 19 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'honestly', 'Moreover', 'verbally'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'I', 'it', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'surprised'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'find', 'justify'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'whatever'}, 'compound': {'university', 'high-'}, 'amod': {'little', 'achieving'}, 'prep': {'like', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'class', 'those'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'ccomp': {'made', 'claims', 'had'}, 'dobj': {'awareness', 'what'}, 'pcomp': {'meant'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Alexander', 'DRLRL'}, 'appos': {'2020'}} Long High Medium
4389 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate They also did not appreciate that their experiences did not constitute good enough evidence for certain kinds of claims (Mason, Boldrin, & Ariasi, 2010) 24 11 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADV, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'They', 'experiences'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'aux': {'did'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'appreciate'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ccomp': {'constitute'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'good', 'enough'}, 'dobj': {'evidence'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'kinds', 'claims'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Mason'}, 'conj': {'Boldrin', 'Ariasi'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'npadvmod': {'2010'}} Long High Medium
4390 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age | S93(2018) proclaimed in Rhetoric, the pathos that such human-interest stories generate can be powerful tools of persuasion.Y et, the astute readers and listeners recognize that more compelling forms of evidence are warranted before arguments are accepted 50 21 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 10, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'nsubj': {'et', 'pathos', 'stories', 'Research'}, 'aux': {'can', 'Has'}, 'csubj': {'Revealed'}, 'prep': {'About', 'With', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'Readers', 'Comprehension', 'persuasion', 'evidence', 'Struggles', 'Rhetoric', 'S93(2018'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', '.', ')', ','}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'Y', 'interest', '|', 'Digital', 'Age'}, 'ROOT': {'proclaimed', 'recognize'}, 'mark': {'before', 'that'}, 'amod': {'compelling', 'powerful', 'human', 'such', 'astute'}, 'relcl': {'generate'}, 'ccomp': {'be', 'warranted'}, 'attr': {'tools'}, 'appos': {'readers'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'listeners'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'nsubjpass': {'forms', 'arguments'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advcl': {'accepted'}} Long High High
4391 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate What is also apparent is that even skilled adult read- ers can find themselves swayed by pathos and can find it difficult to justify claims with viable text-based evi-dence (Alexander & DRLRL, 2012) 33 14 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, AUX, SCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'What', 'themselves', 'ers', 'it'}, 'csubj': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'even'}, 'acomp': {'apparent'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'based', 'viable', 'skilled'}, 'compound': {'read-', 'evi', 'adult'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'difficult', 'find', 'swayed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'pathos', 'dence'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'find', 'DRLRL'}, 'advcl': {'justify'}, 'dobj': {'claims'}, 'prep': {'with'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012', 'text'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}} Long High Medium
4392 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate The reliance on personal experiences over solid research evidence is sadly far too common and not just in students’ writings 20 9 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, PART, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubj': {'reliance'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'over'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'solid'}, 'pobj': {'evidence', 'experiences', 'writings'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'too', 'far', 'sadly'}, 'acomp': {'common'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'poss': {'students'}, 'case': {'’'}} Long High Low
4393 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate If one looks at some of the writings populating social media on the science of reading, you will encounter such personal stories used in support of one side of the phonics or whole language debate or the other 38 24 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [SCONJ, NUM, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ] {'mark': {'If'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'you'}, 'advcl': {'looks'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'side', 'some', 'science', 'writings', 'support', 'phonics'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'populating', 'used'}, 'amod': {'social', 'personal', 'such', 'whole'}, 'dobj': {'media', 'stories'}, 'punct': {','}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'encounter'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'language'}, 'conj': {'other', 'debate'}} Long High Medium
4394 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate As Goodwin (2020) rightly observed, the voices of this controversy are more often bloggers, journalists, par - ents, or teachers sharing their personal experiences on both sides of this debate 30 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'voices', 'Goodwin'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2020'}, 'advmod': {'rightly', 'often', 'more'}, 'advcl': {'observed'}, 'det': {'both', 'the', 'this'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'debate', 'sides', 'controversy'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'bloggers'}, 'conj': {'journalists', 'teachers', 'ents', 'par'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'acl': {'sharing'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'personal'}, 'dobj': {'experiences'}} Long High Medium
4395 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate In contrast, as Goodwin noted, members of the reading research community had appeared less willing to enter into the public discourse pertaining to the science of reading 27 12 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'prep': {'into', 'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'discourse', 'contrast', 'community', 'science'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'members', 'Goodwin'}, 'advcl': {'pertaining', 'noted'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'research'}, 'aux': {'had', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'appeared'}, 'advmod': {'less'}, 'acomp': {'willing'}, 'xcomp': {'enter'}, 'amod': {'public'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
4396 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate This is the case even for those whose work could serve as viable coun- terpoints to some of the weakly evidenced proclama- tions that have been communicated via social media, where credibility seems more dependent on the num-ber of retweets, likes, or followers than on the quality of the empirical data gathered 52 29 {'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 4, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 10, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'nsubj': {'credibility', 'work', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'case'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'even', 'more'}, 'prep': {'on', 'than', 'to', 'of', 'via', 'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'some', 'ber', 'media', 'data', 'terpoints', 'those', 'retweets', 'quality', 'tions'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'aux': {'could', 'have'}, 'relcl': {'communicated', 'seems', 'serve'}, 'amod': {'viable', 'weakly', 'coun-', 'evidenced', 'empirical', 'social'}, 'compound': {'proclama-', 'num'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'oprd': {'dependent'}, 'conj': {'likes', 'followers', 'gathered'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Medium
4397 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate As I stated at the outset of this article, I contend that it is imperative to expand the conception of reading that pop- ulates current discourse on the “science of reading” debate 32 17 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN] {'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'it'}, 'advcl': {'stated'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'of'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'article', 'science', 'outset'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'ROOT': {'contend'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'ulates'}, 'acomp': {'imperative'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'expand'}, 'dobj': {'discourse', 'conception', 'pop-'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'amod': {'current'}, 'appos': {'debate'}} Long High High
4398 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate It is also critical to recognize that reading develop-ment carries well beyond the primary grades and long after young learners have broken the linguistic code 25 12 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'learners', 'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'also', 'long'}, 'acomp': {'critical'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'recognize'}, 'mark': {'after', 'that'}, 'csubj': {'reading'}, 'compound': {'develop', 'linguistic'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'dobj': {'ment', 'code'}, 'ccomp': {'carries'}, 'prep': {'beyond'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'primary', 'young'}, 'pobj': {'grades'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'broken'}} Long High High
4399 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Moreover, concerned parties cannot turn a blind eye to the serious challenges that today’s students face on a daily basis—challenges that call for interdisciplinary inquiry and meaningful collaborations among teachers, research- ers, parents, and policymakers 35 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN, PART, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'amod': {'daily', 'blind', 'interdisciplinary', 'meaningful', 'concerned', 'serious'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'that', 'parties'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'turn'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'eye', 'that'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'to', 'among'}, 'pobj': {'basis', 'challenges', 'teachers', 'inquiry'}, 'poss': {'today'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'relcl': {'face', 'call'}, 'appos': {'challenges'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'collaborations', 'ers', 'policymakers', 'parents'}, 'compound': {'research-'}} Long High Low
4400 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate I briefly overviewed sev-eral reading challenges that can be ascribed, in part, to this digital age in which we live 20 11 {'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB] {'nsubj': {'I', 'we'}, 'advmod': {'briefly'}, 'ROOT': {'overviewed'}, 'npadvmod': {'sev'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'eral'}, 'compound': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'challenges'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'ascribed', 'live'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'age', 'part'}, 'det': {'this'}} Long High Low
4401 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate The good news is that those potential barriers that I described regarding infor - mation saturation, information seeking, and information communication and justification are by no means insur - mountable obstacles to optimal reading development for all students 38 15 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 15, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'no', 'all', 'The', 'those'}, 'amod': {'potential', 'good', 'optimal'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'news', 'barriers'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'described'}, 'prep': {'by', 'for', 'regarding', 'to'}, 'nmod': {'infor'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'pobj': {'mation', 'means', 'saturation', 'students', 'development'}, 'compound': {'reading', 'mountable', 'insur', 'information'}, 'conj': {'seeking', 'communication', 'justification'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'obstacles'}} Long High Medium
4402 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate In fact, there is much that researchers, teachers, school administrators, parents, policymakers, and stu- dents themselves can do to maximize the literacy benefits accrued from the multitude of online and offline technol-ogies that exist both in and out of school 40 21 {'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'in', 'In', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'multitude', 'ogies', 'school', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'much'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'that', 'themselves'}, 'conj': {'offline', 'teachers', 'dents', 'out', 'administrators', 'policymakers', 'parents'}, 'compound': {'stu-', 'literacy', 'technol', 'school'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'do', 'exist'}, 'advcl': {'maximize'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'benefits'}, 'acl': {'accrued'}, 'amod': {'online'}, 'preconj': {'both'}} Long High Medium
4403 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Here, I offer a few instructional guidelines shown to be effective in deal-ing with the challenges of reading in the digital age 22 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'instructional', 'few'}, 'dobj': {'guidelines'}, 'acl': {'shown'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'effective'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'compound': {'deal'}, 'pobj': {'ing', 'challenges', 'age', 'reading'}} Long High Low
4404 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate • Draw on students’ personal interests and experi-ences as the foundation for instruction 13 5 {'X': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [X, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'meta': {'•'}, 'ROOT': {'Draw'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'foundation', 'instruction'}, 'punct': {'’', '-'}, 'amod': {'personal'}, 'dobj': {'interests'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'experi'}, 'conj': {'ences'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
4405 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate • Foster student interactions and collaborations around meaningful problems using diverse text medi ums and genres 16 4 {'ADJ': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'meaningful', 'diverse', '•', 'medi'}, 'compound': {'Foster', 'student'}, 'ROOT': {'interactions'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'collaborations', 'genres'}, 'prep': {'around'}, 'pobj': {'problems'}, 'acl': {'using'}, 'nmod': {'text'}, 'dobj': {'ums'}} Medium High Low
4406 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Draw on Students’ Personal Interests and Experiences One principle that has been demonstrated in the research for more than a century is that personal interest can be a powerful, driving force in what students learn and what they do (Alexander, 2005; Dewey, 1903, 1913) 44 23 {'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 4, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1} [VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Draw'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'century', 'Students', 'research'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'Personal', 'powerful', 'driving', 'more'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'interest', 'Interests', 'they'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'Experiences'}, 'nummod': {'a', 'One'}, 'conj': {'principle', 'do'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can', 'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'demonstrated'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'force'}, 'dobj': {'what'}, 'pcomp': {'learn'}, 'npadvmod': {'Dewey', 'Alexander', '2005'}, 'appos': {'1903', '1913'}} Long High Medium
4407 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate When stu-dents are truly invested in the content or processes being taught, they learn more easily, acquire a deeper and richer understanding, and retain the knowledge longer than when they perceive the content as abstract, esoteric, or unrelated to their lives or personal identities (Hidi, 2001; Moje & Luke, 2009) 50 21 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 11, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'NUM': 2} [SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'easily', 'when', 'longer', 'When', 'truly', 'more'}, 'compound': {'stu'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'nsubjpass': {'dents'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'being'}, 'advcl': {'invested'}, 'prep': {'than', 'to', 'as', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'lives'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'conj': {'processes', 'richer', 'esoteric', 'unrelated', 'retain', 'Luke', 'identities'}, 'acl': {'taught'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'learn'}, 'dep': {'acquire'}, 'amod': {'abstract', 'personal', 'deeper'}, 'dobj': {'Moje', 'knowledge', 'content', 'understanding'}, 'pcomp': {'perceive'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'Hidi', '2009'}, 'npadvmod': {'2001'}} Long High High
4408 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate That principle was repeatedly illus-trated in informative case studies of effective learning environments that Ito et al 17 5 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'det': {'That'}, 'nsubj': {'principle'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'repeatedly', 'illus'}, 'punct': {'-', 'al'}, 'acomp': {'trated'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'informative', 'effective'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'Ito', 'case'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'environments'}, 'dep': {'that'}, 'dobj': {'et'}} Medium High Low
4409 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate (2013) compiled in their Connected Learning: An Agenda for Research and Design report 13 5 {'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ':', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2013'}, 'ROOT': {'compiled'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'Connected'}, 'pobj': {'report', 'Learning'}, 'det': {'An'}, 'appos': {'Agenda'}, 'nmod': {'Research'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Design'}} Medium High Low
4410 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate The instructional implication of this principle is that teachers must help students recognize their personal con-nection to the texts being read or the activities in which they are embedded (Hattan, 2019; Moje & Luke, 2009) 35 16 {'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'personal'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'implication', 'teachers'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'principle', 'texts'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ccomp': {'help', 'recognize'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'con'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'dobj': {'nection', 'Hattan'}, 'auxpass': {'are', 'being'}, 'acl': {'read'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Luke', 'activities'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'embedded'}, 'npadvmod': {'Moje', '2019'}, 'appos': {'2009'}} Long High Medium
4411 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate In effect, educators need to attend to elements of a poem, story, or subject matter text that are potentially relevant to students, reflect their interests, or mirror experiences in their own lives 32 14 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'effect', 'elements', 'poem', 'lives'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'educators'}, 'ROOT': {'need'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'attend'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'conj': {'experiences', 'reflect', 'story', 'text'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'amod': {'subject', 'own'}, 'compound': {'mirror', 'matter'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'potentially'}, 'acomp': {'relevant'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'interests'}} Long High Low
4412 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate This principle should not be miscon- strued to mean that teachers should dress up the content to make it more enticing or palpable to students 25 15 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, NUM, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'principle', 'it', 'teachers'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'attr': {'miscon-'}, 'ROOT': {'strued'}, 'xcomp': {'mean'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'dress', 'enticing'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'dobj': {'content'}, 'advcl': {'make'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'palpable'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'students'}} Long High Medium
4413 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Such momentary piquing of interest, called situational interest, can be detrimental to deeper and more enduring learning (Schiefele, 1999) 19 7 {'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'situational', 'momentary', 'Such', 'deeper'}, 'nsubj': {'piquing'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'interest'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'acl': {'called'}, 'oprd': {'interest'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'detrimental'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'conj': {'enduring'}, 'appos': {'Schiefele', '1999'}} Medium High Low
4414 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate As Dewey (1913) warned, such an approach “implies the same divorce between object and self 15 7 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, DET, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'approach', 'Dewey'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '“'}, 'appos': {'1913'}, 'advcl': {'warned'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'implies'}, 'amod': {'same'}, 'dobj': {'divorce'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'pobj': {'object'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'self'}} Medium High Medium
4415 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate When things have to be made interesting, it is because interest itself is wanting” (p 15 10 {'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'nsubj': {'interest', 'it', 'things'}, 'advcl': {'have', 'wanting'}, 'aux': {'is', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'made'}, 'oprd': {'interesting'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '”'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'appos': {'itself'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Medium High High
4416 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Guide Students Toward the Smart Use of Smart Technologies I do not want to leave the impression that digital technol- ogies are inherently the enemies of reading or reading development 30 13 {'PROPN': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'compound': {'Guide', 'technol-', 'Smart'}, 'dep': {'Students'}, 'prep': {'Toward', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'Technologies', 'Use'}, 'nsubj': {'ogies', 'I'}, 'aux': {'to', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'xcomp': {'leave'}, 'dobj': {'impression', 'development'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'digital'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'inherently'}, 'attr': {'enemies'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'reading'}} Long High Medium
4417 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Technology is an integral part of the networked lives that we live (Leu et al., 2015) 16 7 {'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Technology', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'networked', 'integral'}, 'attr': {'part'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'lives'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'live'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'.', 'al', 'Leu', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2015'}} Medium High Medium
4418 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Moreover, today’s technologies are equipped with an array of tools not available in the print-only world that can facilitate students’ reading and learning from texts, including apps for annotation and translation, 31 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '’'}, 'poss': {'today'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubjpass': {'technologies'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'equipped'}, 'prep': {'including', 'from', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'apps', 'texts', 'array', 'world', 'annotation', 'tools'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'amod': {'only', 'available'}, 'npadvmod': {'print'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'facilitate'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'reading'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'translation'}} Long High Low
4419 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate S94 | Reading Research Quarterly , 55(S1)digital glossaries, and tools for collaborating (Dalton & Palincsar, 2013) 16 2 {'PROPN': 5, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PROPN, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'compound': {'Research', 'S94'}, 'ROOT': {'|'}, 'acl': {'Reading'}, 'dobj': {'Quarterly', 'Dalton'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'55(S1)digital'}, 'appos': {'glossaries', '2013'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'tools', 'Palincsar'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pcomp': {'collaborating'}} Medium Low Low
4420 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate My objections pertain to the mindless, unregulated, and passive use of such technological tools both in and out of school (Alexander, 2018) 22 11 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'poss': {'My'}, 'compound': {'objections'}, 'ROOT': {'pertain'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'mindless', 'passive', 'technological', 'unregulated', 'such'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pobj': {'use', 'tools', 'school'}, 'preconj': {'both'}, 'conj': {'out'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018'}} Long High Low
4421 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Mindful use of technology is not solely an issue for students, however (Forzani, 2018) 14 6 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'Mindful'}, 'nsubj': {'use'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'technology'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'solely', 'however'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'attr': {'issue', 'Forzani'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2018'}} Medium High Low
4422 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Teachers, too, should be cognizant of when and why to employ technologies during reading instruction or when content-based instruction involves text 21 11 {'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4} [NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, SCONJ, CCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Teachers', 'instruction'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'advmod': {'too', 'when'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'cognizant'}, 'prep': {'during', 'of'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'why'}, 'pcomp': {'reading', 'employ'}, 'dobj': {'technologies', 'text', 'instruction'}, 'npadvmod': {'content'}, 'amod': {'based'}, 'advcl': {'involves'}} Long High High
4423 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Parents can assist in this regard, as well, by creating guidelines on when, where, and for how long their chil- dren are online (Alexander & Singer Trakhman, 2017) 28 14 {'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, SCONJ, ADJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Parents', 'dren'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'assist'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'in'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'regard'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'well', 'long', 'as', 'how'}, 'pcomp': {'creating', 'where', 'are'}, 'dobj': {'guidelines'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Trakhman', 'for'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'Singer', 'chil-'}, 'acomp': {'online'}, 'npadvmod': {'Alexander'}, 'appos': {'2017'}} Long High High
4424 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Moreover, teachers should help students acquire strategies for engaging with digital texts in a manner that fosters rather than thwarts their comprehension (Alexander & DRLRL, 2012; Cho & Afflerbach, 2015) 30 10 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'rather'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'teachers', 'that'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'help'}, 'ccomp': {'acquire'}, 'dobj': {'strategies', 'comprehension'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'engaging'}, 'amod': {'digital'}, 'pobj': {'manner', 'texts'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'relcl': {'fosters'}, 'cc': {'than', '&'}, 'conj': {'Cho', 'Afflerbach', 'thwarts', 'DRLRL'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'2015', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012'}} Long High Low
4425 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Strategies that have been found to be effective include reading digital texts more slowly, periodically stopping to reflect on or ask questions about what was read, anno-tating digital texts, or writing down key points or ques- tions on paper (Cho & Afflerbach, 2017; Singer Trakhman, 2019) 46 16 {'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 9, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 2} [NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Strategies'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that', 'what'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'been'}, 'relcl': {'found'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'reflect', 'reading'}, 'acomp': {'effective'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'key', 'tating'}, 'dobj': {'points', 'questions', 'texts'}, 'advmod': {'periodically', 'slowly', 'more'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'advcl': {'stopping'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'writing', 'Cho', 'Trakhman', 'tions', 'ask', 'Afflerbach'}, 'pcomp': {'read'}, 'npadvmod': {'anno', '2017'}, 'pobj': {'paper', 'texts'}, 'prt': {'down'}, 'compound': {'ques-', 'Singer'}, 'appos': {'2019'}} Long High Low
4426 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate It may seem ridiculous to teach stu-dents who have grown up with digital technologies how to engage them more effectively, but in actuality, stu- dents are not always the savvy digital natives we think them to be (Coiro, 2012; Forzani, 2018; Ng, 2012) 43 22 {'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 3} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, PART, ADV, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, AUX, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'dents', 'them', 'It', 'who', 'we'}, 'aux': {'may', 'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'oprd': {'ridiculous'}, 'xcomp': {'engage', 'teach'}, 'compound': {'stu-', 'stu'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'dobj': {'dents', 'them'}, 'relcl': {'grown', 'think'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'amod': {'savvy', 'digital'}, 'pobj': {'actuality', 'technologies'}, 'advmod': {'effectively', 'always', 'more', 'how'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'Ng', 'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'natives', 'Coiro'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'appos': {'2012', '2018', 'Forzani'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012'}} Long High Medium
4427 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate It is true that students have a wealth of knowledge about maneuvering in hyperspace and about the latest tech features and apps, but they still require instruction that focuses on locating, evaluating, synthesizing, integrat- ing, and communicating digital information (Bråten et al., 2011; Leu et al., 2015) 47 18 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 14, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 10, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 2} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'students', 'that', 'It', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'is', 'Leu'}, 'acomp': {'true'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'information', 'wealth', 'instruction'}, 'prep': {'on', 'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'features', 'maneuvering', 'locating', 'knowledge', 'hyperspace'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'apps', 'require', 'synthesizing', 'ing', 'about', 'Bråten', 'communicating', 'evaluating'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'latest'}, 'compound': {'tech'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'still'}, 'relcl': {'focuses'}, 'dep': {'integrat-'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2015', '2011'}} Long High Medium
4428 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate They also need help to recog-nize biased, inaccurate, and prejudicial sources written to mislead them (Sinatra & Lombardi, 2020) 19 6 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'They'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'need'}, 'dobj': {'help', 'Sinatra', 'them'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'compound': {'recog'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nmod': {'nize'}, 'amod': {'prejudicial', 'biased'}, 'conj': {'inaccurate', 'Lombardi'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'pobj': {'sources'}, 'acl': {'written'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'mislead'}, 'appos': {'2020'}} Medium High Low
4429 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Foster Interactions and Collaborations With Diverse Texts and Meaningful Activities Finally, one of the advantages of living in this digital age is the wealth of written language that is literally at our finger - tips 35 16 {'PROPN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'compound': {'finger', 'Meaningful', 'Diverse', 'Foster'}, 'nsubj': {'Interactions', 'that'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Collaborations', 'Activities'}, 'prep': {'at', 'With', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'tips', 'language', 'age', 'Texts', 'advantages'}, 'advmod': {'Finally', 'literally'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'appos': {'one'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pcomp': {'living'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'written'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'wealth'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'poss': {'our'}} Long High Low
4430 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Entire libraries of texts exist for almost any subject one may wish to explore 14 7 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, ADV, PRON, ADJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB] {'amod': {'subject', 'Entire'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'libraries'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'texts'}, 'ROOT': {'exist'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'advmod': {'almost'}, 'nummod': {'any'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'wish'}, 'xcomp': {'explore'}} Medium High Medium
4431 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Further, those texts are not lim-ited to the standard canon to which many adults were exposed (Moje & Luke, 2009) 20 10 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'texts'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'attr': {'lim'}, 'acomp': {'ited'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'amod': {'standard', 'many'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'canon'}, 'nsubjpass': {'adults'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'exposed'}, 'npadvmod': {'Moje'}, 'cc': {'&'}, 'conj': {'Luke'}, 'appos': {'2009'}} Long High Low
4432 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Instead, they cover the spectrum in terms of time, domain, culture, mediums, and genre 14 5 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'Instead'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'cover'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'spectrum'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'time', 'terms'}, 'conj': {'domain', 'genre', 'mediums', 'culture'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
4433 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Students should be able to locate appropriate texts to match whatever interests or purposes they have for reading 18 9 {'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1} [NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB] {'nsubj': {'Students', 'they'}, 'aux': {'should', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'xcomp': {'locate'}, 'amod': {'appropriate'}, 'dobj': {'interests', 'texts'}, 'advcl': {'match'}, 'det': {'whatever'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'purposes'}, 'relcl': {'have'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}} Medium High Low
4434 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate This diversity of texts can be individually read and relished for entirely personal reasons or can become part of collaborative learning activities carried out in and out of school (Ito et al., 2013) 33 16 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'diversity'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reasons', 'school', 'texts', 'activities'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'entirely', 'individually'}, 'ROOT': {'read'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'.', 'become', 'out', 'relished'}, 'amod': {'personal'}, 'attr': {'part'}, 'compound': {'learning', 'collaborative'}, 'acl': {'carried'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'Ito', 'al', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2013'}} Long High Low
4435 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Such freedom allows stu-dents to identify with the people, places, and experiences described in texts 15 6 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'amod': {'Such'}, 'nsubj': {'dents', 'freedom'}, 'ROOT': {'allows'}, 'compound': {'stu'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'identify'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'people', 'texts'}, 'conj': {'places', 'experiences'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'acl': {'described'}} Medium High Low
4436 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate It allows students to explore cultures other than their own and other times and places than those they know more intimately 21 13 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADV] {'nsubj': {'students', 'It', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'allows'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'explore'}, 'dobj': {'cultures'}, 'amod': {'other', 'own'}, 'prep': {'than'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'other', 'places'}, 'pobj': {'times', 'those'}, 'relcl': {'know'}, 'advmod': {'intimately', 'more'}} Long High Low
4437 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Such breadth and diversity of texts can empower students to acquire infor - mation needed to tackle complex or controversial issues and real-world problems of importance to them or their communities (Jeong, & Hmelo-Silver, 2010) 35 13 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'amod': {'real', 'Such', 'complex'}, 'nsubj': {'breadth'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'communities', 'Silver', 'diversity', 'controversial', 'problems'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'importance', 'them', 'texts'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'empower'}, 'dobj': {'students', 'mation', 'issues'}, 'xcomp': {'acquire'}, 'compound': {'world', 'infor', 'Hmelo'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'acl': {'needed'}, 'advcl': {'tackle'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'appos': {'Jeong', '2010'}} Long High Low
4438 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate When the universe of relevant and appropriate texts is made available to students, under the guidance and with the support of teachers and parents, the motivation to engage with written language can grow (Wigfield, Gladstone, & Turci, 2016) 38 18 {'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'When'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'universe'}, 'prep': {'with', 'under', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'written', 'relevant'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'with', 'appropriate', 'parents', 'Turci', 'Gladstone'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 'texts', 'guidance', 'students', 'language', 'support'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'made'}, 'oprd': {'available'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'motivation'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'engage'}, 'ROOT': {'grow'}, 'npadvmod': {'2016', 'Wigfield'}} Long High Medium
4439 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate In addition, students demon- strate more commitment to building knowledge than to simply managing information to get by or to do only what is required (Alexander, 2018) 27 14 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADV, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'than', 'to', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'addition'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'ROOT': {'demon-'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'commitment', 'strate', 'information'}, 'amod': {'more'}, 'pcomp': {'building', 'managing'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advmod': {'by', 'simply', 'only'}, 'advcl': {'get'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'do'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ccomp': {'required'}, 'oprd': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018'}} Long High Low
4440 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate There can be more personal value placed on reading and more emotional investment in the knowledge and abilities gained from reading (Stutz, Schaffner, & Schiefele, 2016) 26 11 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'amod': {'emotional', 'personal'}, 'attr': {'value'}, 'acl': {'placed', 'gained'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'Schiefele', 'investment', 'Schaffner', 'abilities'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'intj': {'Stutz'}, 'npadvmod': {'2016'}} Long High Low
4441 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate (2013) described not only pertains to shared literacy experiences among students but also can manifest between parents and their children or as a private and deeply personal experience between reader and text 32 16 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2013'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'deeply'}, 'dobj': {'pertains'}, 'prep': {'to', 'among', 'between'}, 'amod': {'private', 'shared'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'experiences', 'reader', 'parents', 'experience'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but', 'or'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'conj': {'personal', 'children', 'manifest', 'text', 'as'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'det': {'a'}} Long High Low
4442 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Concluding Thoughts What I have set out to accomplish in this critique is to reorient the current controversy over the science of read- ing by broadening the conceptions of reading, reading development, and the science of reading that presently dominate that debate 42 21 {'VERB': 7, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 7, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, PROPN, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'compound': {'Concluding'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'Thoughts', 'that'}, 'dobj': {'conceptions', 'debate', 'development', 'ing', 'What', 'controversy'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'csubj': {'set'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'advcl': {'accomplish'}, 'prep': {'over', 'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'read-', 'critique', 'reading', 'science'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'xcomp': {'reorient'}, 'amod': {'current'}, 'pcomp': {'broadening'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'reading', 'science'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'presently'}, 'relcl': {'dominate'}} Long High Low
4443 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate I have drawn on reading research from multiple disciplines to make the case that reading is an expansive activity that occurs whenever a person and written language interact 28 14 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that', 'reading'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'drawn'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'case', 'interact', 'research', 'person'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'expansive'}, 'pobj': {'disciplines'}, 'advcl': {'make'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'is'}, 'attr': {'activity'}, 'relcl': {'occurs'}, 'advmod': {'whenever'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'written'}, 'compound': {'language'}} Long High High
4444 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate I have also sought to widen the parameters regarding what constitutes texts within this digital age 16 9 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'what'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'xcomp': {'widen'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'parameters', 'texts'}, 'prep': {'within', 'regarding'}, 'pcomp': {'constitutes'}, 'amod': {'digital'}, 'pobj': {'age'}} Medium High Low
4445 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Further, I have argued for a conception of reading development that extends far beyond the primary grades and the initial stages of learning to read 25 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PART, VERB] {'advmod': {'far', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'beyond'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'conception', 'grades'}, 'pcomp': {'learning', 'reading'}, 'dobj': {'development'}, 'relcl': {'extends'}, 'amod': {'primary', 'initial'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'stages'}, 'xcomp': {'read'}} Long High Low
4446 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate This alter - native view conveys reading development as a lifelong process of growth and transformation 16 5 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'This'}, 'npadvmod': {'alter'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'native', 'lifelong'}, 'nsubj': {'view'}, 'ROOT': {'conveys'}, 'xcomp': {'reading'}, 'dobj': {'development'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'growth', 'process'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'transformation'}} Medium High Low
4447 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate Finally, I set out to demonstrate that an overly constrained perception of reading and reading development comes with serious consequences, including a disregard of challenges faced by students living and learning in this digital age 35 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 10, 'ADP': 6, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'overly', 'Finally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'perception'}, 'ROOT': {'set'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'demonstrate'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'this'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'constrained', 'serious'}, 'prep': {'with', 'including', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'reading'}, 'dobj': {'development'}, 'ccomp': {'comes'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'age', 'disregard', 'challenges', 'consequences'}, 'acl': {'faced', 'living'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
4448 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate The sci-entific study of reading in its many manifestations has been crucial in bringing such challenges to light and in offering guidance for addressing them, too 26 15 {'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, ADV] {'det': {'The'}, 'compound': {'sci', 'entific'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'study'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'manifestations'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'amod': {'many', 'such'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'acomp': {'crucial'}, 'pcomp': {'offering', 'addressing', 'bringing'}, 'dobj': {'challenges', 'them', 'guidance'}, 'advcl': {'light'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'in'}, 'advmod': {'too'}} Long High Low
4449 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate I shared sev- eral recommendations found to circumvent or ameliorate such challenges for younger and older students represent-ing a diversity of interests and backgrounds 24 9 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADJ': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'shared'}, 'dep': {'represent', 'sev-'}, 'amod': {'eral', 'younger', 'such'}, 'dobj': {'diversity', 'challenges', 'recommendations'}, 'acl': {'found'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'circumvent'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'older', 'backgrounds', 'ameliorate'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'interests'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'advmod': {'ing'}, 'det': {'a'}} Long High Low
4450 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate What conceptions of reading, reading development, and the science of reading emerge in the decades to come I cannot say 20 12 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB] {'det': {'What', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'emerge', 'conceptions', 'development'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'reading', 'decades'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'reading', 'science'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pcomp': {'reading'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'come'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'say'}} Long High Low
4451 What Research Has Revealed About Readers’ Struggles With Comprehension in the Digital Age- Moving Beyond the Phonics Versus Whole Language Debate However, what remains clear is that stu-dents, then as now, cannot be expected to deal with those reading-related challenges without the insights garnered from the research, without the instructional guidance and support of knowledgeable teachers, and without the 38 24 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 6, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, PRON] {'advmod': {'then', 'However'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'insights'}, 'csubj': {'remains'}, 'acomp': {'clear'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'without', 'that'}, 'compound': {'stu'}, 'nsubjpass': {'dents'}, 'prep': {'without', 'from', 'with', 'of', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'now'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'expected'}, 'xcomp': {'deal'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'npadvmod': {'reading'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'related', 'knowledgeable'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 'guidance', 'challenges', 'the', 'research'}, 'advcl': {'garnered'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'without', 'support'}} Long High High
4452 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning working within the educational realm that has not precise or agreed-upon meaning for any of its most central constructs 19 12 {'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, PRON, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'working'}, 'prep': {'for', 'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'precise', 'educational', 'central', 'agreed'}, 'pobj': {'any', 'constructs', 'realm'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'prt': {'upon'}, 'npadvmod': {'meaning'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'advmod': {'most'}} Medium High Low
4453 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Further, as someone who has been playing in the arena of metacognition and executive control for almost 30 years and as an editor of leading journals, I have been surprised by thefrequency of conceptual cross-fertilization I am now witnessing 39 24 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 8, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, NUM, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'advmod': {'now', 'almost', 'Further'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'thefrequency', '-', 'journals', 'someone', 'years', 'cross', 'fertilization', 'metacognition', 'arena', 'editor'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'who'}, 'aux': {'has', 'have', 'am', 'been'}, 'relcl': {'playing'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'leading', 'conceptual', 'executive'}, 'conj': {'as', 'control'}, 'nummod': {'30'}, 'nsubjpass': {'I'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advcl': {'surprised'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'ROOT': {'witnessing'}} Long High Low
4454 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning For instance, within the new journal, Metacognition and Learning , it is not uncommon to find articles dealing with self- regulation (Kitsantas and Zimmerman 2006 ) or self-regulated learning (Pieschl et al.2008 ) 33 11 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 8, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT] {'prep': {'with', 'within', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'journal', 'instance', 'regulation'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'self-', 'regulated', 'new'}, 'appos': {'et', 'Metacognition', 'Kitsantas'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'Learning', 'Zimmerman', '2006'}, 'nsubj': {'it'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'uncommon'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'find'}, 'dobj': {'articles'}, 'acl': {'dealing'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'compound': {'Pieschl'}, 'nummod': {'al.2008'}} Long High Low
4455 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Moreover, within edited volumes dedicated to one of these terms (e.g., self-regulation ), there will inevitably be references, if not chapters, dealing with one of the others (e.g., self- regulated learning ) 32 16 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'Moreover', 'inevitably'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'with', 'within', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'edited', 'self-', 'regulated'}, 'pobj': {'volumes', 'one', 'terms', 'others'}, 'acl': {'dedicated'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'appos': {'regulation'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'references'}, 'cc': {'if'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'chapters'}, 'advcl': {'dealing'}, 'dobj': {'learning'}} Long High Medium
4456 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning I do not mean to suggest that the cross-fertilization of ideas is, in and of itself, a problem — quite to the contrary 23 16 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'fertilization', '-', 'cross'}, 'aux': {'to', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'mean'}, 'xcomp': {'suggest'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'contrary', 'itself', 'ideas'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'in'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'of'}, 'dobj': {'problem'}} Long High Medium
4457 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Nor do I feel it is imperative or even advisable to have but oneconceptual definition that can be applied to any complex educational construct 24 15 {'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [CCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'or', 'Nor', 'but'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to', 'do'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'feel'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'imperative'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'conj': {'advisable'}, 'xcomp': {'have'}, 'amod': {'oneconceptual', 'educational', 'complex'}, 'pobj': {'definition', 'construct'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'applied'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'det': {'any'}} Long High Low
4458 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning However, aseducational research migrates farther and farther from the initial philosophical or psy-chological roots from which it arose, it is worthwhile, if not necessary, to take a critical look atthe constructs as they have more recently been conceptualized and operationalized and to compare them to their conceptual progenitors, as well as to presumably related terms 55 30 {'ADV': 8, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, ADJ, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, CCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'recently', 'farther', 'presumably', 'well', 'as', 'However', 'more'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'related', 'critical', 'initial', 'conceptual', 'aseducational', 'philosophical'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'research'}, 'ccomp': {'migrates'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as', 'or'}, 'conj': {'farther', 'operationalized', 'compare', 'psy', 'chological'}, 'prep': {'to', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'atthe', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'progenitors', 'roots', 'terms'}, 'relcl': {'arose'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'worthwhile'}, 'mark': {'if', 'as'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'necessary', 'conceptualized'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'them', 'constructs', 'look'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High High
4459 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning How better to comprehend the nature of metacognition, for instance, than to ponder its associationswith self-regulation or self-regulated learning 19 9 {'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, X, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'How'}, 'ROOT': {'better'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'comprehend'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'nature'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'metacognition', 'instance'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'than'}, 'advcl': {'ponder'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'amod': {'associationswith', 'regulated'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'nmod': {'regulation'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}} Medium High High
4460 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning It makes sense that those who wish to engagein basic research within the area of self-directed activity (or what some have historicallyreferred to as executive functioning or executive control; Brown 1975 ), or who desire to formulate interventions that promote self-regulated or self-directed learning and develop-ment, want to have as clear an understanding of their central constructs as possible 59 28 {'PRON': 8, 'VERB': 12, 'NOUN': 15, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, ADJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'It', 'some', 'who', 'those', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'makes'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'interventions', 'sense', 'understanding', 'learning', 'research'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'wish', 'historicallyreferred', 'promote'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'have', 'formulate', 'engagein'}, 'amod': {'clear', 'executive', 'directed', 'basic', 'central', 'possible', 'regulated'}, 'prep': {'as', 'within', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'functioning', 'activity', 'constructs', 'area'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'directed', 'control', 'ment', 'desire'}, 'appos': {'Brown'}, 'nummod': {'1975'}, 'compound': {'develop'}, 'acl': {'want'}, 'advmod': {'as'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
4461 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning And,investigating the boundaries or overlaps in metacognition, self-regulation, and self-regulatedlearning should prove invaluable in that regard 16 8 {'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [CCONJ, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'cc': {'or', 'And', 'and'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'csubj': {'investigating'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'boundaries'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'overlaps', 'regulatedlearning'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'metacognition', 'regard'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'prove'}, 'oprd': {'invaluable'}} Medium High Low
4462 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Further, even though there have been recent reviews of the literature that inform the contributions to this special issue, those reviews have focused on one or another of these conceptual domains (e.g., self-regulated learning; Greene and Azevedo 2007 ) 39 21 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'e.g.', 'even', 'Further'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'mark': {'though'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advcl': {'been'}, 'amod': {'recent', 'regulated', 'conceptual', 'special'}, 'attr': {'reviews'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'literature', 'domains', 'issue'}, 'nsubj': {'reviews', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'inform'}, 'dobj': {'contributions'}, 'ROOT': {'focused'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'another', 'Azevedo'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', '2007'}, 'appos': {'learning', 'Greene'}} Long High Medium
4463 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Such reviews have not sought to juxtapose any one of these terms (e.g., metacognition ) against another or to explore their shared conceptual boundaries 24 13 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, PART, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'amod': {'shared', 'conceptual', 'Such'}, 'nsubj': {'reviews'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'xcomp': {'juxtapose'}, 'det': {'any', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'boundaries', 'one'}, 'prep': {'of', 'against'}, 'pobj': {'another', 'terms'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'advmod': {'e.g.'}, 'appos': {'metacognition'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'explore'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
4464 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Therefore, this special issue, dedicated pre-cisely to those purposes, is not only timely but also critical to the continued development ofthe literature dealing broadly with self-directed activity and its role in academic development 33 15 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'broadly', 'cisely', 'Therefore'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'dedicated', 'directed', 'special', 'continued', 'academic'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'acl': {'pre', 'dealing'}, 'appos': {'-'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'purposes', 'literature', 'activity', 'development'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'attr': {'timely'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'role', 'critical'}, 'compound': {'ofthe', 'development'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High Low
4465 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning I thought long and hard about the contents of this issue and those well equipped to do justice to that content 21 13 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'thought'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'long'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'hard'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'contents', 'content', 'issue'}, 'punct': {'those'}, 'amod': {'equipped'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'do'}, 'dobj': {'justice'}} Long High Low
4466 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning For instance, it has been my position that contemporary issues can be moreclearly and broadly envisioned when we can stand on the shoulders of our theoretical andempirical forefathers (Alexander 2003 ) 31 16 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'forefathers', 'instance', 'shoulders'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'we', 'issues'}, 'aux': {'can', 'has'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'poss': {'our', 'my'}, 'attr': {'position'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'andempirical', 'theoretical', 'contemporary'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'moreclearly'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'broadly'}, 'acl': {'envisioned'}, 'advcl': {'stand'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'nummod': {'2003'}} Long High High
4467 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning That certainly holds true for metacognition, self- regulation, and self-regulated learning, as the insightful opening article by Fox andRiconscente ( 2008 ) makes apparent 24 6 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'That', 'article'}, 'advmod': {'certainly'}, 'ROOT': {'holds'}, 'oprd': {'true'}, 'prep': {'by', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'metacognition', 'andRiconscente'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'self-', 'regulated', 'insightful'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'regulation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'opening', 'Fox'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'advcl': {'makes'}, 'acomp': {'apparent'}} Long High Medium
4468 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Specifically, this article provides an overview of the historical precursors to present day notions of metacognition and self-regulation 18 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'article'}, 'ROOT': {'provides'}, 'dobj': {'overview', 'notions'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'historical'}, 'pobj': {'precursors', 'metacognition'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'present'}, 'compound': {'self', 'day'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'regulation'}} Medium High Low
4469 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning It does so by drawing directly on selected writings of William James, Lev Vygotsky, and Jean Piaget 17 7 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 1, 'PROPN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'does'}, 'advmod': {'directly', 'so'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'drawing'}, 'amod': {'selected'}, 'pobj': {'writings', 'James'}, 'compound': {'Lev', 'Jean', 'William'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'Vygotsky'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dep': {'Piaget'}} Medium High Low
4470 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Inparticular, Fox and Riconscente highlight these theorists ’considerations of the role of affect and will, of social interaction, and of developmental changes —all critical dimensions of con- temporary conceptualizations of metacognition, self-regulation, and self-regulated learning 35 14 {'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Inparticular'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—', '’'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'learning', 'Fox', 'Riconscente', 'of', 'will'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'highlight'}, 'det': {'all', 'the', 'these'}, 'compound': {'theorists', 'self'}, 'dobj': {'considerations', 'dimensions'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'interaction', 'conceptualizations', 'role', 'affect', 'metacognition', 'changes'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'developmental', 'social', 'regulated', 'temporary'}, 'nmod': {'con-'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}} Long High Low
4471 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning While Fox and Riconscente ’s article affords us a rich philosophical view on our targeted constructs, the review by Dinsmore et al.(2008 ) engages in a detailed analysis of the more recent empirical literature that purports to address one or more of those constructs 44 21 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PART, NOUN, VERB, PRON, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NUM, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'poss': {'our', 'Fox'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Riconscente', 'more'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'article', 'review'}, 'advcl': {'affords'}, 'dative': {'us'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'rich', 'detailed', 'empirical', 'recent', 'philosophical', 'targeted'}, 'dobj': {'one', 'view'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'al.(2008', 'analysis', 'literature', 'constructs'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'compound': {'Dinsmore', 'et'}, 'ROOT': {'engages'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'relcl': {'purports'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'address'}} Long High Medium
4472 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning look broadly at the manner in which metacognition, self-regulation, and self- regulated learning have been conceptualized and operationalized in recent published works.That extensive analysis of 255 empirical works sets the groundwork for the more particular370 Educ Psychol Rev (2008) 20:369 –372 41 15 {'VERB': 7, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NUM': 4, 'PROPN': 4} [VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM] {'ROOT': {'sets', 'look'}, 'advmod': {'broadly'}, 'prep': {'for', 'at', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'That', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'manner', 'Rev', 'works'}, 'nsubjpass': {'metacognition'}, 'punct': {'–', '-', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'compound': {'Psychol', 'self', 'Educ', 'particular370'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'operationalized', 'self-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'published', 'extensive', 'empirical', 'recent', 'regulated', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'learning', 'groundwork'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'conceptualized'}, 'nsubj': {'analysis'}, 'nummod': {'255'}, 'appos': {'372', '2008', '20:369'}} Long High Low
4473 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning reviews that follow in this volume ad that elaborate, extend, complement, or clarify the themes that Dinsmore et al 19 7 {'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'ROOT': {'reviews'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'Dinsmore', 'follow', 'elaborate'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'volume'}, 'pobj': {'ad'}, 'punct': {',', 'al'}, 'conj': {'complement', 'clarify', 'extend'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'dobj': {'themes'}, 'advmod': {'that'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Medium High Low
4474 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Indeed, the ensuing collection of works for this special issue has been chosen to bring several bodies of research into alignment so that key theoretical elements, methodologicalfeatures, and statistical dimensions can be compared and contrasted 35 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'Indeed'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'statistical', 'ensuing', 'special', 'several', 'key'}, 'nsubjpass': {'elements', 'collection'}, 'prep': {'into', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'alignment', 'issue', 'research', 'works'}, 'aux': {'can', 'has', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'been'}, 'ROOT': {'chosen'}, 'xcomp': {'bring'}, 'dobj': {'bodies'}, 'mark': {'that', 'so'}, 'conj': {'contrasted', 'dimensions', 'methodologicalfeatures'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advcl': {'compared'}} Long High High
4475 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning In some instances, those ensuing reviews involve literatures that have already been linked to metacognition, self- regulation, or self-regulated learning 20 9 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In'}, 'det': {'those', 'some'}, 'pobj': {'metacognition', 'instances'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'ensuing', 'self-', 'regulated'}, 'nsubj': {'reviews'}, 'ROOT': {'involve'}, 'dobj': {'literatures'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advmod': {'already'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'linked'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'regulation'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}} Long High Low
4476 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Thus, Loyens et al.(2008 ) delve into the role of self- directed learning in problem-based learning (PBL) environments and juxtapose those worksto the broader literature on metacognition, self-regulation, and self-regulated learning.Similarly, Winters et al.(2008 ) pick up themes identified by Dinsmore et al 43 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 12, 'PROPN': 7, 'VERB': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 16, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'Similarly'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', 'al', ')', '(', ','}, 'compound': {'self', 'Winters', 'Loyens', 'et'}, 'nsubj': {'al.(2008'}, 'ROOT': {'pick', 'delve'}, 'prep': {'into', 'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'pobj': {'Dinsmore', 'role', 'learning', 'environments', 'metacognition'}, 'amod': {'broader', 'directed', 'self-', 'based', 'regulated'}, 'npadvmod': {'self', 'problem', 'et'}, 'nmod': {'learning', 'PBL'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'regulation', 'juxtapose'}, 'dobj': {'worksto', 'literature', 'themes'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'acl': {'identified'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
4477 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning and frame them more precisely within the research on computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) 13 6 {'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1} [CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT] {'cc': {'and'}, 'ROOT': {'frame'}, 'dobj': {'them'}, 'advmod': {'precisely', 'more'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'environments', 'research'}, 'npadvmod': {'computer'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'amod': {'based'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'appos': {'CBLEs'}} Medium High Low
4478 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Inboth cases, we can see how the roots of metacognition, self-regulation, and self-regulatedlearning have taken hold and have migrated to associated fields of inquiry 24 12 {'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'compound': {'self', 'Inboth'}, 'npadvmod': {'cases'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'roots'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'metacognition', 'inquiry', 'fields'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'migrated', 'regulatedlearning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ccomp': {'taken'}, 'dobj': {'hold'}, 'amod': {'associated'}} Long High Medium
4479 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Finally, with the article by Maggioni and Parkinson ( 2008 ), the core ideas underlying this special issue are carried into a realm of empirical research that has not traditionally beenpositioned under the banner of self-directed activity, epistemic cognition 40 16 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'traditionally', 'Finally'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'under', 'by', 'into', 'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'banner', 'Maggioni', 'activity', 'realm', 'article', 'research'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Parkinson'}, 'appos': {'2008', 'cognition'}, 'compound': {'core'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ideas'}, 'acl': {'underlying'}, 'amod': {'empirical', 'epistemic', 'directed', 'special'}, 'dobj': {'issue'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'carried'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'beenpositioned'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}} Long High Low
4480 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning What also dis- tinguishes this particular contribution is the purposeful focus on teachers and how meta- cognition or self-regulation manifests in educators ’beliefs about knowledge or the practice of communicating that knowledge to others, as well as in the calibration of their students ’ learning or their own performance 49 27 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'NOUN': 17, 'ADP': 9, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2} [PRON, ADV, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'What', 'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'also', 'how'}, 'dep': {'dis-'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in', 'tinguishes', 'of', 'about'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'purposeful', 'meta-', 'own'}, 'nsubj': {'contribution'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'beliefs', 'focus'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 'students', 'others', 'knowledge', 'calibration', 'educators'}, 'cc': {'and', 'as', 'or'}, 'nmod': {'cognition'}, 'compound': {'self'}, 'punct': {'’', '-', ','}, 'conj': {'practice', 'performance', 'regulation', 'manifests'}, 'pcomp': {'communicating'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'acl': {'learning'}} Long High Medium
4481 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning To fully realize the goals for this issue, I sought the insights of three remarkable scholars who have long been invested in one or more of the cons tructs central to thisv olume 33 18 {'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PART, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN] {'aux': {'To', 'have', 'to'}, 'advmod': {'fully', 'long'}, 'advcl': {'thisv', 'realize'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'goals', 'olume', 'insights'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'one', 'tructs', 'issue', 'scholars'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'amod': {'remarkable', 'central'}, 'nsubjpass': {'who'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'invested'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'more'}, 'compound': {'cons'}} Long High Low
4482 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning For one, Dale Schunk ( 2008) has long been regarded as a leader in the area of self-regulation 18 9 {'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'leader', 'one', 'regulation', 'area'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'self', 'Dale'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Schunk'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'advmod': {'long'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'regarded'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}} Medium High Low
4483 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Here, he displays that expertise by out lining critical recommendations for the future based on the emerging themes and concerns identified in the individual articles 25 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Here'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'he'}, 'ROOT': {'displays'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'recommendations', 'expertise'}, 'prep': {'by', 'on', 'for', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'lining', 'out'}, 'amod': {'emerging', 'individual', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'future', 'articles', 'themes'}, 'acl': {'based', 'identified'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'concerns'}} Long High Low
4484 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning For another, SusanneLajoie ’s(2008) theoretical and empirical writings ha ve served to fuel the burgeoning area of self-regulated learning 19 6 {'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, PRON, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'another'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')', '’'}, 'nmod': {'SusanneLajoie', 's(2008'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'regulated', 'burgeoning'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'empirical'}, 'nsubj': {'writings'}, 'aux': {'ve', 'ha', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'served'}, 'xcomp': {'fuel'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'area'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}} Medium High Low
4485 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning In her commentary, she poses the provocative question of whether the changes evidenced in these reviews exemplify ane volutionary or revoluti onary transformation 23 10 {'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'her'}, 'pobj': {'reviews', 'commentary'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'she', 'changes'}, 'ROOT': {'poses'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'provocative', 'onary', 'ane'}, 'dobj': {'volutionary', 'question'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'acl': {'evidenced'}, 'pcomp': {'exemplify'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'nmod': {'revoluti'}, 'conj': {'transformation'}} Long High Medium
4486 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning As a means of addressing that ques tion, Lajoie discusses Bandura ’s(1977) notion of reciprocal determinism in light of mind-envi ronment interactions supported in technology-rich learning contexts 27 8 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'As', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'addressing', 'means', 'light', 'interactions', 'learning', 'determinism'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'Lajoie'}, 'relcl': {'ques'}, 'dobj': {'notion', 'tion'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')', '’'}, 'ROOT': {'discusses'}, 'nmod': {'s(1977', 'Bandura'}, 'amod': {'rich', 'envi', 'reciprocal', 'ronment'}, 'npadvmod': {'mind', 'technology'}, 'acl': {'supported'}, 'conj': {'contexts'}} Long High Low
4487 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Finally, Avi Kaplan ( 2008), whose body of work has touched on all three of our key constructs, boldly reframes the problem at hand , unwilling to accept the premise that we need to establish the boundaries between metacognition, se lf-regulation, and self-regulated learning 44 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NUM, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, X, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Finally', 'boldly'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'Avi', 'lf'}, 'nsubj': {'body', 'Kaplan', 'we'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'poss': {'our', 'whose'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'three', 'hand', 'work', 'metacognition', 'constructs'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'touched', 'need'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'amod': {'regulated', 'key'}, 'ROOT': {'reframes'}, 'dobj': {'boundaries', 'premise', 'problem'}, 'advcl': {'unwilling'}, 'xcomp': {'establish', 'accept'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nmod': {'se'}, 'conj': {'learning', 'regulation'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}} Long High Medium
4488 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Instead, Kaplan admonishes us to seek the dimensions along which all manner of self-regulated action varies 16 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'Instead'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'manner', 'Kaplan'}, 'ROOT': {'admonishes'}, 'dobj': {'dimensions', 'us'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'seek'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'prep': {'along', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'action'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'amod': {'regulated'}, 'relcl': {'varies'}} Medium High Low
4489 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Further, he introduces the notion of multidimensional conceptual space for self-regulated action to achieve that end 16 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'he'}, 'ROOT': {'introduces'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'notion', 'end'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'conceptual', 'multidimensional', 'regulated'}, 'pobj': {'space', 'action'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'achieve'}} Medium High Low
4490 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning I grant that the goals that I envisioned for this special issue were lofty and ambitious 16 9 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'goals', 'I'}, 'ROOT': {'grant'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'envisioned'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'amod': {'special'}, 'pobj': {'issue'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'lofty'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ambitious'}} Medium High Medium
4491 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning However, I feel confident that those who immerse themselves in the articles and commentaries will be informed and enlightened by the experience 22 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'feel'}, 'acomp': {'confident'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'those'}, 'relcl': {'immerse'}, 'dobj': {'themselves'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'experience'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'commentaries', 'enlightened'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'informed'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Medium
4492 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning I also feel certain that those who become engaged in this special issue will view writings that speak about metacognition, self-regulation,and self-regulated learning with greater discernment, and will frame their own theoretical andempirical writings with a newly-found sensitivity and wisdom that this special issue can afford.I am privileged to have brought this special issue to fruition and grateful to Daniel Robinson forthe opportunity to do so 66 34 {'PRON': 6, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 9, 'ADJ': 11, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 16, 'AUX': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PROPN': 2} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, AUX, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, NOUN, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADV] {'nsubj': {'issue', 'who', 'I', 'those', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'newly', 'so'}, 'ROOT': {'am', 'feel'}, 'acomp': {'certain', 'privileged', 'engaged'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'afford', 'speak', 'become'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'with', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'amod': {'andempirical', 'theoretical', 'own', 'greater', 'found', 'regulated', 'special'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'Robinson', 'discernment', 'sensitivity', 'metacognition', 'fruition'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to', 'have', 'will'}, 'ccomp': {'view'}, 'dobj': {'opportunity', 'writings', 'that', 'issue'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.'}, 'compound': {'self', 'forthe', 'Daniel'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'grateful', 'learning', 'frame', 'wisdom'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'self'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'xcomp': {'brought'}, 'acl': {'do'}} Long High High
4493 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning The authors and I are also indebted to the established scholars who willingly served as reviewers for this special issue and whose comments and recommendations addedsignificantly to its quality 29 16 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 2} [DET, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'who'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'I', 'recommendations'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'addedsignificantly', 'also', 'willingly'}, 'acomp': {'indebted'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'to'}, 'amod': {'special', 'established'}, 'pobj': {'quality', 'issue', 'scholars', 'reviewers'}, 'relcl': {'served'}, 'poss': {'its', 'whose'}, 'punct': {'comments'}} Long High Low
4494 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning Those scholars included Stephen Benton, Ivar Bråten, Eric Bredo,David Gijbels, Kimberly Lawless, Richard Mayer, Daniel Moos, Krista Muis,P 18 1 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 16, 'PUNCT': 8} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'Those'}, 'nsubj': {'scholars'}, 'ROOT': {'included'}, 'compound': {'David', 'Eric', 'Ivar', 'Kimberly', 'Krista', 'Stephen', 'Daniel', 'Richard'}, 'dobj': {'Benton'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'P', 'Bråten'}, 'conj': {'Moos', 'Gijbels', 'Bredo', 'Mayer', 'Lawless', 'Muis'}} Medium Low Low
4495 Why This and Why Now- Introduction to the Special Issue on Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning KarenMurphy, Fred Paas, and Marcel Veenman.Educ Psychol Rev (2008) 20:369 –372 371 12 1 {'PROPN': 8, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 4} [PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM] {'ROOT': {'Rev', 'KarenMurphy'}, 'punct': {'–', '.', ')', '(', ','}, 'compound': {'Marcel', 'Fred', 'Psychol', 'Educ'}, 'conj': {'Paas', 'Veenman'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'appos': {'2008', '20:369', '371'}, 'nummod': {'372'}} Medium Low Low
4496 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice That is to say, they have been so named because I will begin each response with a statement of concurrence ( “yes...”) before diverging from the authors ’explicit messages ( “but...”) 31 19 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'INTJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, INTJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'That', 'I'}, 'parataxis': {'is'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to', 'will'}, 'xcomp': {'say'}, 'punct': {'’', ')', '(', '”', ',', '...', '“'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'advmod': {'so'}, 'ROOT': {'named'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'begin'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'each'}, 'dobj': {'messages', 'response'}, 'prep': {'with', 'before', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'authors', 'statement', 'concurrence'}, 'intj': {'yes'}, 'pcomp': {'diverging'}, 'amod': {'explicit'}, 'cc': {'but'}} Long High Medium
4497 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice with the contributors to this volume that the path toward tenure and subsequent promotions within research-intensive and research-extensive institutions islargely predicated on having a well-articulated and discernible research program 29 14 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'with'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'contributors', 'volume', 'tenure', 'institutions'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to', 'toward'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'path'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'intensive', 'articulated', 'subsequent'}, 'conj': {'extensive', 'promotions', 'discernible'}, 'npadvmod': {'research'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'advmod': {'islargely', 'well'}, 'acl': {'predicated'}, 'pcomp': {'having'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'dobj': {'program'}} Long High Medium
4498 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice For instance, as Mayer (2008 ) outlined critical steps for conducting a successful research project and bringing it to closure, he emphasized the necessity for a guiding theoretical model and research questionsthat allow one to “contribute to a research base ”(p 41 16 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'PART': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, PART, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'for', 'For', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'closure', 'model', 'instance', 'base'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'Mayer', 'he', 'questionsthat', 'one'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'ccomp': {'outlined', 'allow', 'contribute'}, 'amod': {'guiding', 'theoretical', 'successful', 'critical'}, 'dobj': {'steps', 'it', 'necessity', 'project'}, 'pcomp': {'conducting'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'bringing', 'research'}, 'ROOT': {'emphasized'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High Medium
4499 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice In keeping with Mayer ’s argument, many an article submitted to Contemporary Educational Psychology during my tenure as editor has been rejected in part due to this lack of an overarching theoretical frame that notonly ties the pieces of the manuscript together but also establishes its contributions to theexisting literature 50 27 {'ADP': 11, 'VERB': 6, 'PROPN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'DET': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'during', 'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'In', 'due'}, 'pcomp': {'keeping', 'to'}, 'poss': {'Mayer', 'my', 'its'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'pobj': {'Psychology', 'lack', 'manuscript', 'literature', 'part', 'tenure', 'frame', 'argument', 'editor'}, 'punct': {','}, 'predet': {'many'}, 'det': {'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'article'}, 'acl': {'submitted'}, 'compound': {'Contemporary', 'Educational', 'theexisting'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'rejected'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'overarching'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'notonly', 'also', 'together'}, 'relcl': {'ties'}, 'dobj': {'pieces', 'contributions'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'establishes'}} Long High Low
4500 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Yet…the qualities Mayer thoughtfully outlined for study design and manuscript development would be far easier to accomplish if young faculty were researching withina well-defined niche and had carved out a line of inquiry that carries their thinking (and thus the field) forward 42 20 {'ADV': 6, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 11, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PROPN, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV] {'advmod': {'thoughtfully', 'Yet', 'forward', 'well', 'far', 'thus'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', '…', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'Mayer', 'that', 'faculty', 'qualities'}, 'relcl': {'outlined', 'carries'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'compound': {'manuscript', 'study'}, 'pobj': {'design', 'inquiry'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'carved', 'field', 'development'}, 'aux': {'would', 'had', 'to', 'were'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'easier'}, 'xcomp': {'accomplish'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'amod': {'defined', 'young'}, 'advcl': {'researching'}, 'nmod': {'withina'}, 'dobj': {'niche', 'line', 'thinking'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
4501 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Said another way, it is not just the well-conceived and well-crafted manuscript that matters, but how one manuscript is part of a coherent program of researchand leads theoretically and methodologically to the next 33 22 {'VERB': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NUM, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ] {'advcl': {'Said'}, 'det': {'another', 'a', 'the'}, 'npadvmod': {'way'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'manuscript', 'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'just', 'well', 'theoretically', 'how'}, 'amod': {'coherent', 'conceived'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'methodologically', 'is', 'crafted'}, 'attr': {'manuscript', 'part'}, 'relcl': {'matters'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'program', 'researchand', 'next'}, 'ccomp': {'leads'}} Long High High
4502 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Of the many productive scholars Iknow, few match Richard Mayer in his ability to do just that —to see the next logical step in a program of inquiry 28 17 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, AUX, ADV, PRON, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'Of', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'productive', 'few', 'many', 'logical', 'next'}, 'pobj': {'inquiry', 'program', 'ability', 'scholars'}, 'dep': {'Iknow'}, 'punct': {',', '—'}, 'compound': {'match', 'Richard'}, 'nsubj': {'Mayer'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'do'}, 'advmod': {'just'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'step'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}} Long High Low
4503 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice I also appreciated …McCormick and Barnes ’s(2008 ) articulation of steps that new faculty might take to establish the type of research program into which Mayer ’s systematically crafted manuscripts would fit nicely 33 14 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PROPN, PART, ADV, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV] {'nsubj': {'I', 'faculty', 'manuscripts'}, 'advmod': {'nicely', 'also', 'systematically'}, 'ROOT': {'appreciated'}, 'punct': {'’', '…', ')'}, 'nmod': {'s(2008', 'McCormick'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Barnes'}, 'dobj': {'articulation', 'that', 'type'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'steps', 'program'}, 'amod': {'crafted', 'new'}, 'aux': {'would', 'might', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'fit', 'take'}, 'advcl': {'establish'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'poss': {'Mayer'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High Low
4504 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Among those recommendations, theseauthors talk about explicitly searching for collaborators once young faculty have arrived intheir new academic homes, learning about their colleagues ’research, and “attending research seminars, looking at websites and conducting Internet searches ”(p 36 11 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 8, 'VERB': 7, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'prep': {'Among', 'about', 'at', 'for'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'pobj': {'collaborators', 'recommendations', 'websites', 'colleagues'}, 'punct': {'’', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'faculty', 'theseauthors'}, 'ROOT': {'talk'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly'}, 'pcomp': {'searching'}, 'mark': {'once'}, 'amod': {'intheir', 'young', 'academic', 'new'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advcl': {'learning', 'arrived', 'looking'}, 'dobj': {'searches', 'homes', 'research', 'seminars'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'attending', 'conducting'}, 'compound': {'research', 'Internet'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High Low
4505 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice 10) as potential sources of suitable lines of inquiry and viable collaborators 12 4 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'meta': {'10'}, 'punct': {')'}, 'ROOT': {'as'}, 'amod': {'potential', 'viable', 'suitable'}, 'pobj': {'sources', 'lines', 'inquiry'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'collaborators'}} Medium High Low
4506 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice They also talked about using conferences as tools for networking and expanding one ’s base for collaboration 17 10 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NUM, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'talked'}, 'prep': {'for', 'about', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'using'}, 'dobj': {'conferences', 'base'}, 'pobj': {'networking', 'tools', 'collaboration'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'expanding'}, 'poss': {'one'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Medium High Low
4507 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Nonetheless …I would like to sound several cautionary notes about the insights that McCormick and Barnes forwarded 17 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {'…'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'McCormick'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'like'}, 'xcomp': {'sound'}, 'amod': {'several', 'cautionary'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'notes'}, 'prep': {'about'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'insights'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Barnes'}, 'relcl': {'forwarded'}} Medium High Medium
4508 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Fundamentally, I am not convinced that young facultyshould seek positions under the assumption that they have the luxury of exploring a line ofinquiry suitable for them upon arrival 28 15 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, PRON, SCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Fundamentally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'young', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'am'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'convinced'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'facultyshould'}, 'ccomp': {'seek'}, 'dobj': {'luxury', 'ofinquiry', 'positions'}, 'prep': {'for', 'under', 'upon', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'arrival', 'them', 'assumption'}, 'acl': {'have'}, 'pcomp': {'exploring'}, 'compound': {'line'}, 'amod': {'suitable'}} Long High High
4509 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Within research-intensive and research-extensiveinstitutions, young faculty have precious little time to formulate their research focus orconceptualize a program of inquiry 20 7 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'Within', 'of'}, 'npadvmod': {'research'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'little', 'intensive', 'young', 'precious'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'pobj': {'inquiry', 'extensiveinstitutions'}, 'nsubj': {'faculty'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'dobj': {'program', 'time', 'focus'}, 'relcl': {'formulate'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ROOT': {'orconceptualize'}, 'det': {'a'}} Long High Low
4510 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice In many institutions, preliminary decisions about ayoung faculty member ’s likelihood of success occur within the first 3 years of appointment 21 9 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'about', 'within', 'In', 'of'}, 'amod': {'many', 'ayoung', 'first', 'preliminary'}, 'pobj': {'appointment', 'years', 'institutions', 'likelihood', 'success'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'decisions'}, 'compound': {'faculty'}, 'poss': {'member'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'ROOT': {'occur'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nummod': {'3'}} Long High Low
4511 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Thus, when we search for new faculty we look for someone who already demonstrates thebeginnings of a productive research career, as evidenced by their record of publication, presentations, the timeliness of their research topic, and the like 37 20 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, ADJ] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'when', 'already'}, 'punct': {',', 'like'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'who'}, 'advcl': {'search', 'evidenced'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'productive', 'new'}, 'pobj': {'publication', 'someone', 'topic', 'faculty', 'career', 'record'}, 'ROOT': {'look'}, 'relcl': {'demonstrates'}, 'dobj': {'thebeginnings'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'conj': {'timeliness', 'presentations'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High High
4512 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice At a minimum, the dissertation should signal the candidate ’s potential and should translate into one or more significant publications 20 12 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, NUM, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'At', 'into'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'minimum', 'publications'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'dissertation'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'ROOT': {'signal'}, 'poss': {'candidate'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'dobj': {'potential'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'significant', 'translate'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'advmod': {'more'}} Long High Low
4513 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice In fact, for our doctoral students there is the expectation that thedissertation will notbe their first research endeavor but rather an extension of the focus they have already begun to articulate.72 Educ Psychol Rev (2008) 20:71 –77 37 19 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 3} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM] {'prep': {'for', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'fact', 'focus'}, 'punct': {',', '–', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'our', 'their'}, 'amod': {'first', 'doctoral'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'an', 'that', 'the'}, 'attr': {'expectation'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'thedissertation'}, 'aux': {'to', 'have', 'will'}, 'acl': {'notbe'}, 'compound': {'Psychol', 'Educ', 'research'}, 'dobj': {'endeavor', 'Rev'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'advmod': {'already', 'rather'}, 'conj': {'extension'}, 'relcl': {'begun'}, 'xcomp': {'articulate.72'}, 'appos': {'77', '2008', '20:71'}} Long High Low
4514 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Supporting Professional Development Without question …the reality of Halpern ’s(2008 ) explanation regarding the professional trajectory of women in academia is stark but undeniable 24 9 {'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [VERB, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ] {'csubj': {'Supporting'}, 'compound': {'Professional'}, 'dobj': {'Development'}, 'prep': {'in', 'Without', 'of', 'regarding'}, 'pobj': {'women', 'question', 'explanation', 'academia', 'trajectory'}, 'punct': {'’', '…', ')'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'reality'}, 'nmod': {'s(2008', 'Halpern'}, 'amod': {'professional'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'stark'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'undeniable'}} Long High Low
4515 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice As she writes: “The reasons for the slow progress of women, especially when research demands are high, lie in the fact that faculty positions can be all-consuming in their time demands, which can make it very difficult to manage family-care responsibilities and a research-intensive academic career ” (p 48 24 {'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 10, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 15, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'demands', 'she', 'reasons', 'it', 'positions'}, 'advcl': {'writes'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'slow', 'intensive', 'consuming', 'academic'}, 'pobj': {'women', 'time', 'progress', 'fact'}, 'advmod': {'all', 'when', 'especially', 'very'}, 'compound': {'family', 'care', 'faculty', 'research'}, 'relcl': {'make', 'are'}, 'acomp': {'high'}, 'ROOT': {'lie'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'acl': {'be'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'attr': {'demands'}, 'ccomp': {'difficult'}, 'xcomp': {'manage'}, 'dobj': {'responsibilities'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'research'}, 'conj': {'career'}, 'appos': {'p'}} Long High High
4516 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Later Halpern admonishes institutions of higher education to rethink the prevailingculture of practice 13 4 {'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Later'}, 'nsubj': {'Halpern'}, 'ROOT': {'admonishes'}, 'dobj': {'prevailingculture', 'institutions'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'higher'}, 'pobj': {'education', 'practice'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'rethink'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
4517 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice One way to help young faculty succeed is to change the workplace culture and rules so that they are supportive of valuable employees who also want to have children or to care for others ….There is good evidence that family-friendly workplaces are more productive and offer substantial returns to the employer 51 26 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 13, 'PART': 4, 'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 7, 'AUX': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2} [NUM, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'.There', 'they', 'way', 'who', 'workplaces'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'help', 'want'}, 'amod': {'valuable', 'good', 'young', 'friendly', 'substantial'}, 'compound': {'workplace', 'faculty'}, 'dobj': {'children', 'succeed', 'returns', 'culture'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'xcomp': {'change', 'have'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'care', 'offer', 'rules'}, 'mark': {'that', 'so'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'supportive', 'productive'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'employees', 'employer', 'others'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'more'}, 'punct': {'-', '…'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'evidence'}, 'npadvmod': {'family'}, 'acl': {'are'}} Long High High
4518 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice 62) There are personal reasons why I find Halpern ’s portrayal compelling 12 5 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PART': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADJ] {'ROOT': {'62', 'are'}, 'punct': {')'}, 'expl': {'There'}, 'amod': {'personal'}, 'attr': {'reasons'}, 'advmod': {'why'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'relcl': {'find'}, 'poss': {'Halpern'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'dobj': {'portrayal'}, 'acomp': {'compelling'}} Medium High Medium
4519 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice For one, while I was on faculty at Texas A&M University I chaired the Committee on the Status of Womenand remember the findings of an intensive study we undertook that revealed the lack ofprogress in moving women and underrepresented populations into the higher ranks ofacademia 45 22 {'ADP': 8, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'PROPN': 6, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, DET, PROPN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'in', 'into', 'of', 'at', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'University', 'Status', 'faculty', 'ranks', 'Womenand', 'one', 'study'}, 'punct': {',', 'ofacademia'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'remember', 'was'}, 'compound': {'Texas', 'A&M'}, 'ROOT': {'chaired'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'women', 'findings', 'Committee', 'lack'}, 'amod': {'ofprogress', 'intensive', 'higher', 'underrepresented'}, 'relcl': {'revealed', 'undertook'}, 'pcomp': {'moving'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'populations'}} Long High Medium
4520 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice In fact, there had been almost no appreciable change in the 10 years of data wegathered across colleges and disciplines 20 11 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'across', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'years', 'colleges', 'data', 'fact'}, 'punct': {','}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'aux': {'had'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'advmod': {'almost'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'amod': {'appreciable'}, 'attr': {'change'}, 'nummod': {'10'}, 'acl': {'wegathered'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'disciplines'}} Long High Low
4521 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice That was almost 15 years ago, and the pattern indata shared by Halpern ( 2008 ) and Mason and Goulden (2002 ,2004 ) still reveal little progress 27 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'NUM': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, NUM, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'That', 'indata'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'ago', 'almost', 'still'}, 'nummod': {'15'}, 'npadvmod': {'years'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'pattern'}, 'acl': {'shared'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'Halpern'}, 'appos': {'2004', '2008', '2002'}, 'conj': {'Mason', 'Goulden', 'reveal'}, 'amod': {'little'}, 'dobj': {'progress'}} Long High Low
4522 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Recently, I have become invested in understanding expertise development broadly and more specifically forthose from underrepresented populations 17 7 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Recently', 'more', 'broadly'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'I'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'become'}, 'ROOT': {'invested'}, 'prep': {'from', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'understanding'}, 'compound': {'expertise'}, 'dobj': {'development'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'specifically'}, 'advcl': {'forthose'}, 'amod': {'underrepresented'}, 'pobj': {'populations'}} Medium High Low
4523 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice This research experience led me to consider the power of fragile competence orfragile expertise in undermining the progress of women, especially in scientific and mathematical fields 26 10 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'nsubj': {'experience'}, 'ROOT': {'led'}, 'dobj': {'me', 'power', 'progress'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'consider'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'fragile', 'orfragile', 'scientific'}, 'nmod': {'competence'}, 'pobj': {'women', 'expertise', 'fields'}, 'pcomp': {'undermining'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'especially'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'mathematical'}} Long High Low
4524 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice In concert with Halpern ’s recommendations, there is reason to assume that blatant discrimination of the type discussed in the “Glass Ceiling ”cannot be held primarily accountable for the academic stagnation we are witnessing 34 18 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PROPN': 3, 'PART': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PART, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'in', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'concert', 'stagnation', 'type', 'recommendations', 'Ceiling'}, 'poss': {'Halpern'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'reason'}, 'aux': {'can', 'are', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'assume', 'witnessing'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'blatant', 'academic'}, 'nsubjpass': {'discrimination'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'discussed'}, 'compound': {'Glass'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'held'}, 'advmod': {'primarily'}, 'oprd': {'accountable'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}} Long High Medium
4525 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Rather, it would seem that moresubtle barriers, what I perceive as “academic undertows, ”can pull promising scholars down and stymie their progress 22 12 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'it'}, 'aux': {'would', 'can'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'det': {'that'}, 'compound': {'moresubtle'}, 'dobj': {'progress', 'what', 'scholars', 'barriers'}, 'relcl': {'perceive'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'promising'}, 'pobj': {'undertows'}, 'ccomp': {'pull'}, 'prt': {'down'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'stymie'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
4526 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Certainly, family-care responsibilities would be one of thosemajor academic undertows with which women must deal 15 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, NUM, ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Certainly'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'compound': {'family', 'care'}, 'nsubj': {'responsibilities', 'women'}, 'aux': {'would', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'one'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'thosemajor'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'undertows'}, 'relcl': {'deal'}} Medium High Low
4527 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice My reason for referring to this phenomenon as fragile expertise is to emphasize that young scholars ’professional development is still in a precarious state when they exit their graduate programs —even if well trained 34 18 {'PRON': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, ADV, VERB] {'poss': {'their', 'My', 'scholars'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'development', 'expertise', 'reason'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'referring'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'phenomenon', 'state'}, 'mark': {'if', 'as', 'that'}, 'amod': {'fragile', 'young', 'professional', 'precarious'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'emphasize'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'when', 'even', 'still'}, 'advcl': {'exit', 'trained'}, 'compound': {'graduate'}, 'dobj': {'programs'}, 'punct': {'—'}} Long High High
4528 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice What is required is continued support and guidance as these scholars cross the threshold from graduate student to faculty member 20 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2} [PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'What'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'csubj': {'required'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'continued'}, 'attr': {'support'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'guidance'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'scholars'}, 'advcl': {'cross'}, 'dobj': {'threshold'}, 'prep': {'to', 'from'}, 'compound': {'graduate', 'faculty'}, 'pobj': {'member', 'student'}} Long High Medium
4529 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Not only are new skills and knowledge required of young academics, but those competenciesalready formed in graduate school must also be further reinforced and solidified 25 13 {'PART': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 1} [PART, ADV, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'preconj': {'Not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'further'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'young', 'new'}, 'attr': {'skills'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'knowledge', 'solidified', 'reinforced'}, 'acl': {'required', 'formed'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'academics', 'school'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'those'}, 'nsubjpass': {'competenciesalready'}, 'compound': {'graduate'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}} Long High Low
4530 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Let me offer one additional side comment with regard to this call for continued nurturance of our young faculty 19 10 {'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1} [VERB, PRON, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Let'}, 'nsubj': {'me'}, 'ccomp': {'offer'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'amod': {'continued', 'additional', 'young'}, 'compound': {'side'}, 'dobj': {'comment'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'faculty', 'nurturance', 'regard', 'call'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'poss': {'our'}} Medium High Low
4531 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice In my work as a faculty mentor at the university level, Ihave found that the demands on women can be even greater in certain academic domainsthan others, not only due to the culture of the department, college, or university, but alsodue to the nature of the field itself 48 28 {'ADP': 10, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 15, 'DET': 7, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, ADV, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON] {'prep': {'on', 'at', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as', 'In', 'due'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'pobj': {'women', 'field', 'culture', 'others', 'work', 'mentor', 'nature', 'level', 'department'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'domainsthan', 'university', 'faculty'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'demands', 'Ihave'}, 'ROOT': {'found'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'even'}, 'acomp': {'greater'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'academic'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'pcomp': {'to'}, 'conj': {'university', 'alsodue', 'college'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but'}, 'dep': {'itself'}} Long High Medium
4532 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice As a single parent and young faculty member, I facedlate nights and long hours trying to be productive while giving my child the time and carehe deserved 27 11 {'ADP': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB] {'prep': {'As'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'young', 'single', 'long'}, 'pobj': {'parent'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'faculty'}, 'conj': {'member', 'deserved', 'hours'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'carehe'}, 'ROOT': {'facedlate'}, 'dobj': {'nights'}, 'advcl': {'trying', 'giving'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'productive'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'dative': {'child'}, 'npadvmod': {'time'}} Long High Medium
4533 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Still, I had the benefit of working within a department and college that wasmore female-oriented and more sensit ive to concerns of psychology and human development 26 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Still'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'i'}, 'ROOT': {'had'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'that', 'benefit'}, 'prep': {'within', 'to', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'working'}, 'pobj': {'psychology', 'concerns', 'department'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'development', 'more', 'college'}, 'amod': {'wasmore', 'oriented', 'human'}, 'npadvmod': {'female', 'sensit'}, 'relcl': {'ve'}} Long High Low
4534 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice I could also work from home when the need arose.Educ Psychol Rev (2008) 20:71 –77 73 16 6 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 4} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM] {'nsubj': {'I', 'need'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'work', 'Rev'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pobj': {'home'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advcl': {'arose'}, 'punct': {'(', '–', '.', ')'}, 'compound': {'Psychol', 'Educ', '77'}, 'appos': {'73', '2008', '20:71'}} Medium High Medium
4535 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Today, I work with women in fields where they are clearly minorities at all ranks and where it is impossible for them to take their work home 27 17 {'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, NOUN, ADV, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'Today'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'it', 'them', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'work'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'women', 'fields'}, 'advmod': {'clearly', 'at', 'where', 'home'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'attr': {'ranks', 'minorities'}, 'det': {'all'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'impossible'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'take'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'work'}} Long High High
4536 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Consider the relatively smallnumber of female faculty in Chemical Engineering, for instance 12 4 {'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Consider'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'advmod': {'relatively'}, 'ccomp': {'smallnumber'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'female'}, 'pobj': {'Engineering', 'instance', 'faculty'}, 'compound': {'Chemical'}, 'punct': {','}} Medium High Low
4537 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice In order to conduct theirresearch, these women must spend many hours in their labs without the ability to take thework home or bring their children into that work environment 29 15 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'without', 'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'ability', 'labs', 'environment'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'acl': {'take', 'conduct'}, 'dobj': {'theirresearch', 'hours', 'children', 'home'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'that', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'women'}, 'ROOT': {'spend'}, 'amod': {'many'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'work', 'thework'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'bring'}} Long High Low
4538 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice I do not mean to suggest that the life of women and underrepresented populations is easy in educational psychology, just that it could be even harder 26 16 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'life', 'I', 'it'}, 'aux': {'could', 'to', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'mean'}, 'xcomp': {'suggest'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'women', 'psychology'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'underrepresented'}, 'conj': {'populations'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'easy', 'harder'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'just', 'even'}, 'advcl': {'be'}} Long High High
4539 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Seek Balance It seems commonsensical …to say that balanced faculty will be more productive than those whose academic lives are out of kilter 23 14 {'VERB': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1} [VERB, PROPN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, PART, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, ADP, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Seek'}, 'dobj': {'Balance'}, 'nsubj': {'faculty', 'It', 'lives'}, 'ROOT': {'seems'}, 'oprd': {'commonsensical'}, 'punct': {'…'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'ccomp': {'say', 'be'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'academic', 'balanced'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'acomp': {'productive'}, 'prep': {'than', 'out', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'kilter', 'those'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'relcl': {'are'}} Long High Medium
4540 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Indeed, several of the contributors to this specialissue admonish young faculty to find the balance not only between the facets of theprofessoriate but also between their lives in and outside the academy 32 20 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'only', 'also'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'several'}, 'prep': {'in', 'to', 'of', 'between'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'academy', 'contributors', 'lives', 'specialissue', 'theprofessoriate', 'facets'}, 'ROOT': {'admonish'}, 'amod': {'young'}, 'dobj': {'balance', 'faculty'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'find'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'outside', 'between'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
4541 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Throughout theirarticle, for instance, McCormick and Barnes ( 2008 ) outline strategies they perceive as useful “for balancing the multiple, and sometimes competing, demands and expectations ” (p 28 10 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 9, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Throughout'}, 'pobj': {'instance', 'theirarticle', 'strategies'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'McCormick'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'competing', 'Barnes', 'demands', 'expectations'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'compound': {'outline'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'perceive'}, 'amod': {'useful'}, 'pcomp': {'balancing'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'multiple'}, 'advmod': {'sometimes'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High Low
4542 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Those strategies extend beyond a consideration of writing and research, whichrepresents the bulk of this dedicated volume, and address the dimensions of teaching andservice that often get less attention in young faculty ’s preparation 34 17 {'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, NOUN] {'det': {'Those', 'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'strategies'}, 'ccomp': {'extend'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'beyond'}, 'pobj': {'preparation', 'volume', 'writing', 'consideration'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'address', 'research'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'whichrepresents'}, 'dobj': {'andservice', 'dimensions', 'attention', 'bulk'}, 'amod': {'dedicated', 'less', 'young'}, 'pcomp': {'teaching'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'relcl': {'get'}, 'poss': {'faculty'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High Low
4543 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice I applaud McCormick and Barnes ’s foray into those less trodden, but still critical, dimensions of the professoriate 18 10 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 2} [PRON, VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'McCormick'}, 'ROOT': {'applaud'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'Barnes', 'critical'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'ccomp': {'foray'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'still'}, 'pobj': {'professoriate', 'trodden'}, 'punct': {','}, 'npadvmod': {'dimensions'}} Medium High Low
4544 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice While McCormick and Barnes focus their lens on life within the academy, Halpern ( 2008 ) turns her attention to the precarious balance between one ’s professional calling and one ’s personal existence 33 15 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 2} [SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NUM, PART, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NUM, PART, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'While'}, 'nsubj': {'McCormick'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Halpern', 'Barnes', 'existence'}, 'advcl': {'focus'}, 'poss': {'one', 'their', 'her'}, 'dobj': {'lens', 'attention'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'life', 'academy', 'balance', 'calling'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'ROOT': {'turns'}, 'amod': {'precarious', 'professional', 'personal'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High Medium
4545 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice As she puts it: “Everyone has a life outside of work, and although we often talk about work and family (or, as some prefer, work and life) as separate constructs, realpeople live one integrated life, not two ”(p 38 21 {'SCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'PUNCT': 11, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, VERB, NUM, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'mark': {'as', 'As', 'although'}, 'nsubj': {'Everyone', 'she', 'we', 'some'}, 'advcl': {'prefer', 'puts'}, 'dobj': {'life', 'it'}, 'punct': {':', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'ROOT': {'has'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'advmod': {'live', 'often', 'outside'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'work', 'constructs'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'family', 'talk', 'realpeople', 'life', 'work'}, 'amod': {'separate', 'integrated'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'appos': {'two', 'p'}} Long High High
4546 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice For that reason, Halpern considers factors that could well disrupt this integrated life and sug gests proactive steps that could moderate their influences on young faculty, especially thosew ith primary family-care responsibilities 32 11 {'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 11, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'For'}, 'det': {'that', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'faculty', 'reason'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'Halpern', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'considers'}, 'dobj': {'gests', 'steps', 'factors', 'life', 'responsibilities', 'influences'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'especially'}, 'relcl': {'moderate', 'disrupt'}, 'amod': {'primary', 'integrated', 'proactive', 'young'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sug'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advcl': {'thosew'}, 'dep': {'ith'}, 'compound': {'family', 'care'}} Long High Low
4547 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice But…how can I quibble with these calls for balance or for the strategies that may permit one to negotiate the competing demands of the professoriate or life within and outside theacademy 31 20 {'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [CCONJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'or', 'But', 'and'}, 'punct': {'…'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'aux': {'can', 'may', 'to'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'quibble'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'professoriate', 'calls', 'balance', 'strategies'}, 'conj': {'life', 'for', 'outside'}, 'relcl': {'permit'}, 'dobj': {'one', 'demands', 'theacademy'}, 'xcomp': {'negotiate'}, 'amod': {'competing'}} Long High Medium
4548 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice I certainly believe that we function best and can sustain our professional liveswhen we give all facets of our professional and personal lives the attention they merit 27 14 {'PRON': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'nsubj': {'I', 'we', 'they'}, 'advmod': {'certainly', 'best', 'liveswhen'}, 'ROOT': {'believe'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'give', 'function'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'conj': {'sustain', 'personal'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'dobj': {'facets', 'attention', 'professional'}, 'det': {'all', 'the'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'professional'}, 'pobj': {'lives'}, 'relcl': {'merit'}} Long High Medium
4549 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Yet, we cannot presume to dictate or standardize balance for any one individual according to some abstract criteria 18 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Yet'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'presume'}, 'xcomp': {'dictate'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'standardize'}, 'dobj': {'balance'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'according'}, 'det': {'any', 'some'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'pobj': {'individual', 'criteria'}, 'amod': {'abstract'}} Medium High Low
4550 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Balance has a variable character not only across individuals but alsowithin individuals across their professional careers 16 8 {'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, ADV, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Balance'}, 'ROOT': {'has'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'variable', 'professional'}, 'dobj': {'individuals', 'character'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'prep': {'across'}, 'pobj': {'individuals', 'careers'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'alsowithin'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Medium High Low
4551 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice That is why women of child-bearingyears may face unique challenges (Halpern 2008 ) or why faculty from underrepresented populations may require special mentoring arrangements (McCormick and Barnes 2008 ) 29 10 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'That', 'women', 'faculty'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'why'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'compound': {'mentoring', 'child'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ')'}, 'pobj': {'bearingyears', 'populations'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'face'}, 'amod': {'unique', 'special', 'underrepresented'}, 'dobj': {'arrangements', 'challenges'}, 'appos': {'Halpern', 'McCormick'}, 'npadvmod': {'2008'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'require', 'Barnes'}, 'nummod': {'2008'}} Long High High
4552 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Still there are other factors that can shift the balance for individual faculty even at similar points in their careers 20 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'even', 'Still'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'other', 'similar', 'individual'}, 'attr': {'factors'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'relcl': {'shift'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'balance'}, 'prep': {'for', 'at', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'careers', 'points', 'faculty'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
4553 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice For instance, certain faculty find the demands of designing andreporting studies more onerous than others, while particular faculty see teaching as a moreeffortful, time-consuming, or unrewarding part of their job 30 14 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'prep': {'than', 'as', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'job', 'consuming', 'instance', 'others'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'particular', 'onerous', 'moreeffortful'}, 'nsubj': {'faculty'}, 'ROOT': {'find'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'studies', 'demands', 'teaching', 'part'}, 'aux': {'designing'}, 'pcomp': {'andreporting'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'see'}, 'npadvmod': {'time'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'unrewarding'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
4554 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Still others find the political andsocial demands of the professoriate counter to their personalities or more exhausting thando their colleagues 20 10 {'ADV': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'more', 'Still'}, 'nsubj': {'others'}, 'ROOT': {'find'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'professoriate', 'exhausting', 'andsocial', 'political'}, 'dobj': {'demands', 'colleagues'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'counter', 'personalities'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'appos': {'thando'}} Long High Low
4555 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Certainly, if someone were to examine my life they would question its balance; but what represents balance to me, especially at this stage in my professional and personal lives, bears only slight resemblance to my life in the first years of my career 43 25 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 9, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'Certainly', 'especially'}, 'punct': {',', ';'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubj': {'someone', 'what', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'were'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'examine'}, 'poss': {'its', 'my'}, 'dobj': {'resemblance', 'life', 'balance'}, 'ROOT': {'question'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'csubj': {'represents'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'stage', 'years', 'life', 'lives', 'career', 'me'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'first', 'slight', 'professional'}, 'conj': {'bears', 'personal'}} Long High Medium
4556 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Iwould not expect anyone to use me or my work style as a model of balance but I wouldargue that this level of effort both within the professoriate and across my personal life havesuited me well —a balanced imbalance, if you will.74 Educ Psychol Rev (2008) 20:71 –77 48 25 {'PROPN': 4, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 3} [PROPN, PART, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, PRON, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM] {'nsubj': {'you', 'I', 'anyone', 'Iwould', 'level'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'expect'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'use', 'havesuited'}, 'dobj': {'me'}, 'cc': {'or', 'but', 'and'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'compound': {'Psychol', 'work', 'will.74', 'Educ'}, 'conj': {'style', 'across', 'wouldargue'}, 'prep': {'as', 'within', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'professoriate', 'life', 'balance', 'model', 'effort'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'well', 'both'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'balanced'}, 'punct': {'–', ')', '—', '(', ','}, 'npadvmod': {'imbalance', '2008'}, 'advcl': {'Rev'}, 'nummod': {'77', '20:71'}} Long High High
4557 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Nihalani and Mayrath ’s(2008 ) argument that we engage in scholarly writing for multiple reasons 15 5 {'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nmod': {'s(2008', 'Nihalani'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Mayrath'}, 'punct': {'’', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'argument'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'relcl': {'engage'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'amod': {'scholarly', 'multiple'}, 'pobj': {'reasons', 'writing'}} Medium High Medium
4558 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice In their overview of the observations and recommendations ofeditors for leading educational psychology journals, these contributors begin by offering four important functions that scholarly publications serve for academics 28 11 {'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN] {'prep': {'by', 'for', 'In', 'of'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'academics', 'observations', 'overview', 'journals'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'recommendations', 'ofeditors'}, 'amod': {'scholarly', 'leading', 'important', 'educational'}, 'compound': {'psychology'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'contributors', 'publications'}, 'ROOT': {'begin'}, 'pcomp': {'offering'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'dobj': {'functions', 'that'}, 'relcl': {'serve'}} Long High Low
4559 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Those four functions are as follows: First, publications serve to help a new Ph.D 14 7 {'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [DET, NUM, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'Those', 'a'}, 'nummod': {'four'}, 'nsubj': {'functions', 'publications'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'follows'}, 'punct': {',', '.', ':'}, 'advmod': {'First'}, 'ROOT': {'serve'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'help'}, 'amod': {'new'}, 'dobj': {'D', 'Ph'}} Medium High Medium
4560 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice get a job at an institution right away upon graduating ….Second, salary, promotions, and tenure weigh scholarly productivity more than any other factor —namely teaching and service ….Third, the ability to change jobs is almost totally dependent on the professor ’s publication record ….The fourth function of publications is that recognition and prestige are a direct function of a professor ’s scholarly publications 63 28 {'VERB': 4, 'DET': 7, 'NOUN': 22, 'ADP': 5, 'ADV': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 8, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'PART': 3, 'AUX': 3} [VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, ADJ, NOUN] {'csubj': {'get'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the', 'any'}, 'dobj': {'job', '.Second', 'jobs', 'productivity'}, 'prep': {'on', 'at', 'of', 'than', 'upon'}, 'pobj': {'institution', 'factor', 'record', 'publications'}, 'advmod': {'totally', 'away', 'almost', 'right', 'namely', 'more'}, 'pcomp': {'graduating'}, 'punct': {',', '…', '—'}, 'conj': {'salary', 'promotions', 'service', 'prestige', 'tenure'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dep': {'weigh'}, 'amod': {'scholarly', 'direct', 'fourth', 'other'}, 'acl': {'teaching', 'change'}, 'appos': {'.Third'}, 'nsubj': {'recognition', 'ability', 'function'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'are'}, 'acomp': {'dependent'}, 'poss': {'professor'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'compound': {'publication'}, 'nmod': {'.The'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'attr': {'function'}} Long High High
4561 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice 30) Nihalani and Mayrath ’s litany of reasons for publishing are certainly pragmatic ones, and I have no doubt that most professors would agree on their analysis 27 14 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PART, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN] {'nummod': {'30'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'professors', 'Nihalani', 'I'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'have', 'litany', 'Mayrath'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'reasons', 'analysis', 'publishing'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'certainly'}, 'amod': {'most', 'pragmatic'}, 'attr': {'ones'}, 'det': {'no'}, 'dobj': {'doubt'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'acl': {'agree'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Medium
4562 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Yet…I must say that the primary reason why I conduct research and seek to publish that work does not appear at all among Nihalani and Mayrath ’s listings 28 18 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PART, NOUN] {'advmod': {'at', 'all', 'Yet', 'why'}, 'punct': {'listings', '…'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'reason'}, 'aux': {'does', 'to', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'say'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'amod': {'primary'}, 'relcl': {'conduct'}, 'dobj': {'work', 'research'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Mayrath', 'seek'}, 'xcomp': {'publish'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'appear'}, 'prep': {'among'}, 'pobj': {'Nihalani'}, 'case': {'’s'}} Long High High
4563 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice In fact, I can say quite honestly that the driving force in my scholarly writings has never been to get a job, gaintenure, move institutions, or achieve recognition 28 17 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'writings', 'fact'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'force'}, 'aux': {'can', 'has', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'say'}, 'advmod': {'quite', 'honestly'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'scholarly', 'driving'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'neg': {'never'}, 'ccomp': {'been'}, 'xcomp': {'get'}, 'nmod': {'job'}, 'conj': {'gaintenure', 'move', 'achieve'}, 'dobj': {'recognition', 'institutions'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Medium
4564 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice But I have always perceived them as positive residual effects forbeing passionately committed to improving the educational experience of learners and tothe ideas and interventions that I believe can bring about such improvement 33 16 {'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 2} [CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'and', 'But'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have'}, 'advmod': {'always', 'passionately'}, 'ROOT': {'perceived'}, 'dobj': {'improvement', 'experience', 'them'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'positive', 'residual', 'educational', 'such'}, 'pobj': {'effects', 'learners'}, 'acl': {'forbeing'}, 'advcl': {'committed'}, 'pcomp': {'improving'}, 'det': {'the', 'tothe'}, 'conj': {'ideas', 'interventions'}, 'relcl': {'believe'}, 'ccomp': {'bring'}, 'prt': {'about'}} Long High Low
4565 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Call me altruistic, but those are the compelling forces that led me out of the classroom and into the university in the first place 24 17 {'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 4} [VERB, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Call'}, 'dobj': {'me'}, 'oprd': {'altruistic'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'those'}, 'conj': {'into', 'are'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'first', 'compelling'}, 'attr': {'forces'}, 'relcl': {'led'}, 'prep': {'out', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'university', 'place', 'classroom'}} Long High Low
4566 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Sharing these ideas and interventions with others whom I believe are equally committed to the academic development of all learners is why I publish 24 14 {'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1} [VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, PRON, VERB, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB] {'csubj': {'Sharing'}, 'det': {'all', 'the', 'these'}, 'dobj': {'ideas'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'interventions'}, 'prep': {'with', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'learners', 'development', 'others'}, 'nsubj': {'whom', 'I'}, 'relcl': {'believe'}, 'ccomp': {'are', 'publish'}, 'advmod': {'equally', 'why'}, 'acomp': {'committed'}, 'amod': {'academic'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}} Long High Medium
4567 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice It could be that Nihalani and Mayrath took altruistic reasons for publishing asgivens and, thus, concentrated on the more pragmatic 20 11 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 1} [PRON, AUX, AUX, SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'Nihalani', 'It'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Mayrath', 'concentrated'}, 'ccomp': {'took'}, 'amod': {'altruistic'}, 'dobj': {'reasons'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for'}, 'compound': {'publishing'}, 'pobj': {'pragmatic', 'asgivens'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'thus', 'more'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Medium
4568 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Nonetheless, I feel it is important toexplicit such intrinsic reasons in our advice to young faculty 16 7 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'important', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'it'}, 'ROOT': {'feel'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'toexplicit'}, 'amod': {'such', 'young', 'intrinsic'}, 'attr': {'reasons'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'pobj': {'advice', 'faculty'}} Medium High Low
4569 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice That is because I believe thatif the ideas about which young faculty write have more power in and of themselves than theexternal rewards they may engender, then it will be easier to devote the incredible time andenergy required to bring those written ideas to fruition 45 25 {'PRON': 6, 'AUX': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'PROPN': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PART': 2} [PRON, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PROPN, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'That', 'they', 'I', 'it', 'write'}, 'advmod': {'then', 'is'}, 'mark': {'because'}, 'advcl': {'believe'}, 'dobj': {'power', 'andenergy', 'ideas', 'thatif'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'prep': {'than', 'about', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'themselves', 'fruition', 'rewards'}, 'amod': {'incredible', 'written', 'theexternal', 'young', 'more'}, 'compound': {'time', 'faculty'}, 'relcl': {'have', 'engender'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'of'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to', 'will'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'easier'}, 'xcomp': {'devote', 'bring'}, 'acl': {'required'}} Long High Medium
4570 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Collaboration Rightfully …In his examination of productive authors in educational psychology journals, Mayrath ( 2008 ) noted that: “Although productivity studies are important, perhaps more important, at least for beginning authors, is the need to examine why these authors are soproductive ”(p 42 18 {'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADJ': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'compound': {'psychology', 'Collaboration', 'productivity'}, 'dep': {'p', 'Rightfully'}, 'punct': {':', ')', '(', '”', ',', '…', '“'}, 'prep': {'for', 'In', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'pobj': {'examination', 'authors', 'journals'}, 'amod': {'productive', 'important', 'educational'}, 'conj': {'Mayrath'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'ROOT': {'noted'}, 'mark': {'Although', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'studies', 'authors'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'least', 'why', 'perhaps', 'at', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'soproductive', 'important'}, 'pcomp': {'beginning'}, 'dobj': {'authors'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'are'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'attr': {'need'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'examine'}} Long High High
4571 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Toward this goal of ascertaining the keys to productivity, Mayrath also highlights the merits of collaboration, drawing on the sage advice of the late MichaelPressley, one of our field ’s most productive authors, to support this contention 37 19 {'ADP': 7, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 2} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PART, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'Toward', 'on', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'collaboration', 'productivity', 'advice', 'field', 'goal', 'MichaelPressley'}, 'pcomp': {'ascertaining'}, 'dobj': {'contention', 'authors', 'keys', 'merits'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'Mayrath'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'most'}, 'ROOT': {'highlights'}, 'advcl': {'drawing'}, 'compound': {'sage'}, 'amod': {'productive', 'late'}, 'appos': {'one'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'dep': {'’s'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'support'}} Long High Low
4572 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice The value of collaboration was also echoed in the comments solicited by Mayrath in a survey of 22highly productive educational psychologists 21 10 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'value'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'collaboration', 'comments', 'Mayrath', 'survey', 'psychologists'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'also', '22highly'}, 'ROOT': {'echoed'}, 'acl': {'solicited'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'productive', 'educational'}} Long High Low
4573 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice That being said …I wanted to note that the manner in which productivity is sometimes defined actually may run counter to the call for collaboration voiced by Mayrath, Pressley, and others (e.g., McCormick and Barnes 2008 ) 37 19 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 4, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'That', 'productivity'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'being'}, 'ROOT': {'said'}, 'punct': {',', '…', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'manner'}, 'ccomp': {'run', 'wanted'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'note'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'collaboration', 'Mayrath', 'call'}, 'advmod': {'actually', 'counter', 'sometimes', 'e.g.'}, 'relcl': {'defined'}, 'acl': {'voiced'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'conj': {'others', 'Barnes', 'Pressley'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'McCormick'}, 'nummod': {'2008'}} Long High Medium
4574 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice (2005 ) argued, higher ratings for productivity in previous studies (e.g., Smith et al 14 2 {'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'punct': {'(', 'al', ',', ')'}, 'dep': {'e.g.', '2005'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'previous'}, 'dobj': {'ratings'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'productivity'}, 'npadvmod': {'Smith', 'et'}} Medium Low Low
4575 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice 1998 ,2003 ) were awarded when the faculty solo-authored, had few co-authors and had high author placementEduc Psychol Rev (2008) 20:71 –77 75 23 7 {'NUM': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM] {'nsubjpass': {'1998', 'faculty'}, 'punct': {'–', '-', ')', '(', ','}, 'appos': {'2008', '75', '2003', '20:71'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'awarded'}, 'advmod': {'when'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'author', 'solo', 'Psychol', '77'}, 'advcl': {'authored'}, 'conj': {'had'}, 'amod': {'high', 'few', 'placementEduc'}, 'dobj': {'authors', 'co', '-', 'Rev'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Medium
4576 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Thus, collaboration even with one ’s doctoral students would reduce perceptions of productivity in those cases 16 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, ADP, NUM, PART, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'even'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'collaboration'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'one'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'amod': {'doctoral'}, 'pobj': {'students', 'cases', 'productivity'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'reduce'}, 'dobj': {'perceptions'}, 'det': {'those'}} Medium High Low
4577 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice (2005 ) conducted their re-examination of scholarly productivity data previously reported by Smith and colleagues 15 5 {'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'2005'}, 'ROOT': {'conducted'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'dobj': {'examination', '-', 're'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'amod': {'scholarly'}, 'compound': {'productivity'}, 'pobj': {'Smith', 'data'}, 'advmod': {'previously'}, 'acl': {'reported'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'colleagues'}} Medium High Low
4578 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice The problem of collaboration may also become a matter of concern in judgments pertaining to promotion and tenure decisions 19 10 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The'}, 'nsubj': {'problem'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'collaboration', 'decisions', 'concern', 'judgments'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'become'}, 'attr': {'matter'}, 'acl': {'pertaining'}, 'nmod': {'promotion'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'tenure'}} Medium High Low
4579 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Young faculty must demonstrate the ability to work independently as well as collaboratively, and to lead projects as well as participateactively in them 23 13 {'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADV, ADP, PRON] {'amod': {'Young'}, 'nsubj': {'faculty'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'demonstrate'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'ability', 'projects'}, 'acl': {'work'}, 'advmod': {'collaboratively', 'independently', 'well', 'as', 'participateactively'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'and', 'as'}, 'conj': {'lead'}, 'pobj': {'them'}} Long High Low
4580 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice It must become evident to those gauging individuals ’productivity what role contributing authors played in collaboration, along with the unique contributions ofyoung scholars to a particular line of inquiry 29 13 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 2} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'ROOT': {'become'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'along'}, 'det': {'a', 'what', 'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'ofyoung', 'particular', 'unique', 'gauging'}, 'poss': {'individuals'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'pobj': {'collaboration', 'productivity', 'line', 'inquiry', 'contributions'}, 'dep': {'role'}, 'acl': {'contributing', 'played'}, 'dobj': {'authors'}, 'appos': {'scholars'}} Long High Low
4581 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice So, collaborate but do so wisely and when theprojects warrant such partnerships 12 7 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADV, CCONJ, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'when', 'so', 'So', 'wisely'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'collaborate'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'do', 'warrant'}, 'nsubj': {'theprojects'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'dobj': {'partnerships'}} Medium High Medium
4582 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Mentoring In concurrence with McCormick and Barnes ( 2008 ), I see it as nearly impossible for anyone to make it in academia without the support or guidance of others 30 18 {'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'NOUN': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1} [VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advcl': {'make', 'Mentoring'}, 'prep': {'without', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'support', 'others', 'concurrence', 'academia', 'McCormick'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'Barnes', 'guidance'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2008'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'anyone'}, 'ROOT': {'see'}, 'dobj': {'it'}, 'advmod': {'nearly'}, 'amod': {'impossible'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'det': {'the'}} Long High Medium
4583 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Therefore, thereflections of McCormick and Barnes on the importance of being mentored struck a chord.Within this discussion of the characteristics of good mentors and mentees, the authors alsoaddress the importance of serving as a mentor to others or participating in a co-mentoring relationship 43 24 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 12, 'ADP': 10, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 8, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, AUX, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Therefore'}, 'punct': {',', '.'}, 'nsubj': {'thereflections', 'authors'}, 'prep': {'on', 'Within', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'McCormick', 'characteristics', 'relationship', 'others', 'discussion', 'mentor', 'importance', 'mentors'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'participating', 'Barnes', 'mentees'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}, 'pcomp': {'serving', 'mentored'}, 'ROOT': {'alsoaddress', 'struck'}, 'dobj': {'importance', 'chord'}, 'amod': {'mentoring', 'co', '-', 'good'}} Long High Low
4584 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice They conceptualize co-mentoring as a contemporary model that “reconstructs the traditional notion of mentoring by stating that the mentoring relationship between two(or more) people is nonhierarchical thus making the relationship more egalitarian,reciprocal and mutual ”(p 35 16 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They', 'relationship'}, 'ROOT': {'conceptualize'}, 'dobj': {'co', '-', 'notion'}, 'advcl': {'mentoring', 'making'}, 'prep': {'by', 'as', 'of', 'between'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'traditional', 'contemporary', 'more'}, 'pobj': {'people', 'model'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'reconstructs', 'egalitarian'}, 'pcomp': {'mentoring', 'stating'}, 'compound': {'mentoring'}, 'nmod': {'two(or'}, 'acomp': {'nonhierarchical'}, 'advmod': {'thus', 'more'}, 'conj': {'mutual', 'reciprocal'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High High
4585 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice They further suggest that this reciprocal relationship might be useful among new faculty members 14 7 {'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'They', 'relationship'}, 'advmod': {'further'}, 'ROOT': {'suggest'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'amod': {'reciprocal', 'new'}, 'aux': {'might'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'useful'}, 'prep': {'among'}, 'compound': {'faculty'}, 'pobj': {'members'}} Medium High Medium
4586 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Where I differ with …McCormick and Barnes is in their concern over the differential power structures associated with traditional mentor –mentee relationships 22 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, AUX, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Where'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'McCormick'}, 'advcl': {'differ'}, 'prep': {'over', 'with', 'in'}, 'punct': {'–', '…'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Barnes'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'relationships', 'mentor', 'structures', 'concern'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'differential', 'traditional'}, 'compound': {'mentee', 'power'}, 'acl': {'associated'}} Long High Medium
4587 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice As they wrote: The traditional mentoring model has been criticized for creating power imbalances, for being hierarchal, and for creating the illusion that knowledge can only flow from thesage (mentor) to the dilettante (mentee/protégé;p 34 17 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'SYM': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, SYM, PROPN] {'mark': {'As', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'knowledge', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'wrote'}, 'punct': {':', ')', '(', ',', '/'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'traditional'}, 'compound': {'mentoring', 'power'}, 'nsubjpass': {'model'}, 'aux': {'can', 'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'criticized'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'creating', 'being'}, 'dobj': {'illusion', 'imbalances'}, 'acomp': {'hierarchal'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'for'}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'acl': {'flow'}, 'pobj': {'thesage', 'dilettante'}, 'appos': {'mentor', 'protégé;p'}, 'nmod': {'mentee'}} Long High High
4588 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Interestingly, while the differential knowledge between mentor and mentee is cast in potentially negative terms in this discussion, it is my experience that many young facultylook forward to having a more “sage”person offer guidance and support during this period of adjustment 41 20 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PRON, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, VERB, ADV, ADP, VERB, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'potentially', 'forward', 'Interestingly'}, 'punct': {',', '“'}, 'mark': {'while', 'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'differential', 'negative', 'many', 'young', 'more'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'prep': {'during', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'terms', 'adjustment', 'period', 'discussion', 'mentor'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'mentee', 'support'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advcl': {'cast'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'sage”person'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'attr': {'experience'}, 'ccomp': {'facultylook'}, 'pcomp': {'having'}, 'dobj': {'offer', 'guidance'}} Long High High
4589 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice There may be times and places for peers to come together in a supportivegroup, but I am not sure that such groups should be confused with mentoring 27 18 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [PRON, AUX, AUX, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB] {'expl': {'There'}, 'aux': {'should', 'may', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'attr': {'times'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'conj': {'places', 'am'}, 'mark': {'for', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'peers'}, 'advcl': {'come'}, 'advmod': {'together'}, 'prep': {'with', 'in'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'pobj': {'supportivegroup'}, 'punct': {','}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'sure'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'nsubjpass': {'groups'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'confused'}, 'pcomp': {'mentoring'}} Long High High
4590 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice In my view, it is hard enough for young faculty to navigate the demands that come with a new position, new place, new responsibilities, and new colleagues 27 12 {'ADP': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADV, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'In'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'pobj': {'position', 'faculty', 'view'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'hard'}, 'advmod': {'enough'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'amod': {'young', 'new'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'navigate'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'demands'}, 'relcl': {'come'}, 'conj': {'responsibilities', 'place', 'colleagues'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Medium
4591 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice It would seem almostinhuman for new, untenured faculty to be held responsible for providing guidance andsupport for their more senior colleagues 21 10 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADV, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'oprd': {'responsible', 'almostinhuman'}, 'prep': {'for'}, 'amod': {'untenured', 'senior', 'new'}, 'punct': {','}, 'pobj': {'faculty', 'colleagues'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'held'}, 'pcomp': {'providing'}, 'compound': {'guidance'}, 'dobj': {'andsupport'}, 'dative': {'for'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'advmod': {'more'}} Long High Low
4592 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice In truth, I am not sure how I would even feel if I were approached by a faculty member new to the professoriate and to my university who offered to guide me in my professional development 36 23 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'member', 'professoriate', 'truth', 'development', 'university'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'am'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'sure'}, 'advmod': {'even', 'how'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ccomp': {'approached', 'feel'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubjpass': {'I'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'faculty'}, 'amod': {'professional', 'new'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'to'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'relcl': {'offered'}, 'xcomp': {'guide'}, 'dobj': {'me'}} Long High High
4593 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice I am not even certain that I wouldperceive the offer in a favorable light 14 9 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'am'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'even'}, 'acomp': {'certain'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'wouldperceive'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'offer'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'amod': {'favorable'}, 'pobj': {'light'}} Medium High Medium
4594 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Then again, perhaps I am just too “old guard ”to see the merits of co-mentoring 15 11 {'ADV': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB] {'advmod': {'too', 'Then', 'just', 'perhaps', 'again'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'am'}, 'amod': {'old'}, 'attr': {'guard'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'see'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'merits'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'mentoring', 'co', '-'}} Medium High Low
4595 Yes…But- Footnotes To Sage Advice Short-Term –Long-Term Perspective Finally, for all the outstanding insights and ideas provided by the contributors to this special volume, there is one essential piece of advice that was not forwarded 30 15 {'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB] {'amod': {'special', 'outstanding', 'Short', 'essential'}, 'punct': {',', '–', '-'}, 'nmod': {'Term'}, 'compound': {'Term', 'Long'}, 'nsubj': {'Perspective'}, 'advmod': {'Finally'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'contributors', 'volume', 'advice', 'insights'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ideas'}, 'acl': {'provided'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'attr': {'piece'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'forwarded'}} Long High Low
4596 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:42 1 3 42 Page 2 of 18 In many ways, those ancient maps, with their warnings of lurking dangers, are a suitable metaphor for the exploration represented by this special issue 36 13 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', '3'}, 'nsubj': {'Review', 'maps'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023', 'Page'}, 'nummod': {'42', '35:42', '1', '2'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'issue', 'warnings', '18', 'dangers', 'exploration'}, 'amod': {'suitable', 'ancient', 'many', 'special', 'lurking'}, 'det': {'a', 'this', 'the', 'those'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'metaphor'}, 'acl': {'represented'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
4597 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking There is no question that the destination sought by those embarking on this venture rep- resents an admirable end 19 10 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 2} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'no', 'an', 'the', 'this'}, 'attr': {'question'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'destination'}, 'acl': {'resents', 'embarking', 'sought'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'venture', 'those'}, 'prep': {'on'}, 'amod': {'admirable', 'rep-'}, 'dobj': {'end'}} Medium High Medium
4598 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking A more precise and detailed mapping of higher-order, critical, and critical-analytic thinking, all lauded forms of human thought, is a prize worthy of pursuit 24 10 {'DET': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 8, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 1, 'AUX': 1} [DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'a', 'all'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'precise', 'worthy', 'human', 'higher', 'lauded'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'detailed', 'analytic', 'critical'}, 'nsubj': {'forms', 'mapping'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nmod': {'order'}, 'pobj': {'thought', 'pursuit', 'thinking'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'prize'}} Long High Low
4599 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Moreover, all contributors to this special issue under - stood that there were no guarantees that they would achieve all they set out to accomplish 25 16 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB] {'advmod': {'under', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'no', 'all', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'contributors', 'they'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'amod': {'special'}, 'pobj': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'stood'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'were'}, 'attr': {'guarantees'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'acl': {'achieve'}, 'dobj': {'all'}, 'relcl': {'set'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'advcl': {'accomplish'}} Long High High
4600 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Over the centuries, many have sought to represent the topography of human thought and to map the boundary between its more or less valued manifes- tations 26 15 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'prep': {'Over', 'of', 'between'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'thought', 'tations', 'centuries'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'many'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'xcomp': {'represent'}, 'dobj': {'topography', 'boundary'}, 'amod': {'more', 'human'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'valued', 'less', 'map'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'dep': {'manifes-'}} Long High Low
4601 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Yet, those prior chartings were incomplete and often confusing; leaving those who navigate the realm that has been variably named higher-order, criti- cal, or critical-analytic thinking without the demarcations required to reach their desired destination 35 16 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 8, 'AUX': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'often', 'Yet', 'variably'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ';'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'desired', 'higher', 'prior', 'analytic'}, 'nsubj': {'chartings', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'incomplete'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'criti-', 'confusing', 'cal'}, 'advcl': {'leaving'}, 'dobj': {'realm', 'destination', 'those'}, 'relcl': {'named', 'navigate'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'has', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'nmod': {'order'}, 'oprd': {'thinking'}, 'prep': {'without'}, 'pobj': {'demarcations'}, 'acl': {'required'}, 'xcomp': {'reach'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
4602 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking For the remainder of this treatise, I will commandeer the phrase valued thinking from Murphy et al 17 8 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 3} [ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'prep': {'For', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'treatise', 'remainder', 'Murphy'}, 'punct': {',', 'al'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'commandeer'}, 'dobj': {'phrase', 'thinking'}, 'acl': {'valued'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Medium High Low
4603 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking So, what would compel the contributors to this special issue to undertake yet another mapping expedition 16 9 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'yet', 'So'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'what'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'compel'}, 'det': {'another', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'contributors', 'expedition'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'amod': {'special'}, 'pobj': {'issue'}, 'advcl': {'undertake'}, 'compound': {'mapping'}} Medium High Low
4604 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking What benefits could possibly be reaped from this effort that has not already been realized 15 10 {'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, AUX, VERB] {'det': {'What', 'this'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that', 'benefits'}, 'aux': {'could', 'has'}, 'advmod': {'already', 'possibly'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'been'}, 'ROOT': {'reaped'}, 'prep': {'from'}, 'pobj': {'effort'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'relcl': {'realized'}} Medium High Low
4605 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Perhaps all that one could hope for when explor - ing human thinking are vague renderings of the separation between less valued from more valued thinking 26 14 {'ADV': 3, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADJ': 2} [ADV, DET, DET, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Perhaps', 'when', 'less', 'more'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'one', 'thinking'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'ROOT': {'hope'}, 'prep': {'for', 'from', 'of', 'between'}, 'npadvmod': {'explor'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'ing', 'vague', 'valued', 'human'}, 'pcomp': {'valued', 'are'}, 'attr': {'renderings'}, 'pobj': {'separation', 'thinking'}} Long High Medium
4606 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking On the contrary, I contend that there are good reasons to assume the risks that come with yet another mapping expedition into the realm of valued thinking 27 15 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADV, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'with', 'On', 'of'}, 'det': {'another', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'contrary', 'expedition', 'realm', 'thinking'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'contend'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'amod': {'valued', 'good'}, 'attr': {'reasons'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'assume', 'come'}, 'dobj': {'risks'}, 'advmod': {'yet'}, 'compound': {'mapping'}} Long High Medium
4607 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking For one, as the contributors to this spe- cial issue chronicled, existing depictions in the literature, with few exceptions, are insufficient to guide research or instructional practice, with no definitive boundaries between lower and higher or critical and uncritical thinking 40 19 {'ADP': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADJ': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 4} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'For', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'exceptions', 'literature', 'thinking', 'boundaries', 'one'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'det': {'no', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'contributors', 'depictions'}, 'nmod': {'spe-'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'existing', 'cial', 'lower', 'few', 'definitive'}, 'ROOT': {'chronicled'}, 'conj': {'uncritical', 'critical', 'are', 'higher', 'practice'}, 'acomp': {'insufficient'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'guide'}, 'dobj': {'research'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}} Long High Medium
4608 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking It was not even evident from the literature surveyed in this special issue whether the areas designated as higher-order, critical, or critical-analytic are truly distinct regions at all, or simply the language preferred by those privileged enough to cre- ate those maps 42 22 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 6, 'ADJ': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADV, PART, VERB, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'areas', 'It', 'language'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'simply', 'enough', 'truly', 'at', 'all', 'even'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in', 'from'}, 'det': {'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'literature', 'those', 'issue'}, 'acl': {'designated', 'surveyed', 'preferred'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'privileged', 'distinct', 'special', 'higher'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'conj': {'ate', 'analytic', 'critical'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'regions'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'cre-'}, 'dobj': {'maps'}} Long High Medium
4609 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Such vague renderings may prove sufficient for many whose edu- cational or psychological research and instructional practices do not require them to venture deep into questions of valued thought 29 13 {'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 1, 'X': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, DET, X, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, PRON, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'amod': {'instructional', 'cational', 'vague', 'valued', 'Such', 'edu-'}, 'nsubj': {'renderings'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to', 'do'}, 'ROOT': {'prove'}, 'oprd': {'sufficient'}, 'prep': {'into', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'many', 'thought', 'questions'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'practices', 'psychological'}, 'appos': {'research'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advcl': {'require'}, 'dobj': {'them'}, 'xcomp': {'venture'}, 'advmod': {'deep'}} Long High Low
4610 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking However, as the editors and contribu- tors to this special issue, our theoretical and empirical work invariably draws us into questions about the nature of valued thinking and about conditions that foster or frustrate such thinking 36 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, PRON, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However', 'invariably'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'to', 'into', 'of', 'about', 'as'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'editors', 'issue', 'questions', 'thinking', 'conditions', 'nature'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'contribu-'}, 'conj': {'about', 'frustrate', 'tors', 'empirical'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'valued', 'special', 'such'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubj': {'work', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'draws'}, 'dobj': {'us', 'thinking'}, 'relcl': {'foster'}} Long High Low
4611 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Moreover, as theorists, researchers, and educators, we are often required to judge the depth or shallowness of the thinking we witness in our - selves and others 27 16 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'often', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'theorists', 'selves', 'thinking'}, 'conj': {'others', 'researchers', 'shallowness', 'educators'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'nsubjpass': {'we'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'judge'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'depth'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'relcl': {'witness'}, 'poss': {'our'}} Long High Low
4612 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Thus, if we are to recognize, analyze, predict, or facilitate condi- tions that foster depth or richness in thinking, then crude indicators will not suffice 25 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'then'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubj': {'indicators', 'that', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'xcomp': {'recognize'}, 'dep': {'analyze'}, 'conj': {'richness', 'predict'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'nmod': {'facilitate'}, 'compound': {'condi-'}, 'attr': {'tions'}, 'relcl': {'foster'}, 'dobj': {'depth'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'thinking'}, 'amod': {'crude'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'suffice'}} Long High Medium
4613 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking There are other reasons why those contributing to this special issue have chosen to take up this challenge 18 12 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'other', 'special'}, 'attr': {'reasons'}, 'advmod': {'why'}, 'nsubj': {'those'}, 'acl': {'contributing'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'issue'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'chosen'}, 'xcomp': {'take'}, 'prt': {'up'}, 'dobj': {'challenge'}} Medium High Medium
4614 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Generally, as the theorists and researchers on this expedi- tion, we collectively acknowledge that better representations of human thought in our domains of expertise have been elusive 27 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADJ] {'advmod': {'Generally', 'collectively'}, 'punct': {','}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'tion', 'theorists', 'domains', 'expertise', 'thought'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'researchers'}, 'amod': {'expedi-', 'better', 'human'}, 'nsubj': {'we', 'representations'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledge'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'ccomp': {'been'}, 'acomp': {'elusive'}} Long High Medium
4615 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Nonetheless, I appreciate that our per - spectives on valued thinking also diverge in non-trivial ways 16 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'also', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'spectives'}, 'ROOT': {'appreciate'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'compound': {'per'}, 'prep': {'on', 'in'}, 'amod': {'trivial', '-', 'valued', 'non'}, 'pobj': {'ways', 'thinking'}, 'ccomp': {'diverge'}} Medium High Medium
4616 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking As individuals trained in different disciplines and as members of varied research communities, the orienta- tions and traditions we bring to this examination will deviate to some extent 28 13 {'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1} [SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'tions', 'we'}, 'advcl': {'trained'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'different', 'orienta-', 'varied'}, 'pobj': {'communities', 'members', 'extent', 'examination', 'disciplines'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'as', 'traditions'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'some', 'the', 'this'}, 'relcl': {'bring'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'deviate'}} Long High Medium
4617 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Rather than see such deviations as problematic, as editors and contributors, we regard this as a strength 17 11 {'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 1} [ADV, SCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Rather'}, 'mark': {'than'}, 'advcl': {'see'}, 'amod': {'such', 'problematic'}, 'dobj': {'this', 'deviations'}, 'prep': {'as'}, 'punct': {','}, 'pobj': {'editors', 'strength'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'contributors'}, 'nsubj': {'we'}, 'ROOT': {'regard'}, 'det': {'a'}} Medium High Medium
4618 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking We felt that through the process of triangulation we would be better 12 8 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ] {'nsubj': {'We', 'we'}, 'ROOT': {'felt'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'through', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'process', 'triangulation'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'better'}} Medium High Medium
4619 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:42 Page 3 of 18 42 able to identify key features of valued thought and be able to recognize areas of con- vergence made more apparent by the places where our ideas diverged 38 13 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, VERB] {'nummod': {'1', '3'}, 'amod': {'3Educational', 'able', 'valued', 'key'}, 'compound': {'18', 'Psychology', 'con-'}, 'ROOT': {'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', '35:42', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023', 'Page'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'thought', '42', 'places', 'vergence'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'recognize', 'identify'}, 'dobj': {'areas', 'features'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'acl': {'made'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'more'}, 'oprd': {'apparent'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'nsubj': {'ideas'}, 'relcl': {'diverged'}} Long High Medium
4620 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking That is pre- cisely why the special issue editors proposed an assemblage of scholars who come to the question of valued thinking from different vantage points 26 11 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'That', 'editors', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'cisely', 'pre-', 'why'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'different', 'valued', 'special'}, 'compound': {'vantage', 'issue'}, 'ccomp': {'proposed'}, 'dobj': {'assemblage'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'points', 'scholars', 'question', 'thinking'}, 'relcl': {'come'}} Long High Medium
4621 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking (this issue) approach the question of what counts as valued thinking primarily from the perspective of philosophy 17 8 {'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue', 'what'}, 'ROOT': {'approach'}, 'dobj': {'question'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'counts'}, 'amod': {'valued'}, 'pobj': {'perspective', 'philosophy', 'thinking'}, 'advmod': {'primarily'}} Medium High Low
4622 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking In so doing, these researchers offer provocative and significant insights into how that “value” has been set over the centuries by a privileged few and what can be done to liberate those determinations 33 22 {'ADP': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, SCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'into', 'In', 'over'}, 'advmod': {'so', 'how'}, 'pobj': {'few', 'centuries', 'doing'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'amod': {'privileged', 'provocative'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'significant', 'done'}, 'dobj': {'determinations', 'insights'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'value', 'what'}, 'aux': {'can', 'has', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'been'}, 'pcomp': {'set'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'advcl': {'liberate'}} Long High High
4623 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Specifically, in this expansive and thought-provoking piece, the authors remind us of the significant contributions of classical philosophers— Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle—and modern-day pragmatists—James, Dewey, and Peirce 27 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 5} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'modern', 'significant', 'expansive', 'classical'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'thought'}, 'conj': {'provoking', 'Peirce', 'James', 'Plato', 'pragmatists', 'Dewey', 'Aristotle'}, 'pobj': {'philosophers', 'piece', 'contributions'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'remind'}, 'dobj': {'us'}, 'appos': {'Socrates'}, 'compound': {'day'}} Long High Low
4624 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking To the contrary, these authors open our eyes to the way in which power and privilege have silenced certain voices that sought to bring alternative interpretations of what qualifies as valued thinking into the collective consciousness (Kozol, 1991) 38 17 {'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'To', 'to', 'in', 'into', 'of', 'as'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'contrary', 'way', 'thinking', 'consciousness'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'that', 'power', 'what'}, 'ROOT': {'open'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'dobj': {'eyes', 'voices', 'interpretations'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'privilege'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'silenced', 'sought'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'alternative', 'valued', 'collective'}, 'xcomp': {'bring'}, 'pcomp': {'qualifies'}, 'appos': {'Kozol'}, 'npadvmod': {'1991'}} Long High Low
4625 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking What also surfaces from those authors’ exploration are clearer distinctions for higher-order, critical, and critical-analytic thinking that hinge largely on the role of justification and what constitutes quality evidence 29 13 {'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 2} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'What', 'that', 'what'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'largely'}, 'csubj': {'surfaces'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'poss': {'authors'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'pobj': {'role', 'thinking', 'justification', 'exploration'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'amod': {'clearer', 'higher', 'critical'}, 'attr': {'distinctions'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nmod': {'order'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'constitutes', 'analytic'}, 'relcl': {'hinge'}, 'compound': {'quality'}, 'dobj': {'evidence'}} Long High Low
4626 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Yet another thought-provoking theme in this article pertains to the legacy of behaviorism that has obstructed our view of valued thought 21 11 {'ADV': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Yet'}, 'det': {'another', 'the', 'this'}, 'npadvmod': {'thought'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'amod': {'valued', 'provoking'}, 'nsubj': {'theme', 'that'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'thought', 'behaviorism', 'article', 'legacy'}, 'ROOT': {'pertains'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'relcl': {'obstructed'}, 'poss': {'our'}, 'dobj': {'view'}} Long High Low
4627 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking That legacy centers on the quantification of phenomena that are largely intangible, hidden deep in the recesses of the human mind 21 10 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 1} [DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'That', 'the'}, 'compound': {'legacy'}, 'ROOT': {'centers'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'recesses', 'quantification', 'mind', 'phenomena'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'deep', 'largely'}, 'acomp': {'intangible'}, 'punct': {','}, 'acl': {'hidden'}, 'amod': {'human'}} Long High Low
4628 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking What follows that more philosophical venture is an exploration of thinking criti- cally that traverses the rich literature on strategic processing 21 9 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADV, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'What', 'that', 'venture'}, 'csubj': {'follows'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'philosophical', 'strategic', 'rich', 'more'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'attr': {'exploration'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'compound': {'thinking'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'criti-'}, 'advmod': {'cally'}, 'ROOT': {'traverses'}, 'dobj': {'literature'}} Long High Medium
4629 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking By envisioning valued thinking from this position, Dinsmore and Fryer (this issue) unveil crucial forces that are often overlooked or misrepresented in theoretical and empirical writings on critical thinking and strategic processing 32 13 {'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1} [ADP, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'By', 'in', 'from'}, 'pcomp': {'envisioning'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'critical', 'valued', 'strategic', 'crucial'}, 'dobj': {'forces', 'thinking'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'pobj': {'position', 'writings', 'thinking'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Dinsmore'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'Fryer', 'misrepresented', 'empirical'}, 'parataxis': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'unveil'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'often'}, 'relcl': {'overlooked'}} Long High Low
4630 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking For one, these authors remind us that val- ued thinking is reliant on mental engagement that requires intentionality, effort, and monitoring on the part of the thinker 27 14 {'ADP': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PRON, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'on', 'For', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'thinker', 'one', 'part', 'engagement'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'that', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'that', 'thinking'}, 'ROOT': {'remind'}, 'dobj': {'intentionality', 'us'}, 'amod': {'val-', 'ued', 'mental'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'reliant'}, 'relcl': {'requires'}, 'conj': {'monitoring', 'effort'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
4631 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking In essence, they argue that the attainment of critical thinking cannot be relegated to skills or routinized behaviors that occur auto- matically or rather mindlessly 25 13 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 4} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADV] {'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'essence', 'thinking'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'argue'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubjpass': {'attainment'}, 'amod': {'routinized', 'critical'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'relegated'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'behaviors', 'rather'}, 'relcl': {'occur'}, 'advmod': {'auto-', 'mindlessly', 'matically'}} Long High Medium
4632 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking These scholars also acknowledge that there are attributes of individuals that influ- ence whether the mental processes they evoke allow for deep, probing, and trans- formative thoughts to emerge 29 13 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB] {'det': {'that', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'processes', 'thoughts', 'scholars', 'they'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledge'}, 'mark': {'that', 'whether'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are', 'emerge'}, 'attr': {'attributes'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'individuals'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'influ-', 'mental', 'formative'}, 'dep': {'ence'}, 'relcl': {'evoke', 'allow'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'trans-', 'probing'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High High
4633 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Those attributes include thinkers’ relevant knowledge and experiences, inquisitiveness, comfort with uncertainty, and persistence in the face of challenges 19 7 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 3} [DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'det': {'Those', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'attributes'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'dobj': {'thinkers'}, 'punct': {'’', ','}, 'amod': {'relevant'}, 'appos': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'comfort', 'experiences', 'inquisitiveness', 'persistence'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'challenges', 'face', 'uncertainty'}} Medium High Low
4634 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking While recognizing these important characteristics, Dinsmore and Fryer take great care to distinguish the process of thinking from the thinker per se 22 10 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'X': 1} [SCONJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, X] {'mark': {'While'}, 'advcl': {'distinguish', 'recognizing'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'great', 'important'}, 'dobj': {'care', 'characteristics', 'process'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'Dinsmore'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Fryer'}, 'ROOT': {'take'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'prep': {'per', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'thinker', 'se', 'thinking'}} Long High Medium
4635 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking What their exploration also brings to the surface is an important distinction between the process of thinking and its product 20 12 {'PRON': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, PRON, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN] {'dobj': {'What'}, 'poss': {'its', 'their'}, 'nsubj': {'exploration'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'csubj': {'brings'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'between'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'surface', 'process', 'thinking'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'important'}, 'attr': {'distinction'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'product'}} Long High Low
4636 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Finally, what Dinsmore and Fryer make apparent is that many tools researchers use to record the processes and assess the products of valued thinking are sadly inadequate and may even misrepresent the phenomenon they seek to portray 37 18 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'VERB': 8, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, VERB, ADJ, AUX, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, AUX, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB] {'advmod': {'Finally', 'sadly', 'even'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dobj': {'phenomenon', 'processes', 'what', 'products'}, 'nsubj': {'Dinsmore', 'they', 'that', 'researchers', 'tools'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'misrepresent', 'Fryer', 'assess'}, 'csubj': {'make'}, 'oprd': {'apparent'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'amod': {'many', 'valued'}, 'relcl': {'use', 'seek'}, 'aux': {'may', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'portray', 'record'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'thinking'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'inadequate'}} Long High Medium
4637 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Within the third contribution, List and Sun (this issue) set a course for valued thinking by way of a particular and complex literacy task, learning from multiple texts 28 12 {'ADP': 5, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3} [ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'Within', 'from', 'by', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'particular', 'valued', 'third'}, 'pobj': {'contribution', 'texts', 'way', 'thinking', 'task'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'List'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Sun', 'complex'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'set'}, 'dobj': {'course'}, 'compound': {'literacy'}, 'advcl': {'learning'}} Long High Low
4638 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking These authors justify this arena of investigation based on its pervasiveness and the complexity that should be fertile ground for exploring valued thinking 23 11 {'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'this', 'the', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'authors', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'justify'}, 'dobj': {'arena', 'thinking'}, 'prep': {'on', 'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'investigation', 'pervasiveness'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'complexity'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'relcl': {'be'}, 'amod': {'fertile', 'valued'}, 'attr': {'ground'}, 'pcomp': {'exploring'}} Long High Low
4639 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking From their vantage point, the authors looked at this burgeoning literature in a manner not 15 8 {'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART] {'prep': {'From', 'at', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'vantage'}, 'pobj': {'manner', 'point', 'literature'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'looked'}, 'amod': {'burgeoning'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Medium High Low
4640 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:42 1 3 42 Page 4 of 18 previously considered 14 1 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, ADV, VERB] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', '3'}, 'nsubj': {'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023', 'Page'}, 'appos': {'35:42'}, 'nummod': {'4', '42', '1'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'18'}, 'advmod': {'previously'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}} Medium Low Low
4641 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking One key finding they unearthed was actually echoed in other articles in this special issue—the paucity of explicit language to identify the val- ued thinking that was expected from this undertaking 31 15 {'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PART': 1} [NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'amod': {'ued', 'other', 'val-', 'special', 'explicit', 'key'}, 'nsubjpass': {'finding', 'that'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'relcl': {'expected', 'unearthed'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'actually'}, 'ROOT': {'echoed'}, 'prep': {'from', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'articles', 'issue', 'undertaking', 'language'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'punct': {'—'}, 'appos': {'paucity'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'identify'}, 'dobj': {'thinking'}} Long High Low
4642 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking It would seem that research- ers and practitioners may operate under the assumption that valued thinking must naturally arise when certain task conditions are in place; a rather risky assumption it would seem 33 18 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'SCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'nsubj': {'It', 'ers', 'thinking', 'conditions', 'it'}, 'aux': {'would', 'may', 'must'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'research-', 'task'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'practitioners'}, 'ccomp': {'operate'}, 'prep': {'under', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'place', 'assumption'}, 'amod': {'certain', 'risky', 'valued'}, 'advmod': {'naturally', 'when', 'rather'}, 'acl': {'arise', 'seem'}, 'advcl': {'are'}, 'punct': {';'}, 'dep': {'assumption'}} Long High High
4643 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking List and Sun also describe the disjunction between the processing required during task performance and what is implicated in production after texts have been read, analyzed, and synthesized 28 14 {'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2} [NOUN, CCONJ, PROPN, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB] {'nsubj': {'List'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Sun', 'analyzed', 'implicated', 'synthesized'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'ROOT': {'describe'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'disjunction'}, 'prep': {'during', 'in', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'processing', 'performance', 'production'}, 'acl': {'required'}, 'compound': {'task'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what', 'texts'}, 'auxpass': {'is', 'been'}, 'mark': {'after'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'advcl': {'read'}, 'punct': {','}} Long High Medium
4644 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking The authors’ review also raises the criti- cal question of how students are to acquire the knowledge and processing abilities needed to engage multiple texts deeply and to create a product based on the analysis, synthesis, and integration of the content they contain 43 19 {'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'PART': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1} [DET, NOUN, PART, NOUN, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'the'}, 'poss': {'authors'}, 'case': {'’'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'they', 'review'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'deeply', 'how'}, 'ROOT': {'raises'}, 'amod': {'multiple', 'criti-', 'cal'}, 'dobj': {'product', 'texts', 'question', 'abilities'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'are'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'engage', 'acquire'}, 'nmod': {'knowledge'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'processing', 'integration', 'synthesis', 'create'}, 'acl': {'based', 'needed'}, 'pobj': {'content', 'analysis'}, 'punct': {','}, 'relcl': {'contain'}} Long High Medium
4645 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking (this issue) transports the internal workings of the mind into the external world of the classroom 16 8 {'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 3} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'transports'}, 'amod': {'external', 'internal'}, 'dobj': {'workings'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'world', 'mind', 'classroom'}} Medium High Low
4646 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Through their systematic review of studies involving project-based or problem-based learning approaches, these authors set out to document how valued forms of thinking can be described, encouraged, supported, and evaluated within instructional programs 33 13 {'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'VERB': 9, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'within', 'of', 'Through'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'systematic', 'instructional', 'valued', 'based'}, 'pobj': {'studies', 'programs', 'review', 'thinking'}, 'acl': {'involving'}, 'npadvmod': {'problem', 'project'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'compound': {'learning'}, 'dobj': {'approaches'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'set'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'document'}, 'advmod': {'how'}, 'nsubjpass': {'forms'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'described'}, 'advcl': {'encouraged'}, 'conj': {'supported', 'evaluated'}} Long High Medium
4647 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking The initiators of these student-centered approaches (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980; Dewey, 1938) sought to construct environments that would naturally engage learners in val- ued thinking around problems or projects of personal or societal importance 34 11 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 4} [DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'The', 'these'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'initiators'}, 'prep': {'around', 'of', 'in'}, 'npadvmod': {'1980', 'student'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'amod': {'val-', 'personal', 'ued', 'centered'}, 'pobj': {'importance', 'problems', 'approaches', 'thinking'}, 'appos': {'1938', 'Barrows', 'Dewey'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'conj': {'Tamblyn', 'societal', 'projects'}, 'ROOT': {'sought'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'construct'}, 'dobj': {'learners', 'environments'}, 'advmod': {'naturally'}, 'relcl': {'engage'}} Long High Low
4648 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Key features that define these approaches include group work, opportunities to build req- uisite background knowledge, consensus building among group members on pro- posed and alternative solutions, and the sharing of findings 32 9 {'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 15, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PART': 1, 'X': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, X, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'amod': {'alternative', 'Key'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'features'}, 'relcl': {'define'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'req-'}, 'dobj': {'knowledge', 'work', 'approaches'}, 'ROOT': {'include'}, 'compound': {'group', 'uisite', 'background', 'consensus'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'posed', 'solutions', 'sharing', 'opportunities'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'build'}, 'appos': {'building'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of', 'among'}, 'pobj': {'findings', 'members', 'pro-'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Long High Low
4649 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking In general, the outcomes valued within these student-centered programs have been described as critical-think - ing skills and dispositions 19 8 {'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'within', 'In'}, 'amod': {'centered', 'critical', 'general'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'nsubjpass': {'outcomes'}, 'acl': {'valued'}, 'npadvmod': {'student'}, 'pobj': {'programs', 'skills'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'nmod': {'think'}, 'conj': {'ing', 'dispositions'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
4650 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking However, neither of these terms appears to have been well defined by researchers or even explicitly taught (Loyens et al., this issue) 22 12 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'explicitly', 'well', 'However', 'even'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'neither'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'det': {'these', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'researchers', 'terms'}, 'ROOT': {'appears'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'xcomp': {'defined'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'advcl': {'taught'}, 'dobj': {'issue', 'Loyens'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'conj': {'al', '.'}} Long High Low
4651 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Two insights from this review seem especially important to the mapping of higher-order, critical, and critical-analytic thinking 17 8 {'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'CCONJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'Two'}, 'nsubj': {'insights'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'mapping', 'review', 'thinking'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'advmod': {'especially'}, 'oprd': {'important'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'critical'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nmod': {'order'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'analytic'}} Medium High Low
4652 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking The first is the discrepancy between what is programmatically assumed and what is actually manifested 15 10 {'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'NOUN': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'first'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'discrepancy'}, 'prep': {'between'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'actually', 'programmatically'}, 'pcomp': {'assumed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'manifested'}} Medium High Low
4653 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking The second is the place of dispositions within the realm of valued thinking—concerns that echo the findings of Dinsmore and Fryer (this issue) 23 12 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'second', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'place'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'Dinsmore', 'dispositions', 'realm', 'thinking'}, 'amod': {'valued'}, 'punct': {'(', ')', '—'}, 'appos': {'concerns', 'issue'}, 'relcl': {'echo'}, 'dobj': {'findings'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Fryer'}} Long High Low
4654 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking I will return to these issues in the final section of this article 13 8 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ROOT': {'return'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'these', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'section', 'article', 'issues'}, 'amod': {'final'}} Medium High Low
4655 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Positioning Higher‑Order, Critical, and Critical‑Analytic Thinking The primary goal of this special issue was to investigate three terms that signify mental engagement prized over more reactive, intuitive, or pedestrian forms of human thought: higher-order, critical, and critical-analytic thinking 38 13 {'VERB': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 9, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADJ': 11, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Positioning', 'Thinking'}, 'dobj': {'engagement', 'terms', 'Higher‑Order'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ':'}, 'conj': {'critical', 'Critical', 'pedestrian', 'intuitive', 'Critical‑Analytic', 'analytic'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'det': {'The', 'this'}, 'amod': {'primary', 'reactive', 'critical', 'mental', 'human', 'special', 'higher'}, 'nsubj': {'goal', 'that'}, 'prep': {'of', 'over'}, 'pobj': {'thought', 'forms', 'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'investigate'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'relcl': {'signify'}, 'acl': {'prized'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'compound': {'order'}, 'attr': {'thinking'}} Long High Low
4656 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking The hope was that this journey through less charted waters would lead to a more precise mapping of valued thinking that can aid others seeking to navigate this realm 29 16 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'hope', 'journey', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'through', 'to', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'more'}, 'amod': {'precise', 'charted', 'valued'}, 'pobj': {'waters', 'mapping', 'thinking'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to', 'can'}, 'ccomp': {'lead'}, 'relcl': {'aid'}, 'dobj': {'realm', 'others'}, 'acl': {'seeking'}, 'xcomp': {'navigate'}} Long High Medium
4657 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking In setting out on this expedition, I was not ignorant of the perils that others have faced 17 12 {'ADP': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [ADP, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'on', 'In', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'setting'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'expedition', 'perils'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'others'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'acomp': {'ignorant'}, 'dobj': {'that'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'faced'}} Medium High Medium
4658 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Decades ago, Larry Cuban, an educational prognosticator, warned: “Defining thinking skills, reasoning, critical thought and problem solving is troublesome to both social sci- entists and practitioners 26 6 {'NOUN': 10, 'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 1} [NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, AUX, ADJ, ADP, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'npadvmod': {'Decades'}, 'advmod': {'ago'}, 'punct': {',', ':', '“'}, 'compound': {'sci-', 'thinking', 'Larry'}, 'nsubj': {'solving', 'Cuban'}, 'det': {'an', 'both'}, 'amod': {'social', 'Defining', 'educational', 'critical'}, 'appos': {'prognosticator'}, 'ROOT': {'warned'}, 'dobj': {'skills'}, 'conj': {'thought', 'reasoning', 'practitioners', 'problem'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'troublesome'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'entists'}} Long High Low
4659 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Troublesome is a polite word; the area is a conceptual swamp” (1984,p 12 5 {'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3} [PROPN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Troublesome', 'area'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'conceptual', 'polite'}, 'attr': {'word', 'swamp'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', '”'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'appos': {'1984,p'}} Medium High Low
4660 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Nonetheless, I have chosen to push forward into this con- ceptual (and methodological) morass, guided by the work and insights of the four 23 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'X': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, X, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM] {'advmod': {'forward', 'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'chosen'}, 'xcomp': {'push'}, 'prep': {'into', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nmod': {'con-'}, 'amod': {'ceptual'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'methodological', 'insights'}, 'pobj': {'four', 'work', 'morass'}, 'acl': {'guided'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
4661 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:42 Page 5 of 18 42 contributors to this special issue 16 3 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'DET': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'5', '42', '1'}, 'amod': {'3Educational', 'special'}, 'compound': {'18', 'Psychology'}, 'ROOT': {'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', '35:42', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023', 'Page'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'contributors', 'issue'}, 'det': {'this'}} Medium High Low
4662 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking To do otherwise would be to leave future travelers without any data garnered from this expedition 16 10 {'PART': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2} [PART, AUX, ADV, AUX, AUX, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'aux': {'would', 'To', 'to'}, 'csubj': {'do'}, 'advmod': {'otherwise'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'leave'}, 'amod': {'future'}, 'dobj': {'travelers'}, 'prep': {'without', 'from'}, 'det': {'any', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'expedition', 'data'}, 'acl': {'garnered'}} Medium High Low
4663 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking One of the controversial questions that guided this special issue was whether there are truly meaningful distinctions to be drawn among the often-used terms for valued thinking—higher order, critical, and critical-analytic thinking—or not 33 19 {'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'NOUN': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'CCONJ': 2} [NUM, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART] {'nsubj': {'One', 'that'}, 'prep': {'for', 'among', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'valued', 'used', 'meaningful', 'controversial', 'special', 'higher'}, 'pobj': {'questions', 'terms', 'thinking'}, 'relcl': {'drawn', 'guided'}, 'dobj': {'issue'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'often', 'truly'}, 'attr': {'distinctions'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '—'}, 'appos': {'order'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'analytic'}, 'conj': {'thinking'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Medium
4664 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking I acknowledge that the labels, higher-order thinking and critical thinking, have a life that extends beyond contemporary theory and empirical inquiry 21 9 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'that', 'labels'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledge'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'contemporary', 'empirical', 'critical'}, 'compound': {'order'}, 'appos': {'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'inquiry', 'thinking'}, 'ccomp': {'have'}, 'dobj': {'life'}, 'relcl': {'extends'}, 'prep': {'beyond'}, 'pobj': {'theory'}} Long High Medium
4665 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking In contrast, critical-analytic thinking is a more recent descriptor appearing less in the research literature or common discourse (Alexander, 2014) 20 8 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'In', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'contrast', 'literature'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'recent', 'common', 'analytic', 'critical'}, 'nsubj': {'thinking'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'advmod': {'less', 'more'}, 'attr': {'descriptor'}, 'acl': {'appearing'}, 'compound': {'research'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'discourse'}, 'appos': {'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'2014'}} Long High Low
4666 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Popularity and recency aside, however, all three terms signify some manner of mental activity regarded as worthwhile and necessary for dealing with complex, non-routine problems, and they have been associated with enhanced or improved performance (Blumenfeld et al., 1991; Grossnickle Peterson et al., 2017; Murphy et al., 2018) 48 16 {'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 11, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 13} [NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Popularity', 'terms'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'associated', 'al', '.', 'recency', 'necessary', 'improved'}, 'advmod': {'aside', 'however'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'all', 'some'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'ROOT': {'signify'}, 'dobj': {'manner'}, 'prep': {'with', 'for', 'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'-', 'enhanced', 'mental', 'routine', 'worthwhile', 'non', 'complex'}, 'pobj': {'performance', 'problems', 'activity'}, 'acl': {'regarded'}, 'pcomp': {'dealing'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'al', '.', '2017', 'Blumenfeld'}, 'npadvmod': {'1991', 'al', 'Murphy', 'et'}, 'compound': {'Peterson', 'Grossnickle', 'et'}} Long High Low
4667 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking This commonality aside, the answer that I would now forward to the question of whether there are meaningful differences in what these three terms signify about human thinking is “yes.” In the ensuing section, I justify that response based on evidence proffered by the contents of this special issue and on characterizations those contributions engendered 55 30 {'DET': 9, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 9, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'ADJ': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'INTJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, INTJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB] {'det': {'this', 'This', 'those', 'these', 'that', 'the'}, 'ROOT': {'justify', 'commonality'}, 'advmod': {'now', 'aside', 'forward'}, 'punct': {',', '.', '”', '“'}, 'appos': {'answer'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that', 'contributions', 'terms'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'contents', 'section', 'characterizations', 'issue', 'question', 'thinking', 'evidence'}, 'mark': {'whether'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'pcomp': {'signify', 'are'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'ensuing', 'special', 'human'}, 'attr': {'differences'}, 'dobj': {'what', 'response'}, 'nummod': {'three'}, 'relcl': {'is'}, 'intj': {'yes'}, 'acl': {'based', 'proffered'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'on', 'engendered'}} Long High Medium
4668 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking I initially delve into each form of valued thinking separately and then draw meaningful comparisons among them in Table 1 20 9 {'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NUM': 1} [PRON, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADP, NOUN, NUM] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'advmod': {'separately', 'then', 'initially'}, 'ROOT': {'delve'}, 'prep': {'into', 'among', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'each'}, 'pobj': {'Table', 'form', 'them', 'thinking'}, 'amod': {'meaningful', 'valued'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'draw'}, 'dobj': {'comparisons'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Long High Low
4669 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Higher‑Order Thinking: Breadth Versus Depth In my 40+ years of research, I have divined a particularly salient pattern when it comes to the conceptualization of social science constructs: The more commonplace and widespread the use of a specific term, the less likely that term will be well and consistently conceptualized 50 24 {'PROPN': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'DET': 6, 'ADV': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 2} [PROPN, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PRON, NUM, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, DET, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, ADV, ADJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB] {'compound': {'salient', 'Breadth', 'Versus', 'Higher‑Order'}, 'ROOT': {'be', 'Thinking'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'appos': {'Depth'}, 'prep': {'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'nummod': {'+', '40'}, 'pobj': {'science', 'years', 'conceptualization', 'research', 'term'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'use', 'it'}, 'aux': {'have', 'will'}, 'ccomp': {'divined'}, 'det': {'a', 'The', 'the', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'when', 'particularly', 'consistently', 'well', 'less', 'the', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'pattern'}, 'advcl': {'comes'}, 'amod': {'social', 'commonplace', 'likely', 'specific'}, 'conj': {'widespread', 'conceptualized', 'constructs'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'term'}} Long High Medium
4670 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking That seems to be the fate of the construct of higher- order thinking 13 8 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB] {'nsubj': {'That'}, 'ROOT': {'seems'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'attr': {'fate'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'construct'}, 'nummod': {'higher-'}, 'acl': {'thinking'}} Medium High Low
4671 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Of the terms addressed in this special issue, “higher-order” is argu- ably the most commonly used label for human thought that departs from intuitive, impulsive, or non-contemplative mental functioning (Lewis & Smith, 1993) 33 12 {'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 9, 'PUNCT': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADV, DET, ADV, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'for', 'Of', 'from', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'thought', 'Lewis', 'issue', 'terms'}, 'acl': {'addressed'}, 'amod': {'-', 'contemplative', 'used', 'mental', 'human', 'intuitive', 'special', 'higher', 'non'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubjpass': {'order'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'argu-'}, 'advmod': {'most', 'commonly', 'ably'}, 'oprd': {'label'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'departs'}, 'conj': {'functioning', 'Smith', 'impulsive'}, 'cc': {'or', '&'}, 'npadvmod': {'1993'}} Long High Low
4672 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking The very descriptor higher is meant to signify a boundary of sorts between this more prized manner of thinking and less valued forms 23 12 {'DET': 3, 'ADV': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADV, NOUN, ADV, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'The', 'this'}, 'amod': {'very', 'valued', 'prized'}, 'npadvmod': {'descriptor'}, 'advmod': {'higher', 'less', 'more'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'meant'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'signify'}, 'dobj': {'boundary'}, 'prep': {'of', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'sorts', 'manner', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'forms'}} Long High Low
4673 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Nonetheless, as the use of the relative implies, there is no definitive line between which manifestations of human thinking can unequivocally be identified as “higher” or “lower.” Even the developers of the taxonomy for the cognitive domain, which remains the most cited source of evidence for the designation “higher-order” (Bloom et al., 1956), recognized that the problem of appropriate ordering had “probably not been solved completely satisfactorily” (p 68 32 {'ADV': 7, 'PUNCT': 18, 'ADP': 10, 'DET': 9, 'NOUN': 14, 'ADJ': 9, 'VERB': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADV, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADV, PART, AUX, VERB, ADV, ADV, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'advmod': {'unequivocally', 'Nonetheless', 'satisfactorily', 'probably', 'completely', 'Even', 'most'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of', 'between'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'implies', 'which', 'order', 'thinking', 'use', 'evidence', 'taxonomy', 'ordering', 'domain'}, 'amod': {'cited', 'human', 'appropriate', 'relative', 'definitive', 'higher', 'cognitive'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'recognized', 'is'}, 'attr': {'source', 'line'}, 'nsubjpass': {'manifestations', 'problem'}, 'aux': {'can', 'had'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'been'}, 'relcl': {'identified', 'remains'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'lower'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'developers'}, 'nmod': {'designation'}, 'appos': {'Bloom'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', '1956', 'et'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'solved'}, 'dep': {'p'}} Long High Medium
4674 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking (2001) set out to improve upon Bloom et al.’s (1956) original taxonomy, they sought to expand and reconfigure the processes encompassed in the original, while retaining “the princi- ple of increasing complexity” central to the taxonomy (Anderson, 1999,p 38 15 {'PUNCT': 10, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'PART': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'meta': {'2001'}, 'ROOT': {'set', 'sought'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'improve', 'retaining'}, 'prep': {'upon', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'complexity', 'Bloom', 'taxonomy', 'original'}, 'appos': {'1999,p', 'Anderson', 'et'}, 'conj': {'reconfigure', 'al', '.'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nummod': {'1956'}, 'amod': {'central', 'increasing', 'original', 'princi-'}, 'npadvmod': {'taxonomy'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'xcomp': {'expand'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'processes', 'ple'}, 'acl': {'encompassed'}, 'mark': {'while'}} Long High High
4675 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking They made that decision based, in part, on the manner in which the cognitive processes varied as a result of contextual and domain-specific factors—although the revised taxonomy remains heavily generic in form. 32 17 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'They', 'processes', 'taxonomy'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'dobj': {'decision'}, 'acl': {'based'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '.', '—'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'manner', 'form', 'part', 'factors', 'result'}, 'amod': {'contextual', 'revised', 'cognitive'}, 'relcl': {'varied'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'npadvmod': {'domain'}, 'conj': {'specific'}, 'mark': {'although'}, 'advcl': {'remains'}, 'advmod': {'heavily'}, 'acomp': {'generic'}} Long High Medium
4676 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:42 1 3 42 Page 6 of 18Table 1 Characterization and comparison of higher-order, critical, and critical-analytic thinking Form Principal sources Philosophical/psychological orientationsKey features Primary strengths Major limitations Practical implications Empirical considera- tions Higher order thinkingBloom et al 42 4 {'PROPN': 13, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 8, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 9, 'VERB': 2, 'SYM': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, PROPN, SYM, ADJ, PROPN, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'order', '3', 'orientationsKey', 'Form', 'Primary', 'tions', '18Table', 'Educational'}, 'nsubj': {'Review', 'Principal'}, 'punct': {'-', 'al', ')', '(', ',', '/'}, 'npadvmod': {'thinkingBloom', '2023', 'Page', 'et'}, 'appos': {'35:42', 'limitations', 'thinking'}, 'nummod': {'6', '42', '1'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'pobj': {'Characterization', 'sources'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'comparison', 'analytic'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'Practical', 'psychological', 'Higher', 'considera-', 'Major', 'higher'}, 'nmod': {'Philosophical', 'order', 'implications', 'Empirical'}, 'ROOT': {'features'}, 'dobj': {'strengths'}} Long Low Low
4677 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:42 1 3 42 Page 8 of 18 Another reason why I have positioned “higher-order” to the periphery of the realm of valued thinking relates to the purpose for the generation of its taxonomic designation 39 16 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 8, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 2} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, ADJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', '3'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'Review'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', '“'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023', 'Page'}, 'nummod': {'18', '8', '42', '35:42'}, 'quantmod': {'1'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'det': {'Another', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'generation', 'periphery', 'purpose', 'thinking', 'realm', 'designation', 'reason'}, 'advmod': {'why'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'relcl': {'positioned'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'valued', 'taxonomic'}, 'dobj': {'order'}, 'ROOT': {'relates'}, 'poss': {'its'}} Long High Medium
4678 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Bloom and committee members, who were predominantly college examiners from leading American universities, devised the taxonomy for the pur - pose of providing guidance in the writing of educational objectives, the construction of assessments, and the development of curricular documents 40 16 {'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 15, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 7, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 5} [PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADV, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nmod': {'Bloom'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'committee', 'development'}, 'nsubj': {'members', 'who'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'relcl': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'predominantly'}, 'compound': {'pur', 'college'}, 'attr': {'examiners'}, 'prep': {'in', 'for', 'of', 'from'}, 'amod': {'curricular', 'leading', 'educational', 'American'}, 'pobj': {'writing', 'pose', 'assessments', 'universities', 'objectives', 'documents'}, 'ROOT': {'devised'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'construction', 'taxonomy', 'guidance'}, 'pcomp': {'providing'}} Long High Low
4679 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Further, those pur - poses were cast in the language of behavioral objectives 13 6 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Further'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'the', 'those'}, 'compound': {'pur'}, 'nsubjpass': {'poses'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'cast'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'objectives', 'language'}, 'amod': {'behavioral'}} Medium High Low
4680 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking That fact helps to explain why knowledge was positioned as it was in the taxonomy 15 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADP': 1} [DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'det': {'That', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'fact'}, 'ROOT': {'helps'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'explain'}, 'advmod': {'why'}, 'nsubjpass': {'knowledge'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ccomp': {'positioned'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'was'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'pobj': {'taxonomy'}} Medium High High
4681 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking conceived of knowledge as simple facts that could be memorized, regurgitated, and thus objectively assessed 15 7 {'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2} [VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, VERB] {'ROOT': {'conceived'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'facts', 'knowledge'}, 'amod': {'simple'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'aux': {'could'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'relcl': {'memorized'}, 'punct': {','}, 'conj': {'assessed', 'regurgitated'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'thus', 'objectively'}} Medium High Low
4682 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Conversely, “evaluation” was viewed as the most complex of the six cognitive behaviors 13 7 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NUM, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Conversely', 'most'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'nsubjpass': {'evaluation'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'viewed'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'behaviors', 'complex'}, 'nummod': {'six'}, 'amod': {'cognitive'}} Medium High Low
4683 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Yet Bloom and the committee were aware of the potential problems in this ordering 14 8 {'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Yet'}, 'nsubj': {'Bloom'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'conj': {'committee'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'potential'}, 'pobj': {'problems', 'ordering'}} Medium High Low
4684 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking As they wrote: For the most part, the evaluations customarily made by an individual are quick decisions not preceded by very careful consideration of the various aspects of the object, idea, or activity being judged 35 21 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADV': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'evaluations', 'they'}, 'advcl': {'wrote'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'prep': {'For', 'of'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'amod': {'quick', 'various', 'careful', 'most'}, 'pobj': {'aspects', 'part', 'consideration', 'individual', 'object'}, 'advmod': {'customarily', 'very'}, 'acl': {'made', 'preceded', 'judged'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'decisions'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'idea', 'activity'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'auxpass': {'being'}} Long High Medium
4685 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Customarily, opinions are made at less than a fully con- scious level and the individual may not be fully aware of the clues or bases on which he is forming his appraisals 32 19 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, NOUN] {'advmod': {'fully', 'Customarily'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubjpass': {'opinions'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'made'}, 'prep': {'than', 'at', 'on', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'level', 'less', 'clues'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'con-', 'scious'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'nsubj': {'individual', 'he'}, 'aux': {'may', 'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'be', 'bases'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'relcl': {'forming'}, 'poss': {'his'}, 'dobj': {'appraisals'}} Long High Low
4686 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking For purposes of classification, only those evaluations which are or can be made with distinct criteria in mind are considered 20 13 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, CCONJ, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'prep': {'with', 'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'classification', 'purposes', 'criteria'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'only'}, 'det': {'those'}, 'nsubjpass': {'evaluations'}, 'nsubj': {'which'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'conj': {'made'}, 'amod': {'distinct'}, 'ROOT': {'considered'}} Long High Low
4687 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Such evalu- ations are highly conscious and ordinarily are based on a relatively adequate com- prehension and analysis of the phenomena to be appraised 24 11 {'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB] {'amod': {'evalu-', 'Such', 'adequate'}, 'nsubj': {'ations'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'highly', 'ordinarily', 'relatively'}, 'acomp': {'conscious'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'are'}, 'conj': {'based', 'analysis'}, 'prep': {'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'compound': {'com-'}, 'pobj': {'prehension', 'phenomena'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'appraised'}} Long High Low
4688 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking It is recognized that this may be far from the normal state of affairs 14 9 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2} [PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'It'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'recognized'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'this'}, 'aux': {'may'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'far'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'normal'}, 'pobj': {'affairs', 'state'}} Medium High Medium
4689 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking It is, however, based on a recognition that educational procedures are intended to develop the more desirable rather than the more customary types of behavior 25 15 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1} [PRON, AUX, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, ADV, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'rather', 'more', 'however'}, 'prep': {'based', 'on', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'behavior', 'recognition'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'customary'}, 'nsubjpass': {'procedures'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'acl': {'intended'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'develop'}, 'acomp': {'desirable'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'dobj': {'types'}} Long High Medium
4690 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking 186) [my emphasis] Regrettably, the need for students to provide substantiation for the decisions or judgments they reached was not a specific requirement of these evaluations 26 13 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'X': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, X, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, AUX, PART, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'186', 'was'}, 'punct': {',', ']', ')'}, 'dep': {'['}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'need', 'they', 'emphasis'}, 'advmod': {'Regrettably'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'these'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'reached', 'provide'}, 'dobj': {'substantiation'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'decisions', 'evaluations'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'judgments'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'amod': {'specific'}, 'attr': {'requirement'}} Long High Medium
4691 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Without this specification, it is possible for “evaluations” to take the form of non-reflective opinions rather than reasoned judgments (Lombardi et al., 2016) 23 11 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'Without', 'of'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'opinions', 'specification'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'evaluations'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'possible'}, 'mark': {'for'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'take'}, 'dobj': {'form'}, 'amod': {'reasoned', '-', 'non', 'reflective'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'judgments'}, 'appos': {'Lombardi', '2016'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Medium
4692 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking This remains a continuing problem in the mapping of valued thinking as I will illustrate in the ensu- ing discussion of critical thinking 23 11 {'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3} [PRON, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'remains'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'continuing', 'critical', 'ensu-', 'valued', 'ing'}, 'attr': {'problem'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'discussion', 'mapping', 'thinking'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'advcl': {'illustrate'}} Long High Medium
4693 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Critical Thinking: Journeying Deeper into Valued Thought Compared to higher order thinking à la Bloom et al 17 2 {'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PROPN': 9, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 2} [ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'amod': {'Critical', 'higher'}, 'ROOT': {'Compared', 'Thinking'}, 'punct': {'al', ':'}, 'compound': {'Journeying', 'Bloom', 'Valued', 'à'}, 'appos': {'Deeper'}, 'prep': {'into', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'Thought'}, 'acl': {'thinking'}, 'nmod': {'la'}, 'dobj': {'et'}} Medium Low Low
4694 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking (1956), critical thinking, as characterized by those who identified with the Critical Thinking Movement of the 1980s, progressed deeper into the realm of valued thinking 25 11 {'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADV': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, DET, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'1956', 'who'}, 'amod': {'valued', 'critical'}, 'appos': {'thinking'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'characterized'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'those', 'thinking', 'realm', 'Movement', '1980s'}, 'relcl': {'identified'}, 'prep': {'into', 'with', 'of'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'compound': {'Critical', 'Thinking'}, 'ROOT': {'progressed'}, 'advmod': {'deeper'}} Long High Medium
4695 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking As I will endeavor to show, critical thinking brings travelers closer to locating valued thinking over higher-order thinking, although serious limitations remain (see Table 1) 25 10 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, ADV, ADP, VERB, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'mark': {'As', 'although'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'limitations', 'thinking'}, 'aux': {'to', 'will'}, 'advcl': {'remain', 'endeavor'}, 'xcomp': {'show'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'serious', 'higher', 'valued', 'critical'}, 'ROOT': {'brings'}, 'dobj': {'travelers', 'Table', 'thinking'}, 'advmod': {'closer'}, 'prep': {'to', 'over'}, 'pcomp': {'locating'}, 'compound': {'order'}, 'pobj': {'thinking'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Long High High
4696 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking As Bloom et al.’s taxonomy served as the gateway into higher-order thinking, “Critical Think - ing: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction: Research Findings and Recommendations” (Facione, 1990) became a landmark document for critical thinking 41 14 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 14, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 10, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NUM': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADJ, VERB, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'compound': {'al', 'order', 'Think', 'landmark', 'Expert', 'et', 'Bloom', 'Educational', 'Research'}, 'nmod': {'.'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'taxonomy', 'Statement'}, 'advcl': {'served'}, 'prep': {'into', 'as', 'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'A', 'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'Consensus', 'Assessment', 'thinking', 'Purposes', 'gateway'}, 'amod': {'Critical', 'higher', 'critical'}, 'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'Facione', 'ing', '1990', 'Findings'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Instruction', 'Recommendations'}, 'ROOT': {'became'}, 'attr': {'document'}} Long High Medium
4697 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Better known as the Delphi report, for the consensus building method the committee employed, this work was sponsored by the American Philosophical Association 23 9 {'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 5, 'PROPN': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 2, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'advmod': {'Better'}, 'advcl': {'known'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'Delphi'}, 'pobj': {'report', 'method', 'Association'}, 'punct': {','}, 'compound': {'building', 'Philosophical', 'American', 'consensus'}, 'nsubj': {'committee'}, 'relcl': {'employed'}, 'nsubjpass': {'work'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'sponsored'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
4698 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:42 Page 9 of 18 42 in the construction of the report, but they were joined by psychologists, educators, and assessment experts 27 10 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN] {'nummod': {'9', '1'}, 'amod': {'3Educational'}, 'compound': {'18', 'Psychology', 'assessment'}, 'ROOT': {'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', '35:42', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023', 'Page'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'report', '42', 'psychologists', 'construction'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'conj': {'joined', 'experts', 'educators'}, 'agent': {'by'}} Long High Low
4699 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Not only was there less of a behavioristic overtone in this report but also more consideration of messier, less structured societal issues along- side 24 15 {'PART': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 1} [PART, ADV, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN] {'preconj': {'Not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'less', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'attr': {'less'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'amod': {'structured', 'societal', 'behavioristic', 'more', 'along-'}, 'pobj': {'overtone', 'report', 'messier'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'consideration'}, 'punct': {','}, 'appos': {'issues'}, 'npadvmod': {'side'}} Long High Low
4700 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking This conceptualization of critical thinking also differed from higher-order thinking in the emphasis placed on instructional approaches rather than instruc- tional objectives 22 9 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADV, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'conceptualization'}, 'prep': {'in', 'on', 'of', 'from'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'critical', 'instruc-', 'tional', 'higher'}, 'pobj': {'emphasis', 'approaches', 'thinking'}, 'advmod': {'also', 'rather'}, 'ROOT': {'differed'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'compound': {'order'}, 'acl': {'placed'}, 'cc': {'than'}, 'dobj': {'objectives'}} Long High Low
4701 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking This focus was quite evident in the review of project-based and problem-based programs by Loyens et al 17 8 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 3} [DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN] {'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'focus'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'quite'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'programs', 'Loyens', 'review'}, 'npadvmod': {'et', 'problem', 'project'}, 'punct': {'-', 'al'}, 'amod': {'based'}, 'cc': {'and'}} Medium High Low
4702 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking (1956), this consensus building resulted in a list of six cognitive processes that the committee (erroneously in my judgment) labeled skills or abilities (i.e., interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation) along with related subskills 35 13 {'PUNCT': 14, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 16, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'X': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, X, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'meta': {'1956'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'self', 'consensus'}, 'nsubj': {'building', 'committee'}, 'ROOT': {'resulted'}, 'prep': {'with', 'along', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'subskills', 'list', 'judgment', 'processes'}, 'nummod': {'six'}, 'amod': {'related', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'skills', 'that'}, 'advmod': {'erroneously', 'i.e.'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'relcl': {'labeled'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'regulation', 'explanation', 'analysis', 'abilities', 'evaluation', 'inference'}, 'appos': {'interpretation'}} Long High Low
4703 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking “Inference,” for example, was said to encompass the ability… to identify and secure elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions; to form conjectures and hypotheses; to consider relevant information and to educe the con- sequences flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence, judgments, beliefs, opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation 51 17 {'PUNCT': 17, 'PROPN': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 21, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 9, 'PART': 6, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 4} [PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'punct': {'”', ',', ';', '…', '“'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Inference'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'from'}, 'pobj': {'data', 'representation', 'example'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ccomp': {'said'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'encompass'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'conjectures', 'sequences', 'ability', 'elements', 'information', 'conclusions'}, 'conj': {'secure', 'forms', 'concepts', 'opinions', 'questions', 'judgments', 'identify', 'statements', 'hypotheses', 'evidence', 'educe', 'descriptions', 'beliefs', 'principles'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'acl': {'flowing', 'needed'}, 'advcl': {'form', 'draw'}, 'amod': {'other', 'reasonable', 'relevant'}, 'ROOT': {'consider'}, 'compound': {'con-'}} Long High Low
4704 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking 16) Presented in similar detail, inferences subskills were querying evidence, conjec- turing alternatives, and drawing conclusions 16 3 {'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [X, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN] {'meta': {'16'}, 'punct': {',', ')'}, 'ccomp': {'Presented'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'amod': {'similar', 'turing'}, 'pobj': {'detail'}, 'nsubj': {'subskills', 'inferences'}, 'aux': {'were'}, 'ROOT': {'querying'}, 'dobj': {'conclusions', 'evidence', 'alternatives'}, 'det': {'conjec-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'drawing'}} Medium High Low
4705 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking This particular example illustrates that the conceptualization of these six skills extends well beyond the typical meaning conveyed in the psychological and educational literature 24 12 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'the', 'This', 'these'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'psychological', 'typical'}, 'nsubj': {'conceptualization', 'example'}, 'ROOT': {'illustrates'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'beyond'}, 'nummod': {'six'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'literature', 'meaning'}, 'ccomp': {'extends'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'advcl': {'conveyed'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'educational'}} Long High Medium
4706 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking For instance, in the text- processing literature, an inference can refer to the ability to extrapolate meaning that is not expressly stated but is implied within a text (McNamara, 2021) 30 15 {'ADP': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 5, 'DET': 4, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'within', 'For', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'ability', 'instance', 'literature', 'text'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'compound': {'text-', 'processing'}, 'nsubj': {'inference'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'refer'}, 'acl': {'extrapolate'}, 'dobj': {'meaning'}, 'nsubjpass': {'that'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'expressly'}, 'relcl': {'stated'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'implied'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'McNamara'}} Long High Low
4707 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking It would seem that conceptualizations of these cognitive activities within the Delphi report are more rooted in philosophy than psychology or education 22 13 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It', 'conceptualizations'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'than', 'within', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'Delphi', 'cognitive'}, 'pobj': {'report', 'psychology', 'philosophy', 'activities'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'acomp': {'rooted'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'education'}} Long High Medium
4708 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking The same contention is true of the skill “explanation.” In the Delphi report, the delineation of explanation is more elaborate than the commonplace notion of giv - ing an accounting, detailing, or providing clarifying information 35 16 {'DET': 6, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 10, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 5, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'INTJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, ADP, DET, PROPN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, INTJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, VERB, NOUN] {'det': {'an', 'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'commonplace', 'same', 'Delphi'}, 'nsubj': {'contention', 'delineation'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'elaborate', 'true'}, 'prep': {'than', 'In', 'of'}, 'nmod': {'skill'}, 'punct': {'-', '.', '”', ',', '“'}, 'pobj': {'report', 'explanation', 'notion', 'giv'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'dep': {'ing'}, 'dobj': {'accounting', 'information'}, 'conj': {'providing', 'detailing'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'xcomp': {'clarifying'}} Long High Low
4709 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Explanation was described as the ability… to state the results of one’s reasoning; to justify that reasoning in terms of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological and contextual considerations upon which one’s results were based; and to present one’s reasoning in the form of cogent arguments 45 26 {'PROPN': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 13, 'PUNCT': 6, 'PART': 4, 'NUM': 2, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, NOUN, PART, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NUM, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubjpass': {'reasoning', 'Explanation'}, 'auxpass': {'was', 'were'}, 'ROOT': {'described'}, 'prep': {'as', 'upon', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'terms', 'considerations', 'form', 'ability', 'reasoning', 'arguments'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '…'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'state'}, 'dobj': {'results', 'reasoning'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'advcl': {'justify'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'evidential', 'conceptual', 'cogent'}, 'conj': {'contextual', 'criteriological', 'methodological', 'present'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubj': {'one'}, 'relcl': {'’s'}, 'attr': {'results'}, 'ccomp': {'based'}} Long High High
4710 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking 18) This specificity and purposes ascribed to critical thinking by Facione and others move it closer to the ideal of valued thinking 22 11 {'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [X, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'18', 'move'}, 'punct': {')'}, 'det': {'the', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'specificity'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'purposes', 'others'}, 'acl': {'ascribed'}, 'prep': {'by', 'to', 'of'}, 'amod': {'valued', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'ideal', 'Facione', 'thinking'}, 'dobj': {'it'}, 'advmod': {'closer'}} Long High Low
4711 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Nonetheless, the non-trivial concerns swirling around this conceptualization and operationalization of critical thinking indicate there is still some distance to go before the epitome of valued thinking is reached 29 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 7, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless', 'still'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'some', 'the', 'this'}, 'amod': {'-', 'critical', 'valued', 'trivial', 'non'}, 'nsubj': {'concerns'}, 'acl': {'swirling'}, 'prep': {'around', 'before', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'conceptualization', 'epitome', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'operationalization'}, 'ROOT': {'indicate'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'reached'}, 'attr': {'distance'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'go'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}} Long High Low
4712 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking One area of concern pertains to efforts to delineate dispositions that mark one as a critical thinker 17 8 {'NUM': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, PRON, VERB, NUM, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'nummod': {'One'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'area'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'efforts', 'concern', 'thinker'}, 'ROOT': {'pertains'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'delineate'}, 'dobj': {'one', 'dispositions'}, 'relcl': {'mark'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'amod': {'critical'}} Medium High Low
4713 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking In effect, this literature not only centered on the what of critical thinking but also the who 17 12 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PART, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, DET, PRON] {'prep': {'on', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'effect', 'what', 'thinking'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'literature'}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'advmod': {'only', 'also'}, 'ROOT': {'centered'}, 'amod': {'critical'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'dep': {'who'}} Medium High Low
4714 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Yet, the more significant limitation within the critical thinking literature remains the absence of any definitive boundary that indicates that this desired destination of valued thinking has been reached 29 14 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'Yet', 'more'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'amod': {'definitive', 'significant', 'valued', 'critical'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'limitation', 'this'}, 'prep': {'within', 'of'}, 'compound': {'thinking'}, 'pobj': {'boundary', 'literature', 'thinking'}, 'csubjpass': {'remains'}, 'attr': {'absence'}, 'relcl': {'indicates'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'desired'}, 'dobj': {'destination'}, 'aux': {'has'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'ROOT': {'reached'}} Long High Medium
4715 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking In effect, there were so many suggested char - acteristics of critical thinking within the Delphi report (1990), but no clarity as to 23 12 {'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 6, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, ADJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADP] {'prep': {'within', 'to', 'of', 'as', 'In'}, 'pobj': {'report', 'effect', 'thinking'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'so'}, 'amod': {'many', 'suggested', 'Delphi', 'critical'}, 'compound': {'char'}, 'attr': {'acteristics'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'appos': {'1990'}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'conj': {'clarity'}} Long High Low
4716 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:42 1 3 42 Page 10 of 18 which of the myriad of characteristics were held to be necessary and sufficient for the mental activity to attain the status of valued thinking 36 14 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 2, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, PRON, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', '3'}, 'ROOT': {'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023', 'Page'}, 'nummod': {'42', '35:42', '1', '10'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'characteristics', 'thinking', 'activity', 'myriad', '18'}, 'nsubjpass': {'which'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'auxpass': {'were'}, 'relcl': {'held', 'attain'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'necessary'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'sufficient'}, 'amod': {'valued', 'mental'}, 'dobj': {'status'}} Long High Low
4717 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Does any one of the listed skills qualify the act as critical thinking 13 7 {'AUX': 1, 'DET': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADJ': 1} [AUX, DET, NUM, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'aux': {'Does'}, 'det': {'any', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'one'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'listed', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'thinking'}, 'ROOT': {'qualify'}, 'dobj': {'act'}} Medium High Low
4718 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Or is it assumed that the ideal state of criti- cal thinking requires the manifestation of all these skills and subskills 21 11 {'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2} [CCONJ, AUX, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'cc': {'and', 'Or'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'state'}, 'ROOT': {'assumed'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'amod': {'criti-', 'ideal'}, 'prep': {'of'}, 'compound': {'cal'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'thinking'}, 'ccomp': {'requires'}, 'dobj': {'manifestation'}, 'predet': {'all'}, 'conj': {'subskills'}} Long High Medium
4719 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Indeed, the committee purposefully referred to the collection of skills and subskills as a “list” to avoid any sense of ordering or hierarchy 23 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, CCONJ, VERB] {'advmod': {'Indeed', 'purposefully'}, 'punct': {',', '”', '“'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'any'}, 'nsubj': {'committee'}, 'ROOT': {'referred'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'list', 'collection'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'subskills', 'hierarchy'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'avoid'}, 'dobj': {'sense'}, 'pcomp': {'ordering'}} Long High Low
4720 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking While that is all well and good from the standpoint of a theoretical discussion, it fails to establish the line between what ulti- mately qualifies as valued thinking and what does not 32 20 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PRON, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART] {'mark': {'While'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'that', 'what'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'mately', 'all'}, 'acomp': {'well'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'does', 'good'}, 'prep': {'between', 'as', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'standpoint', 'discussion', 'qualifies', 'thinking'}, 'amod': {'theoretical', 'valued'}, 'punct': {','}, 'ROOT': {'fails'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'establish'}, 'dobj': {'line'}, 'pcomp': {'ulti-'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Medium
4721 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Critical‑Analytic Thinking and the Necessity of Evidence‑Based Justifications A decade ago, 18 multidisciplinary scholars gathered together to delve into ques- tions about what it means to think critically and analytically and what is required to foster this form of valued thinking in children, youth, and adults 46 20 {'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, CCONJ, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, DET, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADV, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN] {'compound': {'ques-', 'Evidence‑Based', 'Critical‑Analytic'}, 'nsubj': {'it', 'scholars', 'Thinking'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'A', 'the', 'this'}, 'conj': {'required', 'adults', 'analytically', 'youth', 'Necessity'}, 'prep': {'into', 'about', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'tions', 'children', 'Justifications', 'thinking'}, 'npadvmod': {'decade'}, 'advmod': {'critically', 'ago', 'together'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nummod': {'18'}, 'amod': {'multidisciplinary', 'valued'}, 'ROOT': {'gathered'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'advcl': {'delve'}, 'dobj': {'form', 'what'}, 'pcomp': {'means'}, 'xcomp': {'foster', 'think'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}} Long High Low
4722 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking This gathering was sponsored by American Educational Research Association’s Education Research Interdisciplinary Conferences Program (Alexander et al., 2013) 18 4 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 13, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'gathering'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'sponsored'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'compound': {'Conferences', 'American', 'Interdisciplinary', 'et', 'Education', 'Educational', 'Alexander', 'Research'}, 'poss': {'Association'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'pobj': {'Program'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'2013', 'al', '.'}} Medium High Low
4723 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking As with the Del- phi report, this conference aimed to seek common ground or consilience (Whewell, 1840; Wilson, 1998) among the attendees whose varied disciplines included edu- cational policy and leadership, cognitive neuroscience, developmental psychology, language and literacy, social psychology, individual differences, measurement and assessment, and educational psychology 48 13 {'ADP': 3, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 19, 'PUNCT': 13, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 9, 'CCONJ': 5, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 2} [ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'prep': {'with', 'As', 'among'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'compound': {'Del-', 'phi'}, 'pobj': {'report', 'attendees'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'ROOT': {'conference'}, 'acl': {'aimed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'seek'}, 'amod': {'varied', 'common', 'cational', 'developmental', 'social', 'individual', 'educational', 'edu-', 'cognitive'}, 'dobj': {'ground', 'policy'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'leadership', 'language', 'differences', 'neuroscience', 'consilience', 'psychology', 'literacy', 'assessment', 'measurement'}, 'npadvmod': {'1840', 'Whewell'}, 'appos': {'Wilson', '1998'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'nsubj': {'disciplines'}, 'relcl': {'included'}} Long High Low
4724 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking There was agreement among the partici- pating scholars that the ideas about higher-order and critical thinking were vague and underspecified 20 10 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, VERB] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'attr': {'agreement'}, 'prep': {'about', 'among'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'partici-'}, 'acl': {'pating', 'were'}, 'dobj': {'scholars'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubj': {'ideas'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'critical'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'underspecified', 'thinking'}, 'acomp': {'vague'}} Long High Medium
4725 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Further, efforts to promote deep reflective thinking and deci- sion-making that was evidence-based and adequately justified were often unsuccess- ful or their influence was limited 25 11 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PRON, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, PRON, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'advmod': {'often', 'Further', 'adequately'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'influence', 'efforts', 'that'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'promote'}, 'amod': {'deep', 'reflective'}, 'dobj': {'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'compound': {'deci-', 'sion'}, 'conj': {'limited', 'making', 'justified'}, 'relcl': {'was'}, 'npadvmod': {'evidence'}, 'acomp': {'based', 'ful'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'dep': {'unsuccess-'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}} Long High Low
4726 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking (1999b) so eloquently argued: As soon as [theorists] begin to spell out in more concrete terms what critical thinking consists in, what educational attainments are required if one is to be a criti- cal thinker, and what means are likely to be efficacious in teaching persons to think critically, that is to say, as soon as they interpret the term in such a way as to provide a clear conception of critical thinking, agreement evaporates 75 39 {'PUNCT': 9, 'NUM': 2, 'ADV': 7, 'VERB': 12, 'SCONJ': 4, 'X': 1, 'NOUN': 12, 'PART': 6, 'ADP': 6, 'ADJ': 9, 'DET': 6, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 6, 'CCONJ': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, X, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, NUM, AUX, PART, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, AUX, ADJ, PART, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB] {'punct': {':', ')', '(', ']', ','}, 'dep': {'[', '1999b'}, 'advmod': {'As', 'so', 'soon', 'critically', 'eloquently', 'as'}, 'ccomp': {'required', 'argued'}, 'mark': {'if', 'as'}, 'nsubj': {'agreement', 'what', 'they', 'theorists', 'thinking', 'one', 'that'}, 'advcl': {'is', 'begin', 'interpret', 'provide'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'be', 'think', 'spell', 'say'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'clear', 'more', 'critical', 'criti-', 'educational', 'concrete'}, 'pobj': {'way', 'terms', 'thinking'}, 'det': {'a', 'what', 'the'}, 'relcl': {'consists'}, 'dobj': {'persons', 'conception', 'what', 'term'}, 'nsubjpass': {'attainments'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'compound': {'cal'}, 'attr': {'thinker'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'csubj': {'means'}, 'conj': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'likely', 'efficacious'}, 'pcomp': {'teaching'}, 'parataxis': {'is'}, 'predet': {'such'}, 'ROOT': {'evaporates'}} Long High High
4727 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking 285) As an alternative to the more familiar terms of higher-order and critical think - ing, the participants in the Interdisciplinary Conference chose to use the language of critical-analytic thinking for several reasons 33 15 {'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'PART': 1} [NUM, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'285', 'chose'}, 'punct': {',', '-', ')'}, 'prep': {'As', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'det': {'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'order', 'Conference', 'terms', 'thinking', 'reasons', 'alternative'}, 'advmod': {'more'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'familiar', 'higher', 'several', 'analytic'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'Interdisciplinary', 'think'}, 'conj': {'ing'}, 'nsubj': {'participants'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'use'}, 'dobj': {'language'}} Long High Low
4728 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking For one, they wanted to avoid what- ever preconceptions about higher-order or critical-thinking participants might bring to the discussions 19 10 {'ADP': 3, 'NUM': 1, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADP, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'prep': {'about', 'For', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'discussions', 'one', 'participants'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ROOT': {'wanted'}, 'aux': {'might', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'avoid'}, 'nmod': {'order', 'what-'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'critical', 'ever'}, 'dobj': {'preconceptions'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'bring', 'thinking'}, 'det': {'the'}} Medium High Low
4729 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking There was also a growing philosophical and psychological lit- erature that endowed critical-analytic thinking with a salient attribute that seemed absent from the existing literature, more determinative criteria for what does or does not qualify as valued thinking (Haack, 1993; Murphy, 2007; Quine, 1969; Wade et al., 1994) 48 20 {'PRON': 4, 'VERB': 7, 'ADV': 1, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 7, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 11, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 4} [PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, VERB, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, CCONJ, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'also'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'more', 'critical', 'determinative', 'valued', 'growing', 'philosophical', 'analytic'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'al', 'lit-', 'psychological', 'Quine', 'Wade', 'qualify'}, 'attr': {'erature'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'what'}, 'relcl': {'seemed', 'endowed'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'dobj': {'thinking'}, 'prep': {'for', 'with', 'as', 'from'}, 'compound': {'salient'}, 'pobj': {'attribute', 'literature', 'thinking'}, 'oprd': {'absent', 'criteria'}, 'pcomp': {'does'}, 'aux': {'does'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'appos': {'1969', '.', 'Murphy', '1994', 'et', 'Haack'}, 'npadvmod': {'1993', '2007'}} Long High Low
4730 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking By wedding critical thinking and analytic reasoning, an individual or group can achieve “an examined understanding of something known or believed (see Table 1) 24 10 {'ADP': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, PRON, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'By', 'of'}, 'nmod': {'wedding'}, 'amod': {'examined', 'analytic', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'something', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'group', 'reasoning', 'believed'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')', '“'}, 'det': {'an'}, 'nsubj': {'individual'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'ROOT': {'achieve'}, 'dobj': {'Table', 'understanding'}, 'acl': {'known'}, 'parataxis': {'see'}, 'nummod': {'1'}} Long High Low
4731 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking This examination is characterized by a systematic evaluation of the object of thought and claims, reasons, and evidence forwarded about that object” (Murphy et al., 2014,p 26 11 {'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PROPN': 4} [DET, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'This'}, 'nsubjpass': {'examination'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'characterized'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'amod': {'systematic'}, 'pobj': {'thought', 'evaluation', 'object'}, 'prep': {'about', 'of'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'reasons', 'evidence', 'claims'}, 'punct': {',', '2014,p', '(', '”'}, 'acl': {'forwarded'}, 'appos': {'Murphy'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
4732 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Moreover, the evidence and justification needed to support that evaluation must be well-matched to the nature of the problem at hand 21 13 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'advmod': {'well', 'Moreover'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'evidence'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'justification'}, 'acl': {'needed'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'advcl': {'support'}, 'dobj': {'evaluation'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'matched'}, 'prep': {'at', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'hand', 'nature', 'problem'}} Long High Low
4733 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:42 Page 11 of 18 42 For example, someone who comes to believe on the basis of poor or irrelevant reasons, on the authority of someone whose credibility is questionable, or without attempting to assess the evidence relevant to the truth of the belief, would not usu- ally be regarded as thinking critically 58 27 {'NUM': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 3, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 10, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 3, 'DET': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, ADV] {'nummod': {'11', '1'}, 'amod': {'poor', '3Educational', 'relevant'}, 'compound': {'18', 'Psychology'}, 'nsubj': {'credibility', 'Review', 'who'}, 'punct': {'(', '35:42', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023', 'Page'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'as', 'For'}, 'pobj': {'basis', 'truth', 'someone', 'example', 'reasons', '42', 'belief', 'authority'}, 'appos': {'someone'}, 'relcl': {'comes', 'is'}, 'aux': {'would', 'to'}, 'advcl': {'believe'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'irrelevant', 'without'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'acomp': {'questionable'}, 'pcomp': {'attempting', 'thinking'}, 'xcomp': {'assess'}, 'dobj': {'evidence'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'usu-'}, 'nsubjpass': {'ally'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'regarded'}, 'advmod': {'critically'}} Long High Low
4734 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking This suggests that thinking about what to believe or do must meet appropriate standards if it is to be regarded as critical think - ing 25 14 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 1} [PRON, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PRON, PART, VERB, CCONJ, VERB, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'it', 'This'}, 'ROOT': {'suggests'}, 'mark': {'if', 'that'}, 'csubj': {'thinking'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as'}, 'dobj': {'standards', 'what'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'pcomp': {'believe'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'do'}, 'ccomp': {'meet'}, 'amod': {'appropriate', 'critical'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'xcomp': {'regarded'}, 'compound': {'think'}, 'punct': {'-'}, 'pobj': {'ing'}} Long High High
4735 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking If someone were inadvertently to fulfil relevant standards in their thinking, but had not intentionally attempted to fulfil them, they would not generally be regarded as having engaged in critical thinking 31 17 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 4, 'AUX': 5, 'ADV': 3, 'PART': 4, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, PART, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, PART, ADV, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, ADV, AUX, VERB, ADP, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'If'}, 'nsubj': {'someone'}, 'advcl': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'inadvertently', 'generally', 'intentionally'}, 'aux': {'would', 'had', 'to', 'having'}, 'xcomp': {'fulfil'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'critical'}, 'dobj': {'standards', 'them'}, 'prep': {'as', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'pobj': {'thinking'}, 'punct': {','}, 'cc': {'but'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'conj': {'attempted'}, 'nsubjpass': {'they'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ROOT': {'regarded'}, 'pcomp': {'engaged'}} Long High Medium
4736 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking To be engaged in critical thinking one must be aware that there are such standards and must be striving to fulfil them 22 15 {'PART': 2, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, AUX, ADJ, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, PRON] {'aux': {'To', 'to', 'be', 'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advcl': {'engaged'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'amod': {'such', 'critical'}, 'pobj': {'thinking'}, 'nsubj': {'one'}, 'ROOT': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'aware'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'attr': {'standards'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'striving'}, 'xcomp': {'fulfil'}, 'dobj': {'them'}} Long High Medium
4737 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking (1999a, 1999b) refer must be understood in relation to the characteristics of the problem or issue to be analyzed, such as its complexity, as well as the sociocultural context or situation in which it is encountered 36 22 {'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 4, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PRON': 3, 'ADV': 2} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PART, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', '1999a', 'of', 'as'}, 'appos': {'1999b'}, 'nsubjpass': {'refer', 'it'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'ROOT': {'understood'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'characteristics', 'problem', 'complexity', 'relation'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'cc': {'or', 'as'}, 'conj': {'situation', 'issue', 'context'}, 'xcomp': {'analyzed'}, 'amod': {'such', 'sociocultural'}, 'poss': {'its'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'relcl': {'encountered'}} Long High Low
4738 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Alexander and colleagues called this epistemic competence (Alexander et al., 2011; Grossnickle Peterson et al., 2017) 16 2 {'PROPN': 10, 'CCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 5, 'NUM': 2} [PROPN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubj': {'Alexander'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'colleagues'}, 'ROOT': {'called'}, 'det': {'this'}, 'amod': {'epistemic'}, 'dobj': {'competence'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'compound': {'Peterson', 'Grossnickle', 'Alexander', 'et'}, 'appos': {'al', '2017', '2011'}, 'oprd': {'al', '.'}} Medium Low Low
4739 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Specifically, epistemic competence can be defined as “the use of available contextual elements to determine the sources of evidence best suited for a given problem in an effort to provide an answer that is justified true belief” (Grossnickle Peterson et al., 2017,p 42 16 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 5, 'PART': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM] {'advmod': {'Specifically', 'best'}, 'punct': {',', '(', '”', '“'}, 'amod': {'given', 'true', 'epistemic', 'contextual', 'justified', 'available'}, 'nsubjpass': {'competence'}, 'aux': {'can', 'to'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'ROOT': {'defined'}, 'prep': {'for', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'an', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'problem', 'elements', 'use', 'evidence', 'effort'}, 'acl': {'determine', 'provide', 'suited'}, 'dobj': {'sources', 'answer'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'appos': {'.', 'al', 'belief'}, 'compound': {'Peterson', 'Grossnickle', 'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'2017,p'}} Long High Low
4740 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Thus, those who apply the same evidentiary standards to varied problems would seem as misguided as those who offer no standards at all when justifying their views or judgments 29 18 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, ADV, SCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'when', 'at', 'as', 'all'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'those', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'offer', 'apply'}, 'det': {'no', 'the'}, 'amod': {'same', 'evidentiary', 'varied'}, 'dobj': {'views', 'standards'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to'}, 'pobj': {'problems', 'those'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'oprd': {'misguided'}, 'advcl': {'justifying'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'judgments'}} Long High Medium
4741 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking (this issue) strongly contend, establishing those standards can- not be the purview of a privileged few but must welcome the wisdom and experi- ences of all, most notably minoritized groups whose perspectives and histories have been overlooked for far too long 41 21 {'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 6, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADV': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'X': 1, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 1} [PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, DET, NOUN, X, PART, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, CCONJ, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, VERB, NOUN, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADV, ADV, ADJ] {'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'det': {'a', 'those', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'issue'}, 'advmod': {'too', 'strongly', 'far', 'most', 'notably'}, 'ROOT': {'contend'}, 'csubj': {'establishing'}, 'dobj': {'standards', 'groups', 'wisdom'}, 'dep': {'can-'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ccomp': {'be'}, 'attr': {'purview'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'amod': {'privileged', 'minoritized', 'long'}, 'pobj': {'all', 'few'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'aux': {'have', 'must'}, 'conj': {'histories', 'ences', 'welcome'}, 'compound': {'experi-'}, 'poss': {'whose'}, 'nsubjpass': {'perspectives'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'relcl': {'overlooked'}} Long High Low
4742 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Perils on the Journey to Valued Thinking With these distinctions among higher-order, critical, and critical-analytic thinking mapped out, I offer several warnings to others who wish to navigate the realm of valued thinking 33 16 {'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 7, 'DET': 3, 'PROPN': 2, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 5, 'PUNCT': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'PART': 1} [NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, ADP, PROPN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'dep': {'Perils'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'of', 'among', 'With'}, 'det': {'the', 'these'}, 'pobj': {'Journey', 'distinctions', 'thinking', 'others', 'Thinking'}, 'compound': {'Valued'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'valued', 'higher', 'several', 'analytic'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nmod': {'order'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'acl': {'mapped'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'offer'}, 'dobj': {'realm', 'warnings'}, 'dative': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'wish'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'navigate'}} Long High Low
4743 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Specifically, I want to warn individuals about the need to plot the conceptual course they are pursuing, push beyond reflection into deeper waters, look for signs of intentionality and effort, and stay focused on the journey 36 16 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADP': 6, 'DET': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Specifically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'want'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'warn'}, 'dobj': {'course', 'individuals'}, 'prep': {'on', 'beyond', 'for', 'into', 'of', 'about'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'journey', 'reflection', 'waters', 'signs', 'intentionality', 'need'}, 'acl': {'plot'}, 'amod': {'conceptual', 'deeper'}, 'relcl': {'pursuing'}, 'conj': {'effort', 'push', 'stay', 'look'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'acomp': {'focused'}} Long High Low
4744 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Navigating Valued Thinking Demands Specification I remember watching my late brother Robert, a navigator in the Air Force, chart and rechart his course before ever taking to the air 29 11 {'VERB': 6, 'PROPN': 6, 'PRON': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [VERB, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PRON, VERB, VERB, PRON, ADJ, NOUN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Navigating'}, 'compound': {'Demands', 'Air', 'Valued'}, 'dobj': {'Specification', 'course', 'brother', 'Thinking'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'ROOT': {'remember'}, 'xcomp': {'watching'}, 'poss': {'my', 'his'}, 'amod': {'late'}, 'appos': {'Robert', 'navigator', 'chart'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'prep': {'before', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'air', 'Force'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'rechart'}, 'advmod': {'ever'}, 'pcomp': {'taking'}} Long High Low
4745 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking It was evident to him that being precise about one’s destination and the path to follow was a critical first step in any journey 24 17 {'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'PART': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 3, 'VERB': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, PRON, SCONJ, AUX, ADJ, ADP, NUM, PART, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, AUX, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'It', 'path'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'acomp': {'precise', 'evident'}, 'prep': {'about', 'to', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'him', 'destination', 'journey'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'csubj': {'being'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'any'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'follow'}, 'ccomp': {'was'}, 'amod': {'first', 'critical'}, 'attr': {'step'}} Long High Medium
4746 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking That is undoubtedly good advice for anyone who seeks to study valued thinking or to guide others to that port of call 22 13 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'That', 'who'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'advmod': {'undoubtedly'}, 'amod': {'valued', 'good'}, 'attr': {'advice'}, 'prep': {'for', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'port', 'anyone', 'call'}, 'relcl': {'seeks'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'study'}, 'dobj': {'others', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'guide'}, 'det': {'that'}} Long High Low
4747 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Yet the articles in this special issue were a painful reminder that educational researchers and practitioners are far more likely to set off with little more than a vague sense of where they are going, what 36 21 {'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 7, 'AUX': 3, 'SCONJ': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'PUNCT': 1} [CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PRON] {'cc': {'and', 'Yet'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'articles', 'researchers', 'they'}, 'prep': {'than', 'with', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'vague', 'little', 'painful', 'educational', 'special'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'sense', 'more'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'attr': {'reminder'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'conj': {'practitioners'}, 'acl': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'where', 'far', 'more'}, 'acomp': {'likely'}, 'aux': {'are', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'set'}, 'prt': {'off'}, 'pcomp': {'going'}, 'punct': {','}, 'dep': {'what'}} Long High High
4748 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:42 1 3 42 Page 12 of 18 is required to get there, and how to know if they have indeed arrived at the desired locale 30 14 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'PART': 2, 'ADV': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'SCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, PUNCT, CCONJ, SCONJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, VERB, NOUN] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', '3'}, 'ROOT': {'required', 'Review'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023', 'Page'}, 'nummod': {'42', '35:42', '1'}, 'nsubjpass': {'12'}, 'prep': {'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'18', 'locale'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'aux': {'have', 'to'}, 'xcomp': {'get'}, 'advmod': {'indeed', 'there', 'how'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'know'}, 'mark': {'if'}, 'nsubj': {'they'}, 'ccomp': {'arrived'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'desired'}} Long High High
4749 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking For more than 30 years, my colleagues and I have been decrying the lack of clarity and specificity in the definitions of constructs that educational research- ers and practitioners hold dear (Alexander et al., 1991; Alexander et al., 2009; Din- smore et al., 2008; Murphy & Alexander, 2000) 48 16 {'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 3, 'NUM': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 16} [ADP, ADJ, ADP, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, SCONJ, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'For', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'educational', 'more'}, 'quantmod': {'than'}, 'nummod': {'30'}, 'pobj': {'definitions', 'years', 'clarity', 'constructs'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ',', ';', 'Din-'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'nsubj': {'ers', 'colleagues'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'I', 'practitioners', 'specificity', 'Alexander'}, 'aux': {'have', 'been'}, 'ROOT': {'decrying', 'smore'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'.', 'lack'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'compound': {'research-', 'Alexander', 'et'}, 'acl': {'hold'}, 'advcl': {'dear'}, 'nmod': {'et'}, 'npadvmod': {'1991', 'al', '.'}, 'appos': {'Murphy', '2009', 'et', '2000', '2008'}} Long High Medium
4750 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking It would seem from this special issue that those cries have largely fallen on deaf ears 16 9 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 1} [PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'cries', 'It'}, 'aux': {'would', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'prep': {'on', 'from'}, 'det': {'those', 'this'}, 'amod': {'deaf', 'special'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'ears'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'advmod': {'largely'}, 'relcl': {'fallen'}} Medium High Medium
4751 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Let me be clear, however, that I am not calling for a consensus definition of val- ued thinking 18 10 {'VERB': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 3} [VERB, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'Let'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'me'}, 'ccomp': {'be', 'calling'}, 'acomp': {'clear'}, 'punct': {','}, 'advmod': {'however'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'aux': {'am'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of'}, 'det': {'a'}, 'compound': {'consensus'}, 'pobj': {'definition', 'thinking'}, 'amod': {'val-', 'ued'}} Medium High Medium
4752 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Those who have devoted themselves to such endeavor (Anderson et al., 2001; Bloom et al., 1956; Facione, 1990) can certainly attest to the herculean effort required to come even close to that goal 33 13 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1} [PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, VERB, PART, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'Those', 'who'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have', 'to'}, 'relcl': {'devoted'}, 'dobj': {'themselves'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'amod': {'such'}, 'pobj': {'goal', 'endeavor', 'effort'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'.', 'al', 'Anderson', 'et'}, 'appos': {'1990', 'al', 'Facione', 'et', '2001', 'Bloom', '1956'}, 'advmod': {'certainly', 'even', 'close'}, 'ROOT': {'attest'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'compound': {'herculean'}, 'acl': {'required'}, 'xcomp': {'come'}} Long High Low
4753 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Rather, all I am asking is that researchers investigating some manner of valued thinking or those trying to educe valued think - ing in others begin by being explicit and sufficiently detailed in what they hold those ideas to mean 40 21 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 5, 'AUX': 3, 'VERB': 10, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'DET': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, AUX, VERB, AUX, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, PRON, VERB, PART, VERB, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB] {'advmod': {'Rather', 'sufficiently'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'nsubj': {'all', 'they', 'I', 'those', 'researchers', 'ideas'}, 'aux': {'to', 'am'}, 'relcl': {'asking'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'ccomp': {'investigating'}, 'det': {'those', 'some'}, 'dobj': {'ing', 'manner', 'what'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of', 'in'}, 'amod': {'valued'}, 'pobj': {'others', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'acl': {'trying'}, 'xcomp': {'mean', 'educe'}, 'compound': {'think'}, 'conj': {'begin', 'detailed'}, 'pcomp': {'hold', 'being'}, 'acomp': {'explicit'}} Long High Medium
4754 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking They should also work toward means and measures that clearly and appropriately reflect the conceptions they forward 17 9 {'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 4, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1} [PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PRON, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, PRON, ADV] {'nsubj': {'They', 'that'}, 'aux': {'should'}, 'advmod': {'appropriately', 'clearly', 'also', 'forward'}, 'ROOT': {'work'}, 'prep': {'toward'}, 'pobj': {'means'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'measures'}, 'relcl': {'reflect'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'conceptions'}, 'appos': {'they'}} Medium High Low
4755 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking I do not regard these preparatory steps as too much to ask of researchers or practitioners 16 10 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'DET': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'to', 'do'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'regard'}, 'det': {'these'}, 'amod': {'preparatory'}, 'dobj': {'steps'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of'}, 'advmod': {'too'}, 'pobj': {'researchers', 'much'}, 'advcl': {'ask'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'practitioners'}} Medium High Low
4756 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Valued Thinking Requires More than Reflection One point of consensus among the contributors to this volume, as well as most researchers who delve into valued thinking, is that John Dewey’s (1910) writings on reflection are foundational 36 19 {'VERB': 4, 'NOUN': 9, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 7, 'PROPN': 3, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PART': 1} [VERB, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, ADP, PROPN, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, SCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADJ] {'compound': {'Reflection', 'John', 'Valued'}, 'nsubj': {'Dewey', 'who', 'Thinking'}, 'csubj': {'Requires'}, 'dobj': {'More'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'into', 'among', 'of', 'than'}, 'nummod': {'One'}, 'pobj': {'reflection', 'contributors', 'thinking', 'consensus', 'volume', 'point'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well'}, 'cc': {'as'}, 'amod': {'valued', 'most'}, 'conj': {'researchers'}, 'relcl': {'delve'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'appos': {'1910', 'writings'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'foundational'}} Long High Medium
4757 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking As with Dewey (1910) and James (1890), I regard reflec- tion as necessary for any form of thinking that moves beyond ordinary, habituated, or reactive mental activity to arise 29 12 {'ADP': 6, 'PROPN': 2, 'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADP, ADP, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB] {'prep': {'beyond', 'As', 'with', 'of', 'for', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'form', 'Dewey', 'thinking'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'activity', '1910', '1890'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'conj': {'James'}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'that'}, 'ROOT': {'regard'}, 'amod': {'reactive', 'mental', 'ordinary', 'necessary', 'habituated', 'reflec-'}, 'dobj': {'tion'}, 'det': {'any'}, 'relcl': {'arise', 'moves'}, 'aux': {'to'}} Long High Low
4758 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking This demarcation between reflection and reac- tion parallels contemporary theory and research on Type 1 versus Type 2 (Stanovich & Toplak, 2012) or System 1 versus System 2 thinking (Kahneman, 2011) 31 6 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'ADJ': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'PROPN': 5, 'NUM': 6, 'PUNCT': 6} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NOUN, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NOUN, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'This'}, 'nsubj': {'demarcation'}, 'prep': {'on', 'versus', 'between'}, 'pobj': {'reflection', 'Type', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'amod': {'reac-', 'contemporary'}, 'conj': {'System', 'Toplak', 'research', 'tion'}, 'ROOT': {'parallels'}, 'dobj': {'theory'}, 'nummod': {'1', '2'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Stanovich', 'Kahneman', '2011'}, 'npadvmod': {'2012'}, 'nmod': {'System'}} Long High Low
4759 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking How - ever, while passage into reflective thought leaves behind the more pedestrian, lower- order forms of human cogitation, there is still a great distance to progress before the ideal of valued thinking is reached 35 17 {'SCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 4, 'ADV': 2, 'NOUN': 10, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'DET': 3, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1} [SCONJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, VERB] {'advmod': {'How', 'still', 'ever'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'advcl': {'passage'}, 'prep': {'behind', 'forms', 'before', 'into', 'of'}, 'amod': {'lower-', 'valued', 'human', 'reflective', 'great', 'more'}, 'compound': {'thought', 'order'}, 'pobj': {'cogitation', 'pedestrian', 'thinking', 'ideal', 'leaves'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'csubjpass': {'is'}, 'attr': {'distance'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'relcl': {'progress'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'reached'}} Long High High
4760 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Moreover, while I recognize the reflection as the sine qua non of valued thinking, there are still hazards awaiting on the journey 22 12 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Moreover', 'still'}, 'punct': {','}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'advcl': {'awaiting', 'recognize'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'reflection'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as', 'of'}, 'amod': {'sine', 'valued'}, 'compound': {'qua'}, 'pobj': {'non', 'journey', 'thinking'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'hazards'}} Long High Medium
4761 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking For instance, those who have recently spent time in classrooms, either as teachers or as students, can likely attest to the fact that time for reflection is often in short supply (Hmelo-Silver, 2004) 33 17 {'ADP': 7, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'DET': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2, 'NUM': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'to', 'in', 'for', 'For', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'teachers', 'instance', 'students', 'reflection', 'supply', 'classrooms', 'fact'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'time', 'those', 'who'}, 'aux': {'can', 'have'}, 'advmod': {'recently', 'often', 'likely'}, 'relcl': {'spent'}, 'dobj': {'time'}, 'preconj': {'either'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'as'}, 'ROOT': {'attest'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acl': {'is'}, 'amod': {'short'}, 'compound': {'Hmelo'}, 'appos': {'2004', 'Silver'}} Long High Medium
4762 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Teachers are taxed to cover the content (Schmidt et al., 2011), while students set their sights on getting their assigned tasks over and done as soon as possible (Alexander, 2018) 30 12 {'NOUN': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'PART': 1, 'DET': 1, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PROPN': 4, 'X': 1, 'NUM': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'ADP': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, X, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, SCONJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADV, CCONJ, VERB, ADV, ADV, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nsubjpass': {'Teachers'}, 'auxpass': {'are'}, 'ROOT': {'taxed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'cover'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'content', 'sights', 'tasks'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Schmidt', 'al', '.', '2011'}, 'npadvmod': {'2018', 'Alexander', 'et'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'nsubj': {'students'}, 'advcl': {'set'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'prep': {'on', 'as'}, 'pcomp': {'getting'}, 'amod': {'assigned', 'possible'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'soon', 'over'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'done'}} Long High Medium
4763 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Also, today’s students who are members of the iGen- eration often spend more time with their minds turned outward to the digital world than inward and engaged in thoughtful and mindful reflection (Rosen et al., 2013) 36 16 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NOUN': 8, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NUM': 2, 'VERB': 3, 'ADJ': 4, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PROPN': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, NOUN, PART, NOUN, PRON, AUX, NOUN, ADP, DET, NUM, NOUN, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADV, CCONJ, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'outward', 'often', 'Also'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'poss': {'today', 'their'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nsubj': {'students', 'minds', 'who'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'attr': {'members'}, 'prep': {'to', 'in', 'with', 'of', 'than'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'world', 'eration', 'iGen-', 'reflection'}, 'ROOT': {'spend'}, 'amod': {'digital', 'thoughtful', 'more'}, 'dobj': {'time'}, 'pcomp': {'turned', 'inward'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'engaged', '.', 'mindful'}, 'appos': {'2013', 'Rosen'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', 'et'}} Long High Low
4764 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking As discussed in this special issue, there are approaches like project-based or problem-based learning (Blumenfeld et al., 1991; Dahlgren & Dahlgren, 2002) and Quality Talk (Murphy et al., 2018) that emphasize reflection as part of a systematic instructional model 39 12 {'SCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PRON': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PROPN': 12, 'NUM': 3} [SCONJ, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'advcl': {'discussed'}, 'prep': {'like', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'this'}, 'amod': {'based', 'instructional', 'systematic', 'special'}, 'pobj': {'learning', 'model', 'issue', 'part'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'approaches'}, 'npadvmod': {'al', '.', 'problem', 'et', 'project', '1991', '2002'}, 'cc': {'or', '&', 'and'}, 'appos': {'Dahlgren', '2018', 'Murphy', 'Blumenfeld'}, 'conj': {'Dahlgren', 'Talk', '.'}, 'compound': {'Quality'}, 'nsubj': {'that'}, 'relcl': {'emphasize'}, 'dobj': {'reflection'}} Long High Medium
4765 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking However, the successful implementation of these instructional models is predicated on more than reflection, as Lombardi (this issue) discusses in the overview of this special issue 26 14 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 4, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 6, 'ADP': 5, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'advmod': {'However'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'det': {'the', 'this', 'these'}, 'amod': {'instructional', 'successful', 'special'}, 'nsubjpass': {'implementation'}, 'prep': {'on', 'than', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'issue', 'models', 'reflection', 'overview', 'more'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'ROOT': {'predicated'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'nsubj': {'Lombardi'}, 'appos': {'issue'}, 'advcl': {'discusses'}} Long High Medium
4766 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Their developers recognized that valued think - ing requires much more, such as a base of relevant knowledge about the topic or 22 11 {'PRON': 1, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, VERB, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ] {'poss': {'Their'}, 'nsubj': {'ing', 'developers'}, 'ROOT': {'recognized'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'relevant', 'valued', 'such'}, 'compound': {'think'}, 'punct': {',', '-'}, 'ccomp': {'requires'}, 'advmod': {'much'}, 'dobj': {'more'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as', 'of'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'knowledge', 'topic', 'base'}, 'cc': {'or'}} Long High Medium
4767 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking 1 3Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:42 Page 13 of 18 42 problem at hand; strategies for gathering relevant information and for probing, ana- lyzing, and synthesizing that information; and the opportunity to share their ques- tions, hypotheses, and findings with others (Lombardi et al., 2013; Lombardi et al., 2021) 49 14 {'NUM': 8, 'ADJ': 2, 'PROPN': 10, 'PUNCT': 13, 'ADP': 5, 'NOUN': 12, 'VERB': 5, 'CCONJ': 4, 'X': 1, 'DET': 2, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 1} [NUM, ADJ, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, NUM, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, VERB, PUNCT, X, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, PART, VERB, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'nummod': {'42', '13', '1'}, 'amod': {'3Educational', 'relevant'}, 'compound': {'18', 'Psychology', 'ques-'}, 'ROOT': {'Review'}, 'punct': {')', '(', ',', ';', '35:42'}, 'npadvmod': {'.', 'al', '2023', 'et'}, 'appos': {'2021', 'Lombardi', '2013', 'Page', 'et', 'strategies'}, 'prep': {'with', 'for', 'at', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'hand', 'probing', 'problem', 'others'}, 'pcomp': {'gathering'}, 'dobj': {'tions', 'information'}, 'cc': {'and', 'ana-'}, 'conj': {'opportunity', 'al', 'synthesizing', '.', 'findings', 'lyzing', 'hypotheses', 'for'}, 'det': {'that', 'the'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'acl': {'share'}, 'poss': {'their'}} Long High Low
4768 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Regrettably, it would seem that some researchers who claim to be using such student-centered approaches or programs have failed to demonstrate that these essential components have actually been implemented (Loyens et al., this issue) 34 18 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 5, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 5, 'VERB': 7, 'SCONJ': 2, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PART': 2, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PRON, VERB, PART, AUX, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, SCONJ, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'actually', 'Regrettably'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'researchers', 'it', 'who'}, 'aux': {'would', 'be', 'have', 'to'}, 'ROOT': {'seem'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'this', 'these', 'some'}, 'relcl': {'claim'}, 'xcomp': {'using', 'demonstrate'}, 'amod': {'such', 'centered', 'essential'}, 'npadvmod': {'et', 'issue', 'Loyens', 'student'}, 'dobj': {'approaches'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'programs', 'al', '.'}, 'ccomp': {'failed', 'implemented'}, 'nsubjpass': {'components'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}} Long High High
4769 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Without Intentionality and Effort, Valued Thinking Cannot Be Realized Within the educational psychology literature, there has been a concerted effort to alert researchers and practitioners to crucial distinctions between skills and strate- gies (Afflerbach et al., 2008; Alexander, 2006; Dinsmore, 2018; Harris et al., 2008) 45 16 {'ADP': 4, 'PROPN': 13, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PUNCT': 11, 'VERB': 3, 'AUX': 4, 'PART': 2, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 3, 'NOUN': 9, 'PRON': 1, 'NUM': 4} [ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, VERB, PROPN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PART, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'prep': {'between', 'Without', 'to', 'Within'}, 'pobj': {'Intentionality', 'literature', 'distinctions', 'skills'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'al', '.', 'Dinsmore', 'practitioners', 'gies', 'Effort', 'Harris'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'compound': {'psychology', 'strate-', 'Valued'}, 'nsubjpass': {'Thinking'}, 'aux': {'has', 'Can', 'to'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'Be'}, 'advcl': {'Realized'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'concerted', 'educational', 'crucial'}, 'expl': {'there'}, 'ROOT': {'been'}, 'attr': {'effort', 'Alexander'}, 'acl': {'alert'}, 'dobj': {'researchers'}, 'appos': {'2018', 'Afflerbach', '2008', '2006'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Long High Low
4770 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking These distinctions, which include intentionality and effort, were well overviewed by Dinsmore and Fryer (this issue) 16 8 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADV, VERB, ADP, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'this', 'These'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'distinctions'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'relcl': {'include'}, 'dobj': {'intentionality'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'Fryer', 'effort'}, 'ROOT': {'were'}, 'advmod': {'well'}, 'acomp': {'overviewed'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pobj': {'Dinsmore'}, 'appos': {'issue'}} Medium High Low
4771 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Being among those who share this mission (Alexan- der et al., 1998), I was dismayed to find the repeated labeling of processes associated with higher-order or critical thinking as skills (Bloom et al., 1956; Facione, 1990) 36 13 {'AUX': 2, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PROPN': 9, 'NUM': 3, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1} [AUX, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, DET, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'advcl': {'Being'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of', 'as', 'among'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'order', 'processes', 'those'}, 'nsubj': {'who'}, 'relcl': {'share'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'.', 'labeling', 'mission'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', ',', ';'}, 'compound': {'Alexan-', 'et'}, 'appos': {'Bloom', 'der', '1956', '1998'}, 'npadvmod': {'1990', 'al', 'Facione', 'et'}, 'nsubjpass': {'I'}, 'auxpass': {'was'}, 'ROOT': {'dismayed'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'find'}, 'amod': {'higher', 'repeated', 'critical'}, 'acl': {'associated'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'conj': {'.', 'thinking'}} Long High Low
4772 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking In essence, while I hold the notion of “habits of mind” (James, 1890) as core to my conceptualization of valued thinking, I would not equate habits of mind to habitu- ated thinking 32 15 {'ADP': 8, 'NOUN': 10, 'PUNCT': 7, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'ADJ': 1} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, VERB, NOUN] {'prep': {'as', 'to', 'In', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'mind', 'essence', 'thinking', 'conceptualization', 'core', 'James', 'habits'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'mark': {'while'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'advcl': {'hold'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'habits', 'notion'}, 'appos': {'1890'}, 'poss': {'my'}, 'amod': {'habitu-', 'valued', 'ated'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'equate'}} Long High Medium
4773 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking I appreciated Bailin et al.’s (1999a) reminder that the word “skill” has variable meanings within the philosophical, psychological, and educational literature 21 8 {'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'PROPN': 4, 'PART': 1, 'PUNCT': 6, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'ADP': 1, 'CCONJ': 1} [PRON, VERB, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'I', '1999a', 'skill'}, 'ROOT': {'appreciated', 'reminder'}, 'dobj': {'meanings', 'al', '.', 'Bailin'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'punct': {')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nmod': {'word'}, 'ccomp': {'has'}, 'amod': {'philosophical', 'variable'}, 'prep': {'within'}, 'conj': {'educational', 'psychological'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'pobj': {'literature'}} Long High Medium
4774 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Nonetheless, for me and others, that term conveys a sense that the processes in ques- tion have been honed through repeated practice to the point of habituation or automa- ticity (Alexander, 2006; Bailin et al., 1999a; Dinsmore & Fryer, this issue) 41 17 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 9, 'ADP': 5, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 3, 'NOUN': 10, 'DET': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'AUX': 2, 'PROPN': 7, 'NUM': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, NOUN, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'advmod': {'Nonetheless'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'through', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'for'}, 'pobj': {'tion', 'ticity', 'point', 'me', 'practice'}, 'cc': {'and', '&', 'or'}, 'conj': {'al', 'Dinsmore', '.', 'automa-', 'others', 'Fryer'}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'term'}, 'ROOT': {'conveys'}, 'dobj': {'sense'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nsubjpass': {'processes'}, 'compound': {'ques-'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'acl': {'honed'}, 'amod': {'repeated'}, 'nmod': {'habituation'}, 'appos': {'1999a', 'issue', 'Alexander'}, 'npadvmod': {'et', 'Bailin', '2006'}} Long High Medium
4775 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Thus, the use of the word “skills” in the key writings on higher-order thinking and critical thinking strikes me as antithetical, even paradoxical, to what is required to reach valued thinking 31 15 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 8, 'ADP': 5, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 4, 'PRON': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, NOUN, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, PRON, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, AUX, VERB, PART, VERB, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'even'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '”', '“'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'nsubj': {'use'}, 'prep': {'on', 'to', 'in', 'of', 'as'}, 'nmod': {'word'}, 'pobj': {'skills', 'writings', 'thinking'}, 'amod': {'antithetical', 'critical', 'valued', 'higher', 'key'}, 'compound': {'order'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'paradoxical', 'thinking'}, 'ROOT': {'strikes'}, 'dobj': {'me', 'thinking'}, 'nsubjpass': {'what'}, 'auxpass': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'required'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'reach'}} Long High Low
4776 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking As Resnick and National Research Council (1987) noted, the mental actions aligned with valued thinking are “nonalgorithmic, complex, effort- ful, and involve the application of multiple criteria, uncertainty (regarding the solu- tion path to the problem), and self-regulation of the thinking process” (p 43 15 {'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 4, 'CCONJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 14, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 1} [SCONJ, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, DET, ADJ, NOUN, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN, AUX, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'mark': {'As'}, 'nsubj': {'actions', 'Resnick'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'compound': {'tion', 'National', 'thinking', 'self', 'Research'}, 'conj': {'involve', 'regulation', 'Council', 'complex'}, 'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'appos': {'1987', 'p'}, 'advcl': {'noted'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'solu-', 'valued', 'mental', 'nonalgorithmic', 'multiple'}, 'acl': {'aligned'}, 'prep': {'with', 'regarding', 'to', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'problem', 'path', 'criteria', 'thinking', 'process'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'advmod': {'effort-'}, 'acomp': {'ful'}, 'dobj': {'application'}, 'dep': {'uncertainty'}} Long High Medium
4777 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Essentially, one cannot operate on autopilot and be within the realm of valued thinking 14 9 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'DET': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, AUX, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Essentially'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'one'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'operate'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'of'}, 'pobj': {'autopilot', 'realm', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'be'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'valued'}} Medium High Low
4778 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking The problem or task at hand must be thoughtfully analyzed and appropriate strategies must be intention- ally chosen, their effectiveness monitored, and changes instituted as warranted 26 11 {'DET': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'CCONJ': 3, 'ADP': 1, 'AUX': 4, 'ADV': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'ADJ': 1, 'PUNCT': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'SCONJ': 1} [DET, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, AUX, ADV, VERB, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, AUX, VERB, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, PRON, NOUN, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, VERB, SCONJ, VERB] {'det': {'The'}, 'nsubjpass': {'problem', 'strategies'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'task', 'instituted', 'appropriate'}, 'prep': {'at'}, 'pobj': {'hand'}, 'aux': {'must'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'advmod': {'thoughtfully'}, 'amod': {'analyzed'}, 'ROOT': {'intention-'}, 'npadvmod': {'ally'}, 'oprd': {'chosen'}, 'punct': {','}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'nsubj': {'effectiveness', 'changes'}, 'parataxis': {'monitored'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'warranted'}} Long High Medium
4779 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking (1999a) succinctly argued this point by stating that “all aspects of critical think - ing centrally involve judgment, and judgment cannot be made routine” (p 25 10 {'PUNCT': 7, 'NUM': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'CCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PART': 1} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, SCONJ, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, PART, AUX, VERB, ADJ, PUNCT, PUNCT, NOUN] {'punct': {'-', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'ing', 'aspects', '1999a'}, 'advmod': {'succinctly', 'centrally'}, 'ROOT': {'argued'}, 'det': {'all', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'judgment', 'point'}, 'prep': {'by', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'stating'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'critical'}, 'pobj': {'think'}, 'ccomp': {'involve'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'nsubjpass': {'judgment'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'conj': {'made'}, 'oprd': {'p', 'routine'}} Long High Medium
4780 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking In effect, without intentionality and effort, valued thinking, as described by Murphy et al 14 5 {'ADP': 3, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'SCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 2} [ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, SCONJ, VERB, ADP, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN] {'prep': {'In'}, 'pobj': {'Murphy', 'intentionality', 'effect', 'thinking'}, 'punct': {',', 'al'}, 'ROOT': {'without'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'effort'}, 'amod': {'valued'}, 'mark': {'as'}, 'advcl': {'described'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}} Medium High Medium
4781 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking The Focus Should Be on Valued Thinking and Not on the Valued Thinker Another label attached to critical thinking in the literature overviewed within this special issue was dispositions (Dinsmore & Fryer, this issue; Loyens et al., this issue) 39 17 {'DET': 7, 'PROPN': 10, 'AUX': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'VERB': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PART': 1, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 5} [DET, PROPN, AUX, AUX, ADP, VERB, PROPN, CCONJ, PART, ADP, DET, PROPN, PROPN, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT] {'det': {'Another', 'The', 'the', 'this'}, 'nsubj': {'label', 'Focus'}, 'aux': {'Should'}, 'ROOT': {'Be'}, 'prep': {'on', 'within', 'to', 'in'}, 'compound': {'Valued', 'et'}, 'pobj': {'Thinker', 'issue', 'literature', 'thinking', 'Thinking'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'neg': {'Not'}, 'conj': {'on', 'Fryer', 'was'}, 'acl': {'attached', 'overviewed'}, 'amod': {'special', 'critical'}, 'attr': {'dispositions'}, 'punct': {'(', ';', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'.', 'al', 'Dinsmore', 'issue'}, 'npadvmod': {'Loyens'}} Long High Low
4782 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking The subject of dispositions was most evident in the Delphi report (Facione, 1990) 13 6 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 3, 'ADP': 2, 'AUX': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT] {'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'subject'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'report', 'dispositions'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'most'}, 'acomp': {'evident'}, 'amod': {'Delphi'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')'}, 'appos': {'Facione'}, 'npadvmod': {'1990'}} Medium High Low
4783 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Although never explicitly defined in the report, the authors wrote of disposi- tions in their consensus statement: 17 8 {'SCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2, 'VERB': 2, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 5, 'PUNCT': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PRON': 1} [SCONJ, ADV, ADV, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, NOUN, NOUN, PUNCT] {'mark': {'Although'}, 'neg': {'never'}, 'advmod': {'explicitly'}, 'advcl': {'defined'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'report', 'tions', 'statement'}, 'punct': {',', ':'}, 'nsubj': {'authors'}, 'ROOT': {'wrote'}, 'amod': {'disposi-'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'compound': {'consensus'}} Medium High Medium
4784 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:42 1 3 42 Page 14 of 18 The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of rea- son, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit 80 26 {'PROPN': 4, 'PUNCT': 19, 'NUM': 7, 'ADP': 14, 'DET': 4, 'ADJ': 22, 'NOUN': 16, 'AUX': 2, 'ADV': 3, 'VERB': 7, 'PART': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PRON': 1} [PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, NUM, NUM, NUM, PROPN, NUM, ADP, NUM, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, PART, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, ADP, VERB, NOUN, PRON, AUX, ADV, ADJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADP, ...] {'compound': {'Psychology', 'Educational', 'inquiry', '3'}, 'ROOT': {'Review', 'is'}, 'punct': {'(', '-', ',', ')'}, 'npadvmod': {'2023'}, 'nummod': {'14', '42', '35:42', '1'}, 'appos': {'Page'}, 'prep': {'about', 'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'subject', 'permit', 'criteria', 'issues', 'selection', 'son', 'evaluation', 'inquiry', '18', 'matters'}, 'det': {'The', 'the'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'clear', 'flexible', 'critical', 'minded', 'rea-', 'ideal', 'relevant', 'fair', 'diligent', 'reasonable', 'orderly', 'open', 'complex'}, 'nsubj': {'which', 'thinker'}, 'advmod': {'as', 'well', 'habitually'}, 'acomp': {'honest', 'inquisitive', 'precise'}, 'conj': {'persistent', 'prudent', 'circumstances', 'minded', 'willing', 'trustful', 'informed'}, 'pcomp': {'seeking', 'making', 'facing'}, 'dobj': {'information', 'results', 'biases', 'judgments'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'reconsider'}, 'acl': {'focused'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'relcl': {'are'}} Long High Low
4785 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking It combines developing CT skills with nurturing those dispositions [which] consistently yield useful insights and [which] are the basis of a rational and democratic society 25 11 {'PRON': 3, 'VERB': 4, 'PROPN': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 2, 'DET': 3, 'X': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 3, 'CCONJ': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'AUX': 1} [PRON, VERB, VERB, PROPN, NOUN, ADP, VERB, DET, NOUN, X, PRON, X, ADV, VERB, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, X, PRON, PUNCT, AUX, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'which', 'It', ']'}, 'ROOT': {'combines'}, 'xcomp': {'developing'}, 'compound': {'CT'}, 'dobj': {'skills', 'dispositions', 'insights'}, 'prep': {'with', 'of'}, 'pcomp': {'nurturing'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'those'}, 'dep': {'which', '[', ']'}, 'advmod': {'consistently'}, 'advcl': {'yield'}, 'amod': {'rational', 'useful'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'are', 'democratic'}, 'attr': {'basis'}, 'pobj': {'society'}} Long High Low
4786 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking 3) There was apparently controversy over the inclusion of dispositions in the final Delphi report 15 7 {'X': 1, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'ADV': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'DET': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1} [X, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, ADV, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, PROPN, NOUN] {'meta': {'3'}, 'punct': {')'}, 'expl': {'There'}, 'ROOT': {'was'}, 'advmod': {'apparently'}, 'attr': {'controversy'}, 'prep': {'in', 'of', 'over'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'report', 'dispositions', 'inclusion'}, 'amod': {'final', 'Delphi'}} Medium High Low
4787 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking A substantial minority of the experts (30%) insisted that the term critical thinking be used “in a strict procedural sense, that is as referring only to a certain judgmental process 30 15 {'DET': 5, 'ADJ': 6, 'NOUN': 7, 'ADP': 4, 'PUNCT': 4, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'PRON': 1, 'ADV': 1} [DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, SCONJ, DET, NOUN, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'A', 'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'critical', 'certain', 'procedural', 'strict', 'substantial', 'judgmental'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'minority'}, 'prep': {'as', 'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'experts', 'process', 'sense'}, 'punct': {'(', ',', ')', '“'}, 'nummod': {'30'}, 'appos': {'%'}, 'ROOT': {'insisted'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'nmod': {'term'}, 'nsubjpass': {'thinking'}, 'auxpass': {'be'}, 'ccomp': {'used'}, 'advcl': {'is'}, 'pcomp': {'referring'}, 'advmod': {'only'}} Long High Medium
4788 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking They [the dissenting 30%] distinguish sharply between what is true of critical thinking from what is true of good critical thinkers” (p 22 10 {'PRON': 3, 'X': 1, 'DET': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'NUM': 1, 'NOUN': 3, 'PUNCT': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADP': 4, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'PROPN': 1} [PRON, X, DET, VERB, NUM, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, ADV, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PUNCT, PROPN] {'nsubj': {'They', 'what'}, 'dep': {'[', 'p'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'amod': {'good', 'dissenting', 'critical'}, 'nummod': {'30'}, 'dobj': {'%'}, 'punct': {'(', ']', '”'}, 'ROOT': {'distinguish'}, 'advmod': {'sharply'}, 'prep': {'from', 'of', 'between'}, 'pcomp': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'true'}, 'pobj': {'thinkers', 'thinking'}} Long High Low
4789 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Indeed, I and others (Bailin et al., 1999b; Dinsmore & Fryer, this issue; Lom- bardi, this issue; Schutz et al., 2020) would have signed on to that minority report 29 11 {'ADV': 1, 'PUNCT': 10, 'PRON': 1, 'CCONJ': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'PROPN': 11, 'NUM': 2, 'DET': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'VERB': 1, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, CCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NOUN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, PROPN, CCONJ, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, AUX, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADP, DET, NOUN, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Indeed'}, 'punct': {',', ';', '(', ')'}, 'nsubj': {'Schutz', 'I', 'bardi'}, 'cc': {'and', '&'}, 'conj': {'al', 'Dinsmore', '.', 'others', 'Fryer'}, 'appos': {'.', 'issue', '1999b', 'et', 'Bailin', '2020'}, 'npadvmod': {'et'}, 'det': {'that', 'this'}, 'ccomp': {'issue'}, 'compound': {'Lom-', 'minority'}, 'aux': {'would', 'have'}, 'ROOT': {'signed'}, 'prt': {'on'}, 'prep': {'to'}, 'pobj': {'report'}} Long High Low
4790 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking To be clear, I acknowledge that individual differences or personality traits are influential in any human endeavor 17 8 {'PART': 1, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'VERB': 1, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 4, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADP': 1, 'DET': 1} [PART, AUX, ADJ, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN] {'aux': {'To'}, 'advcl': {'be'}, 'acomp': {'influential', 'clear'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'I', 'differences'}, 'ROOT': {'acknowledge'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'amod': {'individual', 'human'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'compound': {'personality'}, 'conj': {'traits'}, 'ccomp': {'are'}, 'prep': {'in'}, 'det': {'any'}, 'pobj': {'endeavor'}} Medium High Medium
4791 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking You cannot subtract the person from the equa- tion and still validly represent the phenomenon of valued thinking 18 10 {'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'PART': 1, 'VERB': 3, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 4, 'ADP': 2, 'ADJ': 1, 'CCONJ': 1, 'ADV': 2} [PRON, AUX, PART, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, ADV, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'nsubj': {'You'}, 'aux': {'can'}, 'neg': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'subtract'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'dobj': {'phenomenon', 'person'}, 'prep': {'of', 'from'}, 'compound': {'equa-'}, 'pobj': {'tion', 'thinking'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'advmod': {'validly', 'still'}, 'conj': {'represent'}, 'amod': {'valued'}} Medium High Low
4792 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Moreover, not only are people cognitively, socially, motivational, and emotionally unique, but also they function in social, historical, and cultural contexts that call for valued thinking 26 13 {'ADV': 6, 'PUNCT': 7, 'PART': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'NOUN': 2, 'ADJ': 5, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'ADP': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, PART, ADV, AUX, NOUN, ADV, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADV, PRON, VERB, ADP, ADJ, PUNCT, ADJ, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADJ, VERB, PRON, VERB, ADP, VERB, NOUN] {'advmod': {'only', 'also', 'cognitively', 'socially', 'Moreover', 'emotionally'}, 'punct': {','}, 'preconj': {'not'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'attr': {'people'}, 'conj': {'cultural', 'motivational', 'historical', 'function', 'unique', 'contexts'}, 'cc': {'and', 'but'}, 'nsubj': {'that', 'they'}, 'prep': {'for', 'in'}, 'amod': {'social', 'valued'}, 'dobj': {'call'}, 'pobj': {'thinking'}} Long High Low
4793 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Thus, it is indefensible to assume that individuals, regardless of their positive dispo- sitional characteristics, are willing and able to think critically and analytically in the manner and to the level required for the mental tasks they undertake 38 19 {'ADV': 4, 'PUNCT': 3, 'PRON': 3, 'AUX': 2, 'ADJ': 7, 'PART': 2, 'VERB': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'CCONJ': 3, 'DET': 3} [ADV, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, SCONJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADV, ADP, PRON, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADV, CCONJ, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, VERB, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PRON, VERB] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'critically', 'regardless'}, 'punct': {','}, 'nsubj': {'individuals', 'it', 'they'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'acomp': {'indefensible', 'willing'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'assume', 'think'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'in'}, 'poss': {'their'}, 'amod': {'dispo-', 'positive', 'mental', 'sitional'}, 'pobj': {'manner', 'tasks', 'characteristics', 'level'}, 'ccomp': {'undertake', 'are'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'able', 'analytically', 'to'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'acl': {'required'}} Long High Medium
4794 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking My colleague, Paul Schutz, recently framed this conundrum provocatively when he wrote (personal communication, July 11, 2020): Situationally, critical thinking is about a particular problem within a particular social historical context…Which begs the question, can someone who has been labeled a “crit- ical thinker” not actually think critically in certain situations 51 19 {'PRON': 5, 'NOUN': 9, 'PUNCT': 11, 'PROPN': 3, 'ADV': 5, 'VERB': 5, 'DET': 5, 'SCONJ': 1, 'ADJ': 9, 'NUM': 2, 'AUX': 4, 'ADP': 3, 'PART': 1} [PRON, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, PROPN, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, DET, NOUN, ADV, SCONJ, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PROPN, NUM, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PRON, VERB, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, AUX, PRON, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB, DET, PUNCT, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, ADV, VERB, ADV, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'poss': {'My'}, 'nsubj': {'Which', 'someone', 'he', 'thinking', 'colleague'}, 'punct': {'(', '”', ',', '…', '):', '“'}, 'compound': {'ical', 'Paul'}, 'appos': {'Schutz'}, 'advmod': {'recently', 'when', 'Situationally', 'provocatively', 'critically', 'actually'}, 'ROOT': {'framed', 'think'}, 'det': {'a', 'the', 'this'}, 'dobj': {'conundrum', 'communication', 'question'}, 'advcl': {'wrote'}, 'amod': {'personal', 'critical', 'certain', 'social', 'historical', 'particular'}, 'npadvmod': {'July'}, 'nummod': {'11', '2020'}, 'ccomp': {'is'}, 'prep': {'about', 'within', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'situations', 'problem', 'context'}, 'relcl': {'begs', 'labeled'}, 'aux': {'can', 'has'}, 'nsubjpass': {'who'}, 'auxpass': {'been'}, 'nmod': {'crit-'}, 'oprd': {'thinker'}, 'neg': {'not'}} Long High Medium
4795 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking (1999a) forwarded a similar argument about the misleading connota- tion of “critical thinker” as a rather stable characterization: To a considerable extent, the quality of thinking persons are able to do about a par - ticular problem, issue or question is determined by what they know, or are able to find out, about it and about the context in which it must be resolved 64 35 {'PUNCT': 10, 'NUM': 1, 'VERB': 6, 'DET': 7, 'ADJ': 9, 'NOUN': 13, 'ADP': 11, 'ADV': 1, 'AUX': 5, 'PART': 2, 'CCONJ': 3, 'PRON': 5} [PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, VERB, ADP, PRON, PRON, VERB, PUNCT, CCONJ, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, ADP, PUNCT, ADP, PRON, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PRON, PRON, AUX, AUX, VERB] {'punct': {'-', ':', ')', '(', '”', ',', '“'}, 'nsubj': {'quality', '1999a', 'they'}, 'ccomp': {'forwarded'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'amod': {'similar', 'critical', 'connota-', 'considerable', 'thinking', 'ticular', 'misleading', 'stable'}, 'dobj': {'argument', 'what'}, 'prep': {'To', 'in', 'of', 'about', 'as'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'persons', 'problem', 'tion', 'context', 'thinker', 'characterization', 'extent', 'it'}, 'advmod': {'rather'}, 'ROOT': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'able'}, 'aux': {'to', 'must'}, 'xcomp': {'find', 'do'}, 'npadvmod': {'par'}, 'nsubjpass': {'it', 'issue'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'about', 'determined', 'are', 'question'}, 'auxpass': {'be', 'is'}, 'agent': {'by'}, 'pcomp': {'know'}, 'prt': {'out'}, 'relcl': {'resolved'}} Long High Low
4796 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Moreover, critical think - ing always takes place in the context of (and against the backdrop of) already existing concepts, beliefs, values, and ways of acting 26 12 {'ADV': 3, 'PUNCT': 7, 'ADJ': 1, 'NOUN': 9, 'VERB': 3, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2, 'CCONJ': 2} [ADV, PUNCT, ADJ, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, ADV, VERB, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, CCONJ, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, PUNCT, ADV, VERB, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, CCONJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB] {'advmod': {'already', 'Moreover', 'always'}, 'punct': {',', '-', '(', ')'}, 'amod': {'existing', 'critical'}, 'npadvmod': {'think'}, 'nsubj': {'ing'}, 'ROOT': {'takes'}, 'dobj': {'place'}, 'prep': {'of', 'in'}, 'det': {'the'}, 'pobj': {'concepts', 'backdrop', 'context'}, 'cc': {'and'}, 'conj': {'ways', 'values', 'beliefs', 'against'}, 'pcomp': {'acting'}} Long High Low
4797 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking This context plays a very significant role in determining what will count as sensible or reasonable application of standards and prin- ciples of good thinking 25 11 {'DET': 2, 'NOUN': 6, 'VERB': 3, 'ADV': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'ADP': 4, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'CCONJ': 2} [DET, NOUN, VERB, DET, ADV, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, PRON, AUX, VERB, ADP, ADJ, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'det': {'a', 'This'}, 'nsubj': {'what', 'context'}, 'ROOT': {'plays'}, 'advmod': {'very'}, 'amod': {'sensible', 'good', 'significant', 'prin-'}, 'dobj': {'role'}, 'prep': {'as', 'of', 'in'}, 'pcomp': {'determining'}, 'aux': {'will'}, 'ccomp': {'count'}, 'cc': {'or', 'and'}, 'conj': {'reasonable', 'ciples'}, 'pobj': {'application', 'standards', 'thinking'}} Long High Low
4798 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Thus, the depth of knowledge, understanding and experience persons have in a particular area of study or practice is a significant determinant of the degree to which they are capable of thinking critically in that area 36 20 {'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 2, 'DET': 5, 'NOUN': 11, 'ADP': 6, 'CCONJ': 2, 'AUX': 3, 'ADJ': 3, 'PART': 1, 'PRON': 2, 'VERB': 1} [ADV, PUNCT, DET, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, PUNCT, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, NOUN, AUX, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, NOUN, CCONJ, NOUN, AUX, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, NOUN, PART, PRON, PRON, AUX, ADJ, ADP, VERB, ADV, ADP, DET, NOUN] {'advmod': {'Thus', 'critically'}, 'punct': {','}, 'det': {'a', 'that', 'the'}, 'nsubj': {'they', 'depth'}, 'prep': {'to', 'of', 'in'}, 'pobj': {'which', 'knowledge', 'degree', 'study', 'area'}, 'conj': {'persons', 'experience', 'practice', 'understanding'}, 'cc': {'and', 'or'}, 'aux': {'have'}, 'amod': {'particular', 'significant'}, 'ROOT': {'is'}, 'attr': {'determinant'}, 'relcl': {'are'}, 'acomp': {'capable'}, 'pcomp': {'thinking'}} Long High Low
4799 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking 290) I would add one more provocation to this cautionary tale of operating from the perspective of critical thinker versus critical thinking 22 10 {'NUM': 2, 'PUNCT': 1, 'PRON': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'VERB': 2, 'ADJ': 4, 'NOUN': 5, 'ADP': 5, 'DET': 2} [NUM, PUNCT, PRON, AUX, VERB, NUM, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, VERB, ADP, DET, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN] {'ROOT': {'add', '290'}, 'punct': {')'}, 'nsubj': {'I'}, 'aux': {'would'}, 'nummod': {'one'}, 'amod': {'cautionary', 'more', 'critical'}, 'dobj': {'provocation'}, 'prep': {'versus', 'to', 'of', 'from'}, 'det': {'the', 'this'}, 'pobj': {'thinker', 'thinking', 'perspective', 'tale'}, 'pcomp': {'operating'}} Long High Low
4800 “Here Be Dragons!” Mapping the Realm of Higher-Order, Critical, and Critical-Analytic Thinking Reasoning antinomously, for a moment, let us assume that it is possible to categorize individuals as critical thinkers or, in Facione’s (1990) words, to identify those who habitually manifest the charac- teristics of the ideal critical thinker 37 17 {'VERB': 6, 'ADV': 2, 'PUNCT': 6, 'ADP': 4, 'DET': 3, 'NOUN': 6, 'PRON': 4, 'SCONJ': 1, 'AUX': 1, 'ADJ': 5, 'PART': 3, 'CCONJ': 1, 'PROPN': 1, 'NUM': 1} [VERB, ADV, PUNCT, ADP, DET, NOUN, PUNCT, VERB, PRON, VERB, SCONJ, PRON, AUX, ADJ, PART, VERB, NOUN, ADP, ADJ, NOUN, CCONJ, PUNCT, ADP, PROPN, PART, PUNCT, NUM, PUNCT, NOUN, PUNCT, PART, VERB, PRON, PRON, ADV, VERB, DET, ADJ, NOUN, ADP, DET, ADJ, ADJ, NOUN] {'advcl': {'Reasoning'}, 'advmod': {'antinomously', 'habitually'}, 'punct': {',', '(', ')'}, 'prep': {'for', 'of', 'as', 'in'}, 'det': {'a', 'the'}, 'pobj': {'words', 'thinkers', 'moment', 'thinker'}, 'ROOT': {'let'}, 'nsubj': {'us', 'it', 'who'}, 'ccomp': {'is', 'assume'}, 'mark': {'that'}, 'acomp': {'possible'}, 'aux': {'to'}, 'xcomp': {'categorize'}, 'dobj': {'teristics', 'individuals', 'those'}, 'amod': {'charac-', 'ideal', 'critical'}, 'cc': {'or'}, 'poss': {'Facione'}, 'case': {'’s'}, 'nummod': {'1990'}, 'acl': {'identify'}, 'relcl': {'manifest'}} Long High Medium